Abraded from several corners: Medical physics and biophysics at Berkeley

Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences

Volumn 27, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 132-161

  Westwick, Peter J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 19844375260     PISSN: 08909997     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/27757771     Document Type: Article

References (165)

1. Gerald L. Geison, "Scientific change, emerging specialties, and research schools," History of science, 19 (1981), 20-40; Russell H. Meier, The formation of a new interdisciplinary scientific specialty: The case of biophysics in the United States (Ph.D. dissertation, Southern Illinois University, 1974).
2. Gerald L. Geison, "Scientific change, emerging specialties, and research schools," History of science, 19 (1981), 20-40; Russell H. Meier, The formation of a new interdisciplinary scientific specialty: The case of biophysics in the United States (Ph.D. dissertation, Southern Illinois University, 1974).
3. A.V. Hill struggled to define biophysics in "Why biophysics," Science, 124 (21 Dec 1956), 1233-1237; cf. Wallace O. Fenn, "Front seats for biologists," American Institute of Biological Sciences, Bulletin, 10:6 (1960), 13-14. Fenn recalled the definition provided by "a prominent biophysicist:" "Anything which has rational explanation belongs to biophysics and biology can have all the rest of it."
4. A.V. Hill struggled to define biophysics in "Why biophysics," Science, 124 (21 Dec 1956), 1233-1237; cf. Wallace O. Fenn, "Front seats for biologists," American Institute of Biological Sciences, Bulletin, 10:6 (1960), 13-14. Fenn recalled the definition provided by "a prominent biophysicist:" "Anything which has rational explanation belongs to biophysics and biology can have all the rest of it."
5. E.O. Lawrence to Ludwig Kast, 11 Nov 1933 (EOL, 2/29); J.L. Heilbron and Robert W. Seidel, Lawrence and his laboratory: A history of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Vol. 1 (Berkeley, 1989), 219; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science: Foundations and natural scientists 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991), 371.
6. E.O. Lawrence to Ludwig Kast, 11 Nov 1933 (EOL, 2/29); J.L. Heilbron and Robert W. Seidel, Lawrence and his laboratory: A history of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Vol. 1 (Berkeley, 1989), 219; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in science: Foundations and natural scientists 1900-1945 (Chicago, 1991), 371.
7. Heilbron and Seidel (ibid.), 389-395; J.H. Lawrence, "Some biological applications of neutrons and artificial radioactivity," Nature, 145 (1940), 125-127.
8. Heilbron and Seidel (ibid.), 389-395; J.H. Lawrence, "Some biological applications of neutrons and artificial radioactivity," Nature, 145 (1940), 125-127.
9. "UC scientists map new research plan," 1 Jul 1941, "UC science building started," 22 Jul 1941, "Donor of funds for UC science work revealed," 2 Aug 1941, UC press releases (Physics, 2/10); Donner Laboratory of medical physics, biophysics, and nuclear medicine (Berkeley, 1961); Tove Neville, "History of Donner Lab," Aug 1965 (JHL, 9/42); Raymond T. Birge, History of the physics department, 4, 1966 (UC Berkeley, Physics Library), XVII:57-8.
10. "UC scientists map new research plan," 1 Jul 1941, "UC science building started," 22 Jul 1941, "Donor of funds for UC science work revealed," 2 Aug 1941, UC press releases (Physics, 2/10); Donner Laboratory of medical physics, biophysics, and nuclear medicine (Berkeley, 1961); Tove Neville, "History of Donner Lab," Aug 1965 (JHL, 9/42); Raymond T. Birge, History of the physics department, 4, 1966 (UC Berkeley, Physics Library), XVII:57-8.
11. "UC scientists map new research plan," 1 Jul 1941, "UC science building started," 22 Jul 1941, "Donor of funds for UC science work revealed," 2 Aug 1941, UC press releases (Physics, 2/10); Donner Laboratory of medical physics, biophysics, and nuclear medicine (Berkeley, 1961); Tove Neville, "History of Donner Lab," Aug 1965 (JHL, 9/42); Raymond T. Birge, History of the physics department, 4, 1966 (UC Berkeley, Physics Library), XVII:57-8.
12. Heilbron and Seidel (ref. 3), 230-233, 389-392; Birge (ref. 5), XII:5.
13. Heilbron and Seidel (ref. 3), 359-60.
14. J. Newell Stannard, Radioactivity and health: A history, Raymond W. Baalman, ed. (Springfield, VA, 1988), 299-311, 336-371.
15. J.G. Hamilton to W.B. Reynolds, 9 Mar 1943 (EOL, 5/8); cf. Hamilton, "A report of the past, present, and future research activities for Project 48-A-1," 1947 (EOL, 32/19).
16. C.A. Tobias, "Decompression sickness in actual flights," in J.E. Fulton, ed., Decompression sickness, caisson sickness, diver's and flier's bends and related syndromes (Philadelphia and London, 1951), 360-377; J.H. Lawrence et al., "A study of aero medical problems in a Liberator bomber at high altitude," Aviation medicine, 16 (1945), 286-310.
17. C.A. Tobias, "Decompression sickness in actual flights," in J.E. Fulton, ed., Decompression sickness, caisson sickness, diver's and flier's bends and related syndromes (Philadelphia and London, 1951), 360-377; J.H. Lawrence et al., "A study of aero medical problems in a Liberator bomber at high altitude," Aviation medicine, 16 (1945), 286-310.
18. Tobias et al., "Studies on skin temperature and circulation in decompression sickness," American journal of physiology, 149 (1947), 627-633; cf. "History of Donner Lab" (JHL, 1/18).
19. Tobias et al., "Studies on skin temperature and circulation in decompression sickness," American journal of physiology, 149 (1947), 627-633; cf. "History of Donner Lab" (JHL, 1/18).
20. J.H. Lawrence to W.J. Kerr, 27 Feb 1945 (JHL, 4/15); Hamilton to J.W. Howland, 23 Apr 1946 (JHL, 4/31).
21. L. Russell to H. Coolidge (Met Lab), "Crocker personnel," 29 Jan 1945 (EOL, 5/10).
22. Robert W. Seidel, "Accelerating science: The postwar transformation of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory," HSPS, 13:2 (1983), 375-400, on 384-385; Kenneth G. Scott, "Radioisotope research in medicine," oral history transcript, Sally Smith Hughes, interviewer (TBL, Berkeley, 1986), 56.
23. Robert W. Seidel, "Accelerating science: The postwar transformation of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory," HSPS, 13:2 (1983), 375-400, on 384-385; Kenneth G. Scott, "Radioisotope research in medicine," oral history transcript, Sally Smith Hughes, interviewer (TBL, Berkeley, 1986), 56.
24. University of California, General catalogue (1942-43).
25. "UC gives new medical physics course," UC press release, 15 Mar 1942 (Physics, 2/10).
26. "Inclosure for proposed course on Application of Nuclear Physics to Biological Science," n.d. (EOL, 2/29).
27. J.H. Lawrence to R.G. Sproul, 5 Jan 1943 (EOL, 2/29).
28. E.O. Lawrence to Sproul, 17 Jan 1944 (EOL, 2/29).
29. Birge to Sproul, 17 Jan 1944 (EOL, 2/29).
30. Birge (ref. 5), XI:26; "UC curriculum in Optometry, 1939-40" (Physics, 4/19).
31. A. Carl Helmholz, "Faculty governance and physics at the University of California, Berkeley, 1937-1990," oral history transcript, G. Hale and Ann Lage, interviewers (TBL, Berkeley, 1993), 117.
32. J.H. Lawrence to Sproul, 18 Jan 1944 (EOL, 2/29).
33. Sproul to Birge, 19 Jul 1944 (EOL, 2/29); Robert M. Underhill to Birge, 26 Aug 1944 (Physics, 2/10); Birge to Sproul, 11 Jan 1945 (Physics, 1/7); J. Lawrence to Sproul, 9 Oct 1945 (EOL, 2/29); cf. "Announcements," Science, 103 (4 Jan 1946), 15.
34. J.H. Lawrence to E.O. Lawrence, 26 Sep 1945 (EOL, 2/29).
35. Birge to Sproul, 15 Dec 1945 (quote), 25 Nov 1946, 11 Jan 1947, and 19 Jul 1949 (Physics, 1/7).
36. Paul Aebersold to E.O. Lawrence, 29 Aug 1944, Aebersold to J.H. Lawrence, 29 Oct 1945, J.H. Lawrence to Aebersold, 31 Oct 1945 (Physics, 4/7); Richard G. Hewlett and Francis Duncan, Atomic shield, 1947-1952: A history of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, 2 (3 vols., University Park, 1969), 252-253.
37. "Tentative requirements for biophysics and medical physics degrees," n.d. (Physics, 2/10).
38. J.H. Lawrence to Sproul, three letters dated 11 Jan 1945 (Physics, 1/7); Birge, vol. 5 (ref. 5), 56-76. Between Jones (30 years old), Tobias (26), Hamilton (37), and Lawrence (41), the average age in the division was 33 years old.
39. Birge to Sproul, 11 and 16 Jan 1947 (Physics, 1/7); John Gofman, "Medical research and radiation politics," oral history transcript, Sally Smith Hughes, interviewer (TBL, Berkeley, 1985), 42-60.
40. Ref. 15 for 1946-47 and 1947-48; "Course description for Medical Physics 125, 1946-47" (JHL, 4/34); "Proposed course Physics 127 by Tobias for Fall 1947" (Physics, 2/10).
41. Ref. 15 for 1946-47 and 1947-48; "Course description for Medical Physics 125, 1946-47" (JHL, 4/34); "Proposed course Physics 127 by Tobias for Fall 1947" (Physics, 2/10).
42. "Enrollment" (Physics, 2/17).
43. "Ph.D. degrees awarded in Biophysics 1945-60" (Physics, 2/10); Birge, vol. 5 (ref. 5), 79, 81.
44. Maria M. Eakin, "Enrollment,"Verne Stadtman, ed., in The centennial record of the University of California (Berkeley, 1968), 211-212.
45. J.H. Lawrence to C. Nelson, 6 Sep 1945 (JHL, 4/18).
46. J.H. Lawrence to C. Gross [Lockheed Aircraft], 19 Jan 1945 (JHL, 4/16); J.H. Lawrence to J.C. Hunsacker [NACA], 27 Jul 1945, and G.W. Lewis to J.H. Lawrence, 30 Aug 1945 (JHL, 4/18); K. Priestley to E.O. Lawrence, 2 Aug 1946 (EOL, 2/30).
47. Bill Dauben to J.H. Lawrence, 28 Jun 1946 (JHL, 4/28); "UC men to aid atom bomb test," UC press release, 30 May 1946 (Physics, 2/10). Cf. Hamilton to D. Cooksey, 29 Jun 1946 (EOL, 8/14): "The hazards from having drunks push one off the landing dock or fall into you in the shore boat is a far greater hazard to life and limb around 5:30 pm than the atomic bomb - and I'm not fooling."
48. Bill Dauben to J.H. Lawrence, 28 Jun 1946 (JHL, 4/28); "UC men to aid atom bomb test," UC press release, 30 May 1946 (Physics, 2/10). Cf. Hamilton to D. Cooksey, 29 Jun 1946 (EOL, 8/14): "The hazards from having drunks push one off the landing dock or fall into you in the shore boat is a far greater hazard to life and limb around 5:30 pm than the atomic bomb - and I'm not fooling."
49. Patricia W. Durbin, "Reminiscences of Crocker Laboratory," address to Health Physics Society, San Francisco, June 1976 (TBL), 12;
50. Hamilton, "Report on Project 48-A-1 and the 60-inch cyclotron at Crocker for 1947," 25 Nov 1947 (EOL, 32/19); Stannard (ref. 8), 312, 399-408.
51. Stuart M. Feffer, "Atoms, cancer, and politics: Supporting atomic science at the University of Chicago, 1944-1950," HSPS, 22:2 (1992), 233-261; Nicolas Rasmussen, "The midcentury biophysics bubble: Hiroshima and the biological revolution in America," History of science (in press).
52. Stuart M. Feffer, "Atoms, cancer, and politics: Supporting atomic science at the University of Chicago, 1944-1950," HSPS, 22:2 (1992), 233-261; Nicolas Rasmussen, "The midcentury biophysics bubble: Hiroshima and the biological revolution in America," History of science (in press).
53. "Cyclotron to convert to war against cancer," Los Angeles Times (3 Dec 1945), I-2.
54. See EOL, 2/29.
55. J.H. Lawrence, "Therapeutic use of artificial radioactivity," letter to the editor, American Medical Association, Journal, 129:1 (1945), 91, and "The use of isotopes in medical research," ibid., 134:3 (1947), 219-225, on 225.
56. J.H. Lawrence, "Therapeutic use of artificial radioactivity," letter to the editor, American Medical Association, Journal, 129:1 (1945), 91, and "The use of isotopes in medical research," ibid., 134:3 (1947), 219-225, on 225.
57. Birge to Sproul, 22 Nov 1947 (Physics, 1/7); Hamilton to J.H. Lawrence, 18 Jan 1947 (EOL, 8/15); J.H. Lawrence to Sproul, 13 Jun 1947 (JHL, 5/20).
58. "Minutes, Cancer Research Committee," 22 Sep 1947 (JHL, 5/22); Sproul to Birge, 3 Nov 1947 (Physics, 4/4); "Application for cancer funds," for 1948-49 ($82,289), 1950-51 ($56,510), 1952-3 ($48,700), 1953-4 ($54,846), all in (Physics, 1/33).
59. "Minutes, Cancer Research Committee," 22 Sep 1947 (JHL, 5/22); Sproul to Birge, 3 Nov 1947 (Physics, 4/4); "Application for cancer funds," for 1948-49 ($82,289), 1950-51 ($56,510), 1952-3 ($48,700), 1953-4 ($54,846), all in (Physics, 1/33).
60. J.H. Lawrence to Birge, 11 Nov 1947 (JHL, 5/5); Birge to Sproul, 22 Nov 1947 (Physics, 1/7).
61. Lawrence to Luis Alvarez, 9 Jan 1947 (JHL, 5/4); Lawrence to Birge, 23 Jul 1948 (JHL, 5/25); Tobias to Lawrence, 16 Jan 1948 (JHL, 6/4); Birge, vol. 5 (ref. 5), 69-72; Shields Warren to E.O. Lawrence, 22 Aug 1957 (EOL, 8/24).
62. Birge to Sproul, 11 and 16 Jan 1947 (Physics, 1/7). Cf. Gofman (ref. 30), 60-62; Gofman later claimed he was not offered a position at San Francisco, although biochemistry at that point was still a division of the medical school.
63. Gofman to J.H. Lawrence, 8 Jul 1949 (JHL, 6/7); Gofman (ref. 30), 98.
64. "Atomic medicine: The great search for cures on a new frontier," Time (7 Apr 1952), 64-66.
65. Roger L. Geiger, Research and relevant knowledge: American research universities since World War II (New York and Oxford, 1993), 73-82.
66. Russell H. Fitzgibbon, The Academic Senate of the University of California (Berkeley, 1968), 64-70, on 64-65; Arthur E. Hutson, "Faculty government," in Stadtman (ref. 34), 288-291.
67. Russell H. Fitzgibbon, The Academic Senate of the University of California (Berkeley, 1968), 64-70, on 64-65; Arthur E. Hutson, "Faculty government," in Stadtman (ref. 34), 288-291.
68. Martin D. Kamen, Radiant science, dark politics: A memoir of the nuclear age (Berkeley, 1985), 73; Heilbron and Seidel (ref. 3), 237-239; cf. Feffer (ref. 39), 252.
69. J.H. Lawrence, "Early experiences in nuclear medicine," Northwest medicine, 55 (1956), 527-533.
70. Heilbron and Seidel (ref. 3), 456-454.
71. Sproul to Birge, 19 Jun 1948 (Physics, 1/7); Birge to Sproul, 20 Jul 1949 (Physics, 1/10).
72. L. Van Middlesworth to Hamilton, 17 May 1947 (EOL, 8/14).
73. University of California Academic Senate, Record, 1:7 (1955), iii; Fitzgibbon (ref. 51), 64.
74. E.g., W.B. Reynolds to Clark Kerr, 22 Apr 1954 (Chancellor, 44/59), K.S. Pitzer to Kerr, 28 Jun 1955 (Chancellor, 21/44).
75. Birge to [Dean] A.R. Davis, 12 Jul 1950 (Physics, 1/11).
76. Birge to Sproul, "Non-academic employees" and "Expense and equipment," 22 Nov 1947 (Physics, 1/7).
77. "Report of Committee on Courses" to Birge, 18 Mar 1949 (EOL, 20/6).
78. Birge to Sproul, 22 Nov 1947 (Physics, 1/7).
79. Ibid.; cf. Helmholz (ref. 22), 117-8.
80. "Draft of item for Budget Committee minutes," circa 1948 (Physics, 1/8).
81. Birge, vol. 4 (ref. 5), XIII:5; cf. Helmholz (ref. 22), 115.
82. H. Poillon to E.O. Lawrence, 25 Feb 1936, quoted in Heilbron and Seidel (ref. 3), 391.
83. Fitzgibbon (ref. 51), 36-37; Hutson (ref. 51), 290.
84. "Preliminary report on the committee appointed to study administrative organization of Medical Physics," 10 May 1944 (EOL, 2/29).
85. Birge, vol. 4 (ref. 5), XVII:53.
86. J.H. Lawrence, "Note to be attached to preliminary report...," 23 May 1944 (EOL, 2/29); Birge to Sproul, 10 Jul 1944 (EOL, 2/29).
87. J.H. Lawrence, "The use of isotopes in medical research," American Medical Association, Journal, 134 (1947), 219-225; Tobias, Anger, and J. Lawrence, "Radiological use of high energy douterons and alpha particles," American journal of roentgenology, radium therapy, and nuclear medicine, 67 (1952), 1-27; Birge, vol. 4 (ref. 5), XVII:67-77.
88. J.H. Lawrence, "The use of isotopes in medical research," American Medical Association, Journal, 134 (1947), 219-225; Tobias, Anger, and J. Lawrence, "Radiological use of high energy douterons and alpha particles," American journal of roentgenology, radium therapy, and nuclear medicine, 67 (1952), 1-27; Birge, vol. 4 (ref. 5), XVII:67-77.
89. J.H. Lawrence to Sproul, 6 Mar 1947 (JHL, 5/20)
90. M.E. Deutsch to Birge, 26 Mar 1947 (Physics, 2/10).
91. Patricia W. Durbin, "Plutonium in man: A twenty-five year review," LBL report UCRL-20850 (June 1971); Stannard (ref. 8), 350-355; Scott (ref. 14), 44-49. Cf. Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, Final report (Washington, DC, 1995), 249-252, 256-258.
92. Patricia W. Durbin, "Plutonium in man: A twenty-five year review," LBL report UCRL-20850 (June 1971); Stannard (ref. 8), 350-355; Scott (ref. 14), 44-49. Cf. Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, Final report (Washington, DC, 1995), 249-252, 256-258.
93. Sproul to J.H. Lawrence, 23 Oct 1946, and Lawrence to Sproul, 20 Nov 1946 (JHL, 9/39). In 1947 forty-five investigators on the Berkeley campus were using radioisotopes, not counting the Rad Lab; two years later this number had almost doubled, to eighty-three. J.H. Lawrence to Sproul, 1 Mar 1947 and "Chart showing use of radioactive isotopes in the University," 1 Jul 1949 (JHL, 9/39); J.H. Lawrence to Sproul, 1 Mar 1947, Committee for the Safe Use of Radioisotopes to Sproul, 21 May 1948, and E.O. Lawrence to A.P. Pollman (AEC), 14 May 1947 (JHL, 9/39).
94. H. Jones to J.H. Lawrence, 11 and 16 Apr 1947, and Lawrence to J.M.D. Olmsted, 5 Apr 1947 (JHL, 5/22); Jones to Sproul, 18 Feb 1947 (EOL, 20/17).
95. "Report of the Committee to Consider the Proposed Memorial," 22 Apr 1947 (JHL, 5/22).
96. Gofman to Lawrence, 23 Apr and 8 Jul 1949, Lawrence to Birge, 14 Nov 1949 (JHL, 677).
97. Birge, vol. 4 (ref. 5), XVII: 56-57; Gofman (ref. 30), 63-72.
98. D.M. Greenberg, "The program of cancer research in the University," n.d. [circa mid-1947] (JHL, 5/22).
99. C.H. Kempe et al., "The lipoproteins of serum in infancy and childhood," Journal of pediatrics, 40 (1952), 11-23; J.H. Lawrence et al., "Chronic lymphatic leukemia: A study of 100 patients treated with radioactive phosphorous," AMA, Journal, 140 (1949), 585-588; Lawrence et al., "The physiology and treatment of polycthemia studies on 260 patients," UCRL-2001 (10 Nov 1952); W. Garrison and Hamilton, "Production and isolation of carrier-free radioisotopes," Chemical reviews, 49 (1951), 237-272; Lawrence to Kerr, 8 Jan and 10 Dec 1947, and to M.P. Mellars, 13 Nov 1946 (JHL, 5/14); Lawrence to V.O. Knudson, 26 Jun 1946 (JHL, 4/32).
100. C.H. Kempe et al., "The lipoproteins of serum in infancy and childhood," Journal of pediatrics, 40 (1952), 11-23; J.H. Lawrence et al., "Chronic lymphatic leukemia: A study of 100 patients treated with radioactive phosphorous," AMA, Journal, 140 (1949), 585-588; Lawrence et al., "The physiology and treatment of polycthemia studies on 260 patients," UCRL-2001 (10 Nov 1952); W. Garrison and Hamilton, "Production and isolation of carrier-free radioisotopes," Chemical reviews, 49 (1951), 237-272; Lawrence to Kerr, 8 Jan and 10 Dec 1947, and to M.P. Mellars, 13 Nov 1946 (JHL, 5/14); Lawrence to V.O. Knudson, 26 Jun 1946 (JHL, 4/32).
101. C.H. Kempe et al., "The lipoproteins of serum in infancy and childhood," Journal of pediatrics, 40 (1952), 11-23; J.H. Lawrence et al., "Chronic lymphatic leukemia: A study of 100 patients treated with radioactive phosphorous," AMA, Journal, 140 (1949), 585-588; Lawrence et al., "The physiology and treatment of polycthemia studies on 260 patients," UCRL-2001 (10 Nov 1952); W. Garrison and Hamilton, "Production and isolation of carrier-free radioisotopes," Chemical reviews, 49 (1951), 237-272; Lawrence to Kerr, 8 Jan and 10 Dec 1947, and to M.P. Mellars, 13 Nov 1946 (JHL, 5/14); Lawrence to V.O. Knudson, 26 Jun 1946 (JHL, 4/32).
102. C.H. Kempe et al., "The lipoproteins of serum in infancy and childhood," Journal of pediatrics, 40 (1952), 11-23; J.H. Lawrence et al., "Chronic lymphatic leukemia: A study of 100 patients treated with radioactive phosphorous," AMA, Journal, 140 (1949), 585-588; Lawrence et al., "The physiology and treatment of polycthemia studies on 260 patients," UCRL-2001 (10 Nov 1952); W. Garrison and Hamilton, "Production and isolation of carrier-free radioisotopes," Chemical reviews, 49 (1951), 237-272; Lawrence to Kerr, 8 Jan and 10 Dec 1947, and to M.P. Mellars, 13 Nov 1946 (JHL, 5/14); Lawrence to V.O. Knudson, 26 Jun 1946 (JHL, 4/32).
103. Barton C. Hacker, The dragon's tail: Radiation safety in the Manhattan Project, 1942-1946 (Berkeley, 1987), 29-30; Richard G. Hewlett and Oscar E. Anderson, Jr., The new world: A history of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, 1 (3 vols., Berkeley, 1990), 206-207; cf. Stone, ed., Industrial medicine on the Plutonium Project (New York, 1951).
104. Barton C. Hacker, The dragon's tail: Radiation safety in the Manhattan Project, 1942-1946 (Berkeley, 1987), 29-30; Richard G. Hewlett and Oscar E. Anderson, Jr., The new world: A history of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, 1 (3 vols., Berkeley, 1990), 206-207; cf. Stone, ed., Industrial medicine on the Plutonium Project (New York, 1951).
105. Barton C. Hacker, The dragon's tail: Radiation safety in the Manhattan Project, 1942-1946 (Berkeley, 1987), 29-30; Richard G. Hewlett and Oscar E. Anderson, Jr., The new world: A history of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, 1 (3 vols., Berkeley, 1990), 206-207; cf. Stone, ed., Industrial medicine on the Plutonium Project (New York, 1951).
106. Stone to N. Hilberry, 6 Dec 1945 (EOL, 8/14); "UC scientists turn cyclotron to medical use again," San Francisco Chronicle (2 Dec 1945), 10.
107. Stone, "Neutron therapy and specific ionization," American journal of roentgenology and radium therapy, 59 (1948), 771-785; Tobias, Anger, and Lawrence (ref. 71); cf. Gofman (ref. 30), 63-72.
108. Scott (ref. 14), 61.
109. Hamilton to C.H. Copp, 1 Dec 1950 (EOL, 8/17).
110. Advisory Committee on Inter-Campus Medical Teaching and Research to Sproul, 11 Mar 1952 (Physics, 2/10); "Revised memorandum of agreement concerning operation of the proposed Cowell Metabolic Unit" to Sproul, 19 Jan 1949 (EOL, 8/16).
111. "Donner Lab," report to UC president, Nov 1962 (JHL, 9/42).
112. University of California Medical Center, San Francisco, Announcement (1951-1952), 82-83; William E. Siri, "Biophysical research at Donner Laboratory, 1945-1975," oral history transcript, Sally Smith Hughes, interviewer (TBL, Berkeley, 1987), 94-106.
113. University of California Medical Center, San Francisco, Announcement (1951-1952), 82-83; William E. Siri, "Biophysical research at Donner Laboratory, 1945-1975," oral history transcript, Sally Smith Hughes, interviewer (TBL, Berkeley, 1987), 94-106.
114. Tobias to Committee on Academic Planning, 2 May 1966 (HBJ, box 11/folder "Tobias").
115. Hamilton to Morris Stewart, 8 May 1956, and to Lincoln Constance, 23 May 1956 (EOL, 8/23).
116. Birge to A.R. Davis, 15 Jun 1954 (Physics, 1/18).
117. Stewart to Hamilton, 18 May 1956, and Constance to Hamilton, 28 May 1956 (EOL, 8/23). The university did offer a group major in "Biology and Physics" starting in 1954, but it had no formal undergraduate curriculum and apparently was not well advertised. Ref. 15 for 1954-1955.
118. Eakin (ref. 34), 222-224; "Enrollment" (Physics, 2/17); cf. Birge to Davis, 19 Jan 1953 (Physics, 1/13).
119. University of California Academic Senate, Record, 1:5 (1955), iv; A.C. Helmholz to G. Seaborg, 18 Mar 1959 (Physics, 1/29); Geiger (ref. 50), 218-221, 225.
120. Stewart to Hamilton, 18 Jun 1956 (EOL, 8/23).
121. Hamilton to Stewart, 25 Jun and 10 Aug 1956 (EOL, 8/23).
122. "Report of the advisors in biophysics," 23 May 1960 (Physics, 2/10). The requirements for medical physics students remained the same, since "a worthy fraction of these students might be discouraged if the preparation in mathematics and physical science was increased. " "Report of the Executive Committee to the membership of the Group in Biophysics and the Groups in Medical Physics and Bioradiology," 5 May 1960 (Physics, 2/10).
123. "Report of the advisors in biophysics," 23 May 1960 (Physics, 2/10). The requirements for medical physics students remained the same, since "a worthy fraction of these students might be discouraged if the preparation in mathematics and physical science was increased. " "Report of the Executive Committee to the membership of the Group in Biophysics and the Groups in Medical Physics and Bioradiology," 5 May 1960 (Physics, 2/10).
124. Gofman et al., "Atherosclerosis, lipoproteins, and coronary artery disease," Wisconsin medical journal (1952), 1-3; Gofman, "Diet and lipotrophic agents in atherosclerosis," New York Academy of Medicine, Bulletin, 28 (1952), 279-293.
125. Gofman et al., "Atherosclerosis, lipoproteins, and coronary artery disease," Wisconsin medical journal (1952), 1-3; Gofman, "Diet and lipotrophic agents in atherosclerosis," New York Academy of Medicine, Bulletin, 28 (1952), 279-293.
126. Committee on Educational Policy to Vice Chancellor R.G. Bressler, 31 May 1963 (Chancellor, 75/33); Stadtman (ref. 34), 80-81, 86, 92, 97-98.
127. Geiger (ref. 50), 47-58, 73-82. Stanley chose to build his Virus Lab between the Crocker and Donner Labs, to capitalize on their interdisciplinarity. Wendell M. Stanley to Lawrence, 11 Nov 1947 (WMS, 2/35); Lawrence to Stanley, 20 Nov 1947 (WMS, 10/"Lawrence, J.H."); Stanley to R.J. Evans, 23 Mar 1948 (WMS, 2/39); Stanley to Sproul, 17 Aug 1948 (WMS, 2/44); cf. Angela N.H. Creager, "Wendell Stanley's dream of a freestanding Department of Biochemistry at the University of California, Berkeley," Journal of the History of biology, 29 (1996), 331-360.
128. A.C. Helmholz to Clark Kerr, 9 Mar 1957 (Physics, 1/21); Helmholz (ref. 22), 118.
129. Lincoln Constance to [Chancellor] Glenn Seaborg, 17 Dec 1959 (Chancellor, 38/24). Cf. Academic Advisory Committee, "Medical physics: Origin and development," 23 Dec 1959 (Chancellor, 38/24).
130. Academic Advisory Committee, minutes, 29 Jan 1960 (Chancellor, 38/24).
131. Academic Advisory Committee, minutes, 8 Feb 1961 (Chancellor, 38/24).
132. J.H. Lawrence to Jones, Tobias, and Gofman, 16 and 17 Mar 1960 (HBJ, box 6/folder "Lawrence, John H."). Gofman, who obtained his Ph.D. in chemistry, recommended placing the renamed group in the College of Chemistry instead of Letters and Sciences.
133. Seaborg to Academic Advisory Committee, 8 Feb 1961 (Chancellor, 38/24).
134. Constance to [Chancellor] E.W. Strong, 28 Jun 1961 (Chancellor, 38/24).
135. Strong to Robley Williams, 5 Apr 1962; Strong to Kerr, 15 May 1962; and "Report of Committee to plan the scope and alternatives of a new department concerned with relating biology and physical sciences," 22 Oct 1962 (all in Chancellor, 44/75); Committee on Budget and Interdepartmental Relations to R.G. Bressler, 1 Apr 1963, and Committee on Educational Policy to Bressler, 31 May 1963 (Chancellor, 75/33).
136. UC press release, 30 Jun 1962 (JHL, 9/42).
137. An autopsy following Ernest Lawrence's death found an intestinal artery blocked by atherosclerosis; collateral channels which had developed around the blockage were unknowingly removed during the surgery. The resulting loss of circulation killed him, although he probably would not have recovered from the colitis. A group under Gofman in Donner Lab had pioneered in the study of atherosclerosis and had used blood samples from many Rad Lab employees, but apparently not Lawrence. Gofman (ref. 30), 107-108; cf. Herbert Childs, An American genius: The life of Ernest Orlando Lawrence (New York, 1968), 532.
138. E.g., Melvin Calvin, "Chemistry and chemical biodynamics at Berkeley, 1937-1980," oral history transcript, Arthur Norberg, interviewer (TBL, Berkeley, 1984), 199. Cf. R.A. Connick conference with [Dean] W.B. Fretter, 2 Feb 1966 (Chancellor, 76/4), about the possibility of merging the Division with Physiology: Nello Pace said he would welcome the faculty of the Division, but he was "not anxious at all to have Professor Lawrence." Gofman (ref. 30), for his part, defended Lawrence's leadership.
139. Tobias, "History of the Medical Physics Division," Aug 1965 (JHL, 9/43).
140. Tobias to Committee (ref. 90); Comments of Academic Planning Committee re Medical Physics, in Tobias to members of Medical Physics Division, 16 Jan 1968 (HBJ, box 11/folder "Tobias").
141. Tobias to members (ibid.).
142. Ibid.
143. Ibid.
144. Ibid.; Helmholz (ref. 22), 119.
145. Bilge to Davis, 12 Jun 1954 (Physics 1/8); Helmholz to G. Seaborg, 18 Mar 1959 (Physics, 1/29).
146. "Report of the Review Committee for the Division of Medical Physics," in R.K. Mortimer to Jones, 5 May 1976 (HBJ, carton 1/folder "Division of Medical Physics").
147. Gofman (ref. 30), 109-114; Siri (ref. 89), 94-106.
148. Gofman (ref. 30), 148; Hacker, Elements of controversy: The Atomic Energy Commission and radiation safety in nuclear weapons testing, 1947-1974 (Berkeley, 1994), 253-254.
149. Birge to Sproul (ref. 62); "Draft" (ref. 64).
150. Ref. 120; Mortimer to Medical Physics faculty, 19 June 1974 (HBJ, carton 2/folder "Group in Biophysics and Medical Physics").
151. Ref. 120.
152. Stadtman (ref. 34), 206-207; ref. 15, for years 1968-9, 1981-2, 1991-2.
153. Pnina Abir-Am, "Themes, genres, and orders of legitimation in the consolidation of new scientific disciplines: Deconstructing the historiography of molecular biology," History of science, 23 (1985), 73-117; Evelyn Fox Keller, "Physics and the emergence of molecular biology: A history of cognitive and political synergy," Journal of the history of biology, 23:3 (1990), 389-409; E.J. Yoxen, "Where does Schroedinger's What is life? belong in the history of molecular biology?" History of science, 17 (1979), 17-52; Donald Fleming, "Emigré physicists and the biological revolution," Perspectives in American history, 2 (1968), 152-189; Max Delbrück, "A physicist looks at biology," in John Cairns, Gunther Stent, and James D. Watson, eds., Phage and the origins of molecular biology (Cold Spring Harbor, 1992), 9-22.
154. Pnina Abir-Am, "Themes, genres, and orders of legitimation in the consolidation of new scientific disciplines: Deconstructing the historiography of molecular biology," History of science, 23 (1985), 73-117; Evelyn Fox Keller, "Physics and the emergence of molecular biology: A history of cognitive and political synergy," Journal of the history of biology, 23:3 (1990), 389-409; E.J. Yoxen, "Where does Schroedinger's What is life? belong in the history of molecular biology?" History of science, 17 (1979), 17-52; Donald Fleming, "Emigré physicists and the biological revolution," Perspectives in American history, 2 (1968), 152-189; Max Delbrück, "A physicist looks at biology," in John Cairns, Gunther Stent, and James D. Watson, eds., Phage and the origins of molecular biology (Cold Spring Harbor, 1992), 9-22.
155. Pnina Abir-Am, "Themes, genres, and orders of legitimation in the consolidation of new scientific disciplines: Deconstructing the historiography of molecular biology," History of science, 23 (1985), 73-117; Evelyn Fox Keller, "Physics and the emergence of molecular biology: A history of cognitive and political synergy," Journal of the history of biology, 23:3 (1990), 389-409; E.J. Yoxen, "Where does Schroedinger's What is life? belong in the history of molecular biology?" History of science, 17 (1979), 17-52; Donald Fleming, "Emigré physicists and the biological revolution," Perspectives in American history, 2 (1968), 152-189; Max Delbrück, "A physicist looks at biology," in John Cairns, Gunther Stent, and James D. Watson, eds., Phage and the origins of molecular biology (Cold Spring Harbor, 1992), 9-22.
156. Pnina Abir-Am, "Themes, genres, and orders of legitimation in the consolidation of new scientific disciplines: Deconstructing the historiography of molecular biology," History of science, 23 (1985), 73-117; Evelyn Fox Keller, "Physics and the emergence of molecular biology: A history of cognitive and political synergy," Journal of the history of biology, 23:3 (1990), 389-409; E.J. Yoxen, "Where does Schroedinger's What is life? belong in the history of molecular biology?" History of science, 17 (1979), 17-52; Donald Fleming, "Emigré physicists and the biological revolution," Perspectives in American history, 2 (1968), 152-189; Max Delbrück, "A physicist looks at biology," in John Cairns, Gunther Stent, and James D. Watson, eds., Phage and the origins of molecular biology (Cold Spring Harbor, 1992), 9-22.
157. Pnina Abir-Am, "Themes, genres, and orders of legitimation in the consolidation of new scientific disciplines: Deconstructing the historiography of molecular biology," History of science, 23 (1985), 73-117; Evelyn Fox Keller, "Physics and the emergence of molecular biology: A history of cognitive and political synergy," Journal of the history of biology, 23:3 (1990), 389-409; E.J. Yoxen, "Where does Schroedinger's What is life? belong in the history of molecular biology?" History of science, 17 (1979), 17-52; Donald Fleming, "Emigré physicists and the biological revolution," Perspectives in American history, 2 (1968), 152-189; Max Delbrück, "A physicist looks at biology," in John Cairns, Gunther Stent, and James D. Watson, eds., Phage and the origins of molecular biology (Cold Spring Harbor, 1992), 9-22.
158. Robert E. Kohler, "Medical reform and biomedical science: Biochemistry - a case study," in Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg, eds., The therapeutic revolution: Essays in the social history of American medicine (Philadelphia, 1979), 27-66,
159. and From medical chemistry to biochemistry (Cambridge, 1982), 158-193.
160. Alfred D. Chandler, Strategy and structure: Chapters in the history of the industrial enterprise (Cambridge, 1962), 13-17, on 14.
161. Geiger (ref. 50), 73-82.
162. Rosenberg, "Toward an ecology of knowledge: On discipline, context, and history,' in Alexandra Oleson and John Voss, eds., The organization of knowledge in modern America 1860-1920 (Baltimore, 1979), 440-455, on 442.
163. Rasmussen (ref. 39); Feffer (ref. 39); Hacker (ref. 82), 49-52, 128-153; Stadtman (ref. 34), 92; Creager (ref. 101).
164. Larry Randles Lagerstrom, "Metaphors of origins: A preliminary report on the centripetal emergence of biophysics," unpublished paper, Berkeley, Oct 1992. Well-established societies by the mid-1960s included the Biophysical Society, the Radiation Research Society, the Society of Nuclear Medicine, and the International Union of Pure and Applied Biophysics. Tobias to Committee on Academic Planning, 2 May 1966 (HBJ, Box 11/"Tobias").
165. Siri (ref. 89), 33.