Lead levels in Canadian children: Do we have to review the standard?

Paediatrics and Child Health

Volumn 10, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 215-220

  Tsekrekos, Stephen N ^a   Buka, Irena ^b,c  

^a Occupational Medicine   (Switzerland)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA   (Canada)

^c Misericordia Family Medicine Centre   (Canada)

Author keywords

Blood lead; Canada; Children; Lead; Lead poisoning

Indexed keywords

LEAD;

CANADA; CHILD; CONSUMER; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; INFANT; LEAD BLOOD LEVEL; LEAD POISONING; LONG TERM EXPOSURE; NERVE CELL DIFFERENTIATION; PROTECTION; REVIEW;

EID: 19044364580     PISSN: 12057088     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (74)

1. Haslam RH. Lead poisoning. Paediatr Child Health 2003;8:509-10.
2. Sanborn MD, Abelsohn A, Campbell M, Weir E. Identifying and managing adverse environmental health effects: 3. Lead exposure. CMAJ 2002;166:1287-92.
3. Meyer PA, Pivetz T, Dignam TA, Homa DM, Schoonover J, Brody D, for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Surveillance for elevated blood lead levels among children - United States, 1997-2001. MMWR Surveill Summ 2003;52:1-21.
4. Canfield RL, Henderson CR Jr, Cory-Slechta DA, Cox C, Jusko TA, Lanphear BP. Intellectual impairment in children with blood lead concentrations below 10 microg per deciliter. N Engl J Med 2003;348:1517-26.
5. Canfield RL, Kreher DA, Cornwell C, Henderson CR Jr. Low-level lead exposure, executive functioning, and learning in early childhood. Child Neuropsychol 2003;9:35-53.
6. Bellinger DC, Stiles KM, Needleman HL. Low-level lead exposure, intelligence and academic achievement: A long-term follow-up study. Pediatrics 1992;90:855-61.
7. Bellinger DC, Needleman HL. Intellectual impairment and blood lead levels. N Engl J Med 2003;349:500-2.
8. Lanphear BP, Dietrich K, Auinger P, Cox C. Cognitive deficits associated with blood lead concentrations <10 microg/dL in US children and adolescents. Public Health Rep 2000;115:521-9.
9. Emory E, Ansari Z, Pattillo R, Archibold E, Chevalier J. Maternal blood lead effects on infant intelligence arage 7 months. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;188:S26-32.
10. Schwartz J. Low-level lead exposure and children's IQ: A meta-analysis and search for a threshold. Environ Res 1994;65:42-55.
11. Bellinger DC. Lead. Pediatrics 2004;113(Suppl 4):1016-22.
12. Stein J, Schettler T, Wallinga D, Valenti M. In harm's way: Toxic threats to child development. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2002;23(Suppl 1):S13-22.
13. Schettler T. Toxic threats to neurologic development of children. Environ Health Perspect 2001;109(Suppl 6):813-6.
14. Wang CL, Chuang HY, Ho CK, et al. Relationship between blood lead concentrations and learning achievement among primary school children in Taiwan. Environ Res 2002;89:12-8.
15. Needleman HL, Schell A, Bellinger D, Leviton A, Allred EN. The long-term consequences of exposure to low doses of lead in childhood: An 11-year follow-up report. N Engl J Med 1990;322:83-8.
16. Needleman HL, McFarland C, Ness RB, Fienberg SE, Tobin MJ. Bone lead levels in adjudicated delinquents: A case control study. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2002;24:711-7.
17. Selevan SG, Rice DC, Hogan KA, Euling SY, Pfahles-Hutchens A, Bethel J. Blood lead concentration and delayed puberty in girls. N Engl J Med 2003;348:1527-36.
18. McDonald JA, Potter NU. Lead's legacy? Early and late mortality of 454 lead-poisoned children. Arch Environ Health 1996;51:116-21.
19. Hu H. A 50-year follow-up of childhood plumbism: Hypertension, renal function, and hemoglobin levels among survivors. Am J Dis Child 1991;145:681-7.
20. Lustberg M, Silbergeld E. Blood lead levels and mortality. Arch Intern Med 2002;162:2443-9.
21. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Case studies in Environmental Medicine: Lead Toxicity. US Department of Health and Human Services, May 2000. 〈www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HEC/CSEM/lead/〉 (Version current at March 8, 2005).
22. Rogan WJ, Dietrich KN, Ware JH, et al. The effect of chelation therapy with succimer on neuropsychological development in children exposed to lead. N Engl J Med 2001;344:1421-6.
23. Bernard SM. Should the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's childhood lead poisoning intervention level be lowered? Am J Public Health 2003;93:1253-60.
24. Feldman W, Randel R Screening children for lead exposure in Canada. In: Canadian Task Force on the Periodic Health Examination. Canadian Guide to Clinical Preventive Health Care. Ottawa: Health Canada, 1994:268-88.
25. Rogan WJ, Ware JH. Exposure to lead in children - how low is low enough? N Engl J Med 2003;348:1515-6.
26. Rosen JF, Mushak P. Primary prevention of childhood lead poisoning - the only solution. N Engl J Med 2001;344:1470-1.
27. Koren G, Chang N, Gonen R, et al. Lead exposure among mothers and their newborns in Toronto. CMAJ 1990;142:1241-4.
28. Rhainds M, Levallois P. Umbilical cord blood lead levels in the Quebec City area. Arch Environ Health 1993;48:421-7.
29. Rhainds M, Levallois P, Dewailly E, Ayotte P. Lead, mercury, and organochlorine compound levels in cord blood in Quebec, Canada. Arch Environ Health 1999;54:40-7.
30. Smargiassi A, Takser L, Masse A, et al. A comparative study of manganese and lead levels in human umbilical cords and maternal blood from two urban centers exposed to different gasoline additives. Sci Total Environ 2002;290:157-64. (Erratum in 2002;300:247).
31. Hanning RM, Sandhu R, MacMillan A, Moss L, Tsuji LJ, Nieboer E. Impact on blood Pb levels of maternal and early infant feeding practices of First Nation Cree in the Mushkegowuk Territory of northern Ontario, Canada. J Environ Monit 2003;5:241-5.
32. Levesque B, Duchesne JF, Gariepy C, et al. Monitoring of umbilical cord blood lead levels and sources assessment among the Inuit. Occup Environ Med 2003;60:693-5.
33. O'Heany J, Kusiak R, Duncan CE, Smith JF, Smith LF, Spielberg L. Blood lead and associated risk factors in Ontario children. Sci Total Environ 1988;71:477-83.
34. Levailois P, Lavoie M, Goulet L, Nantel AJ, Gingras S. Blood lead levels in children and pregnant women living near a lead-reclamation plant. CMAJ 1991;144:877-85.
35. Jin A, Hertzman C, Peck SHS, Lockitch G. Blood lead levels in children aged 24 to 36 months in Vancouver. CMAJ 1995;152:1077-86.
36. Neri LC, Tessier J. Blood lead levels in children in Canada and other countries. Chronic Dis Can 1986;7:18-25.
37. Health and Welfare Canada, Statistics Canada. The Health of Canadians: Report on the Canada Health Survey. Ottawa: Ministry of Supply and Services, 1981. Cat 82-538E.
38. Smith LF, Rea E. Low blood lead levels in northern Ontario - what now? Can J Public Health 1995;86:373-6.
39. Willows ND, Gray-Donald K. Blood lead concentrations and iron deficiency in Canadian aboriginal infants. Sci Total Environ 2002;280:255-60.
40. Lorenzana RM, Troast R, Mastriano M, Follansbee MH, Diamond GL. Lead intervention and pediatric blood lead levels at hazardous waste sites. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2003;66:871-93.
41. Langlois P, Smith L, Fleming S, Gould R, Goel V, Gibson B. Blood lead levels in Toronto children and abatement of lead-contaminated soil and house dust. Arch Environ Health 1996;51:59-67.
42. Hertzman C, Ward H, Ames N, Kelly S, Yates C. Childhood lead exposures in Trail revisited. Can J Public Health 1991;82:385-91.
43. Hilts SR, Bock SE, Oke TL, Yates CI, Copes RA. Effect of interventions on children's blood lead levels. Environ Health Perspect 1998;106:79-83.
44. Hilts SR. Effect of smelter emission reductions on children's blood lead levels. Sci Total Environ 2003;303:51-8.
45. Letourneau GG, Gagne DJ. Blood lead level in children living close to a smelter area: 10 years later. Can J Public Health 1992;83:221-5.
46. Gagne D. Blood lead levels in Noranda children following removal of smelter-contaminated yard soil. Can J Public Health 1994;85:163-6.
47. Kosatsky T, Boivin M-C. Blood lead levels in children living near abandoned metal-recovery plants. Can J Public Health 1994;85:158-62.
48. Wang ST, Pizzolato S, Demshar HP, Smith LF. Decline in blood lead in Ontario children correlated to decreasing consumption of leaded gasoline, 1983-1992. Clin Chem 1997;43:1251-2.
49. Godolphin W, Schmitt N, Anderson TW. Blood lead in Canadian children: A current perspective. CMAJ 1993;148:517-9.
50. Cooper K, Vanderlinden L, McClenaghan T, et al. Case study #1: Standard setting for lead - the cautionary tale. In: Environmental Standard Setting and Children's Health, May 25, 2000. Toronto: Canadian Environmental Law Association. 〈http://62.44.8.131/publications/cardfile.shtml?x=1098〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).
51. Consumer Product Safety Commission. CPSC Announces Recalls Of Imported Crayons Because Of Lead Poisoning Hazard. Safety Alerts Release #94-055, April 5, 1994. 〈www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/prerel/prhtml94/94055.html〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).
52. Childhood lead poisoning associated with tamarind candy and folk remedies - California, 1999-2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002;51:684-6.
53. Dabeka RW, McKenzie AD, Pepper K. Lead contamination of raisins sold in Canada. Food Addit Contam 2002;19:47-54.
54. Health Canada. Lead hazard posed by PVC mini-blinds. Ottawa: Health Canada, June 25, 1996. 〈www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/media/releases/1996/96_48e. htm〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).
55. Health Canada. Health Canada advises Canadians about potential lead exposure from inexpensive jewellery and candles with lead core wicks. Ottawa: Health Canada, January 8, 2001. 〈www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/protection/ wamings/2001/2001_02e.htm〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).
56. Health Canada. Health Canada warns Canadians about potential lead exposure from stainless steel rum flasks. Ottawa: Health Canada, April 10, 2003. 〈www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/protection/warnings/2003/2003_18.htm〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).
57. Health Canada. Potential lead exposure from Kids Klub necklace with pendant. Ottawa: Health Canada, April 22, 1998. 〈www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/ protection/warnings/1998/98_23e.htm〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).
58. Health Canada. Health Canada warns Canadians about potential child's lead exposure. Ottawa: Health Canada, November 5, 2003. 〈www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ english/protection/warnings/2003/2003_82.htm〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).
59. The Hometown Channel. Artificial Christmas Trees Pose Lead Danger. December 12, 2002. 〈www.thehometownchannel.com/holidays/1834459/detail. html〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).
60. WRAL. Some Holiday Lights May Contain Lead. December 10, 2003. 〈www.wral.com/holidays/2695782/detail.html〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).
61. Potential risk for lead exposure in dental offices. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2001;50:873-4.
62. CBC Marketplace. Lead in toys and jewellery. March 6, 2001. 〈www.cbc.ca/consumers/market/files/health/lead/〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).
63. Hazardous Products (Liquid Coating Materials) Regulations. August 31, 2003. 〈http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/h-3/c.r.c.-c.928/133011.html〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).
64. Moore SI, Kosatsky T, Beausoleil M, Eade N. Lead intoxication in a child related to the ingestion of playground paint chips - Quebec. Can Commun Dis Rep 1995;21:9-11.
65. Health Canada. It's Your Health: Effects of Lead on Human Health. Ottawa: Health Canada, July 15, 2003. 〈www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/iyh/environment/ lead.html〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).
66. Part 1. Children's Jewellery Regulations. Canada Gazette 2003;137:3591-712. 〈http://canadagazette.gc.ca/partl/2003/20031122/pdf/g1- 13747.pdf〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).
67. CBC News. Report urges incentives to develop 'brownfieids'. February 10, 2003. 〈www.cbc.ca/story/canada/national/2003/02/09/brownfields030209. html〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).
68. Citybeat - City of Calgary Press Release. Lead Levels in Soil in Lynnview Ridge. May 17, 2001. 〈www.gov.calgary.ab.ca/citybeat/public/200l/05/ release.20010517_203501_13246_0〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).
69. CBC Marketplace. Is something lurking in the land beneath your home? November 21, 2001. 〈www.cbc.ca/consumers/market/files/environ/brownfields/ 〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).
70. Lambert TW, Lane S. Lead, arsenic, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil and house dust in the communities surrounding the Sydney, Nova Scotia, tar ponds. Environ Health Perspect 2004;112:35-41.
71. Lanphear BP, Matte TD, Rogers J, et al. The contribution of lead-contaminated house dust and residential soil to children's blood lead levels. A pooled analysis of 12 epidemiologic studies. Environ Res 1998;79:51-68.
72. Levallois P, Gaudreault P, Rhainds M, Weber JP. Is there a need for systematic blood lead screening in Canadian children? Can J Public Health 1994;85:167-70.
73. Health Canada. Lead Information Package - Some Commonly Asked Questions About Lead and Human Health. Ottawa: Health Canada, December 3, 2002. 〈www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hecs-sesc/toxics_mamigement/publications/leadQandA/toc. htm〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).
74. Valiquette L, Kosatsky T. Portrait of Montreal Children with High Blood Lead Levels Identified Through Community-wide Review of Laboratory Records. Chronic Diseases in Canada 1995;16(2). 〈www.hc-sc.gc.ca/pphb-dgspsp/ publicat/cdic-mcc/16-2/a_e.html〉 (Version current at March 7, 2005).