The smoke of great cities: British and American efforts to control air pollution, 1860-1914

Environmental History

Volumn 4, Issue 1, 1999, Pages

  Stradling, David ^a   Thorsheim, Peter ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AIR QUALITY; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; NINETEENTH CENTURY; POLLUTION CONTROL; TWENTIETH CENTURY;

UNITED KINGDOM; UNITED STATES;

EID: 18544392271     PISSN: 10845453     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3985326     Document Type: Review

References (180)

1. The phrase "smoke of great cities" occurred frequently during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in both countries. Adam W. Rome recently argued that Britain and the United States experienced very different movements to improve air quality, with British landed gentry leading a rural campaign against industrial "noxious vapors," and the American urban middle class engaging in a crusade against the smoke problem in cities. While Rome rightly notes that the British paid much greater attention to pollution in rural areas than did Americans, he exaggerates the rural character of British attempts to reduce air pollution and implies that urban anti-smoke efforts were largely confined to the U.S. See "Coming to Terms with Pollution: The Language of Environmental Reform, 1865-1915," Environmental History 1 (1996): 6-28.
2. For a discussion of cultural connections between the U.S. and Britain in this period, see David D. Hall, "The Victorian Connection," and Daniel Walker Howe, "Victorian Culture in America," in Victorian America, ed. D. W. Howe (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1976), esp. 3-26, 81-94.
3. For a discussion of cultural connections between the U.S. and Britain in this period, see David D. Hall, "The Victorian Connection," and Daniel Walker Howe, "Victorian Culture in America," in Victorian America, ed. D. W. Howe (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1976), esp. 3-26, 81-94.
4. Peter Brimblecombe, "Attitudes and Responses Towards Air Pollution in Medieval England," Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association 26 (1976): 941-45, esp. 941. See also Peter Brimblecombe, The Big Smoke: A History of Air Pollution in London Since Medieval Times (London: Methuen, 1987).
5. Peter Brimblecombe, "Attitudes and Responses Towards Air Pollution in Medieval England," Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association 26 (1976): 941-45, esP. 941. See also Peter Brimblecombe, The Big Smoke: A History of Air Pollution in London Since Medieval Times (London: Methuen, 1987).
6. In addition to visibility, the popular definition also assumed the preventability of smoke. In other words, not all emissions from fires constituted smoke, only the unnecessarily dark emissions. The Sanitary Act of 1866 required London's police to bring charges against factory owners whose chimneys emitted black smoke, but many polluters escaped fines by arguing that, although their smoke was indeed dark, it was not actually black. Even when the authorities punished polluters, the resulting fines were extremely small, often no more than half a pound sterling. Chicago Association of Commerce, Smoke Abatement and Electrification of Railway Terminals in Chicago (Chicago: n.p., 1915), 28-29; Lucius H. Cannon, Smoke Abatement: A Study of the Police Power as Embodied in Laws, Ordinances, and Court Decisions (St. Louis: St. Louis Public Library 1924); and Joseph Hurst, English Law Relating to the Emission of Smoke from Chimneys (London: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, n.d.), Box 7, Archives of the National Society for Clean Air and Environmental Protection, Brighton, England [hereafter NSCA].
7. In addition to visibility, the popular definition also assumed the preventability of smoke. In other words, not all emissions from fires constituted smoke, only the unnecessarily dark emissions. The Sanitary Act of 1866 required London's police to bring charges against factory owners whose chimneys emitted black smoke, but many polluters escaped fines by arguing that, although their smoke was indeed dark, it was not actually black. Even when the authorities punished polluters, the resulting fines were extremely small, often no more than half a pound sterling. Chicago Association of Commerce, Smoke Abatement and Electrification of Railway Terminals in Chicago (Chicago: n.p., 1915), 28-29; Lucius H. Cannon, Smoke Abatement: A Study of the Police Power as Embodied in Laws, Ordinances, and Court Decisions (St. Louis: St. Louis Public Library 1924); and Joseph Hurst, English Law Relating to the Emission of Smoke from Chimneys (London: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, n.d.), Box 7, Archives of the National Society for Clean Air and Environmental Protection, Brighton, England [hereafter NSCA].
8. In addition to visibility, the popular definition also assumed the preventability of smoke. In other words, not all emissions from fires constituted smoke, only the unnecessarily dark emissions. The Sanitary Act of 1866 required London's police to bring charges against factory owners whose chimneys emitted black smoke, but many polluters escaped fines by arguing that, although their smoke was indeed dark, it was not actually black. Even when the authorities punished polluters, the resulting fines were extremely small, often no more than half a pound sterling. Chicago Association of Commerce, Smoke Abatement and Electrification of Railway Terminals in Chicago (Chicago: n.p., 1915), 28-29; Lucius H. Cannon, Smoke Abatement: A Study of the Police Power as Embodied in Laws, Ordinances, and Court Decisions (St. Louis: St. Louis Public Library 1924); and Joseph Hurst, English Law Relating to the Emission of Smoke from Chimneys (London: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, n.d.), Box 7, Archives of the National Society for Clean Air and Environmental Protection, Brighton, England [hereafter NSCA].
9. A. E. Dingle, "The Monster Nuisance of All': Landowners, Alkali Manufacturers, and Air Pollution 1828-64," Economic History Review, 2d ser., 35 (1982): 529-48; Roy M. MacLeod, "The Alkali Acts Administration, 1863-84: The Emergence of the Civil Scientist," Victorian Studies 9 (1965): 83-112; Richard Hawes, "The Control of Alkali Pollution in St. Helens, 1862-1890," Environment and History 1 (1995): 159-71; Donald MacMillan, "A History of the Struggle to Abate Air Pollution from Copper Smelters of the Far West 1885-1933" (Ph.D. diss., University of Montana, 1973); and Chicago Association of Commerce, Smoke Abatement, 29. On the development of nuisance law, see Horace Gay Wood, A Practical Treatise on the Law of Nuisances in Their Various Forms (Albany, N.Y.: John D. Parsons Jr., 1875); and Joel Franklin Brenner, "Nuisance Law and the Industrial Revolution," Journal of Legal Studies 3 (1974): 403-33.
10. A. E. Dingle, "The Monster Nuisance of All': Landowners, Alkali Manufacturers, and Air Pollution 1828-64," Economic History Review, 2d ser., 35 (1982): 529-48; Roy M. MacLeod, "The Alkali Acts Administration, 1863-84: The Emergence of the Civil Scientist," Victorian Studies 9 (1965): 83-112; Richard Hawes, "The Control of Alkali Pollution in St. Helens, 1862-1890," Environment and History 1 (1995): 159-71; Donald MacMillan, "A History of the Struggle to Abate Air Pollution from Copper Smelters of the Far West 1885-1933" (Ph.D. diss., University of Montana, 1973); and Chicago Association of Commerce, Smoke Abatement, 29. On the development of nuisance law, see Horace Gay Wood, A Practical Treatise on the Law of Nuisances in Their Various Forms (Albany, N.Y.: John D. Parsons Jr., 1875); and Joel Franklin Brenner, "Nuisance Law and the Industrial Revolution," Journal of Legal Studies 3 (1974): 403-33.
11. A. E. Dingle, "The Monster Nuisance of All': Landowners, Alkali Manufacturers, and Air Pollution 1828-64," Economic History Review, 2d ser., 35 (1982): 529-48; Roy M. MacLeod, "The Alkali Acts Administration, 1863-84: The Emergence of the Civil Scientist," Victorian Studies 9 (1965): 83-112; Richard Hawes, "The Control of Alkali Pollution in St. Helens, 1862-1890," Environment and History 1 (1995): 159-71; Donald MacMillan, "A History of the Struggle to Abate Air Pollution from Copper Smelters of the Far West 1885-1933" (Ph.D. diss., University of Montana, 1973); and Chicago Association of Commerce, Smoke Abatement, 29. On the development of nuisance law, see Horace Gay Wood, A Practical Treatise on the Law of Nuisances in Their Various Forms (Albany, N.Y.: John D. Parsons Jr., 1875); and Joel Franklin Brenner, "Nuisance Law and the Industrial Revolution," Journal of Legal Studies 3 (1974): 403-33.
12. A. E. Dingle, "The Monster Nuisance of All': Landowners, Alkali Manufacturers, and Air Pollution 1828-64," Economic History Review, 2d ser., 35 (1982): 529-48; Roy M. MacLeod, "The Alkali Acts Administration, 1863-84: The Emergence of the Civil Scientist," Victorian Studies 9 (1965): 83-112; Richard Hawes, "The Control of Alkali Pollution in St. Helens, 1862-1890," Environment and History 1 (1995): 159-71; Donald MacMillan, "A History of the Struggle to Abate Air Pollution from Copper Smelters of the Far West 1885-1933" (Ph.D. diss., University of Montana, 1973); and Chicago Association of Commerce, Smoke Abatement, 29. On the development of nuisance law, see Horace Gay Wood, A Practical Treatise on the Law of Nuisances in Their Various Forms (Albany, N.Y.: John D. Parsons Jr., 1875); and Joel Franklin Brenner, "Nuisance Law and the Industrial Revolution," Journal of Legal Studies 3 (1974): 403-33.
13. A. E. Dingle, "The Monster Nuisance of All': Landowners, Alkali Manufacturers, and Air Pollution 1828-64," Economic History Review, 2d ser., 35 (1982): 529-48; Roy M. MacLeod, "The Alkali Acts Administration, 1863-84: The Emergence of the Civil Scientist," Victorian Studies 9 (1965): 83-112; Richard Hawes, "The Control of Alkali Pollution in St. Helens, 1862-1890," Environment and History 1 (1995): 159-71; Donald MacMillan, "A History of the Struggle to Abate Air Pollution from Copper Smelters of the Far West 1885-1933" (Ph.D. diss., University of Montana, 1973); and Chicago Association of Commerce, Smoke Abatement, 29. On the development of nuisance law, see Horace Gay Wood, A Practical Treatise on the Law of Nuisances in Their Various Forms (Albany, N.Y.: John D. Parsons Jr., 1875); and Joel Franklin Brenner, "Nuisance Law and the Industrial Revolution," Journal of Legal Studies 3 (1974): 403-33.
14. A. E. Dingle, "The Monster Nuisance of All': Landowners, Alkali Manufacturers, and Air Pollution 1828-64," Economic History Review, 2d ser., 35 (1982): 529-48; Roy M. MacLeod, "The Alkali Acts Administration, 1863-84: The Emergence of the Civil Scientist," Victorian Studies 9 (1965): 83-112; Richard Hawes, "The Control of Alkali Pollution in St. Helens, 1862-1890," Environment and History 1 (1995): 159-71; Donald MacMillan, "A History of the Struggle to Abate Air Pollution from Copper Smelters of the Far West 1885-1933" (Ph.D. diss., University of Montana, 1973); and Chicago Association of Commerce, Smoke Abatement, 29. On the development of nuisance law, see Horace Gay Wood, A Practical Treatise on the Law of Nuisances in Their Various Forms (Albany, N.Y.: John D. Parsons Jr., 1875); and Joel Franklin Brenner, "Nuisance Law and the Industrial Revolution," Journal of Legal Studies 3 (1974): 403-33.
15. A. E. Dingle, "The Monster Nuisance of All': Landowners, Alkali Manufacturers, and Air Pollution 1828-64," Economic History Review, 2d ser., 35 (1982): 529-48; Roy M. MacLeod, "The Alkali Acts Administration, 1863-84: The Emergence of the Civil Scientist," Victorian Studies 9 (1965): 83-112; Richard Hawes, "The Control of Alkali Pollution in St. Helens, 1862-1890," Environment and History 1 (1995): 159-71; Donald MacMillan, "A History of the Struggle to Abate Air Pollution from Copper Smelters of the Far West 1885-1933" (Ph.D. diss., University of Montana, 1973); and Chicago Association of Commerce, Smoke Abatement, 29. On the development of nuisance law, see Horace Gay Wood, A Practical Treatise on the Law of Nuisances in Their Various Forms (Albany, N.Y.: John D. Parsons Jr., 1875); and Joel Franklin Brenner, "Nuisance Law and the Industrial Revolution," Journal of Legal Studies 3 (1974): 403-33.
16. Coal consumption in London increased roughly fivefold between 1829 and 1879, rising to over ten million tons per year. B. R. Mitchell, British Historical Statistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 245. For U.S. coal consumption figures from 1850 through 1920, see Sam H. Schurr and Bruce C. Netschert, Energy in the American Economy, 1850-1975 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1960), 508. On the importance of coal to the American energy market, see Martin Melosi, Coping With Abundance: Energy and Environment in Industrial America (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985).
17. Coal consumption in London increased roughly fivefold between 1829 and 1879, rising to over ten million tons per year. B. R. Mitchell, British Historical Statistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 245. For U.S. coal consumption figures from 1850 through 1920, see Sam H. Schurr and Bruce C. Netschert, Energy in the American Economy, 1850-1975 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1960), 508. On the importance of coal to the American energy market, see Martin Melosi, Coping With Abundance: Energy and Environment in Industrial America (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985).
18. Coal consumption in London increased roughly fivefold between 1829 and 1879, rising to over ten million tons per year. B. R. Mitchell, British Historical Statistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 245. For U.S. coal consumption figures from 1850 through 1920, see Sam H. Schurr and Bruce C. Netschert, Energy in the American Economy, 1850-1975 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1960), 508. On the importance of coal to the American energy market, see Martin Melosi, Coping With Abundance: Energy and Environment in Industrial America (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985).
19. For early reports of smoke in American cities, see James Parton, "Pittsburgh," Atlantic Monthly, January 1868, 17-28, esp. 18; and Cleveland Daily Leader, 7 May 1869, 26 October 1871.
20. For early reports of smoke in American cities, see James Parton, "Pittsburgh," Atlantic Monthly, January 1868, 17-28, esp. 18; and Cleveland Daily Leader, 7 May 1869, 26 October 1871.
21. British acts containing anti-smoke provisions included 1 & 2 Geo. IV c. 41, 16 & 17 Vict. c. 128, 29 & 30 Vict. c. 90, and 38 & 39 Vict. c. 55. But legislation did nothing to restrict smoke from household sources until passage of the Clean Air Act in 1956. See Eric Ashby and Mary Anderson, The Politics of Clean Air, Monographs on Science, Technology, and Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), esp. 4-6, 17; Howard A. Scarrow, "The Impact of British Domestic Air Pollution Legislation," British Journal of Political Science 2 (1972): 261-82; and B. W. Clapp, An Environmental History of Britain Since the Industrial Revolution (London and New York: Longman, 1994), esp. 13-69.
22. British acts containing anti-smoke provisions included 1 & 2 Geo. IV c. 41, 16 & 17 Vict. c. 128, 29 & 30 Vict. c. 90, and 38 & 39 Vict. c. 55. But legislation did nothing to restrict smoke from household sources until passage of the Clean Air Act in 1956. See Eric Ashby and Mary Anderson, The Politics of Clean Air, Monographs on Science, Technology, and Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), esp. 4-6, 17; Howard A. Scarrow, "The Impact of British Domestic Air Pollution Legislation," British Journal of Political Science 2 (1972): 261-82; and B. W. Clapp, An Environmental History of Britain Since the Industrial Revolution (London and New York: Longman, 1994), esp. 13-69.
23. British acts containing anti-smoke provisions included 1 & 2 Geo. IV c. 41, 16 & 17 Vict. c. 128, 29 & 30 Vict. c. 90, and 38 & 39 Vict. c. 55. But legislation did nothing to restrict smoke from household sources until passage of the Clean Air Act in 1956. See Eric Ashby and Mary Anderson, The Politics of Clean Air, Monographs on Science, Technology, and Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), esp. 4-6, 17; Howard A. Scarrow, "The Impact of British Domestic Air Pollution Legislation," British Journal of Political Science 2 (1972): 261-82; and B. W. Clapp, An Environmental History of Britain Since the Industrial Revolution (London and New York: Longman, 1994), esp. 13-69.
24. Augustus A. Straub, "Some Engineering Phases of Pittsburgh's Smoke Problem," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 8 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1914), 12. See also Robert Dale Grinder, "From Insurgency to Efficiency: The Smoke Abatement Campaign in Pittsburgh Before World War I," Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine 61 (1978): 187-202; Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Convention of the International Association for the Prevention of Smoke (Cincinnati: n.p., 1915), 36; and Richard Macrory, "The Legal Control of Pollution," in Pollution: Causes, Effects, and Control, 2d ed., ed. Roy M. Harrison (Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 1990), 287-88.
25. Augustus A. Straub, "Some Engineering Phases of Pittsburgh's Smoke Problem," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 8 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1914), 12. See also Robert Dale Grinder, "From Insurgency to Efficiency: The Smoke Abatement Campaign in Pittsburgh Before World War I," Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine 61 (1978): 187-202; Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Convention of the International Association for the Prevention of Smoke (Cincinnati: n.p., 1915), 36; and Richard Macrory, "The Legal Control of Pollution," in Pollution: Causes, Effects, and Control, 2d ed., ed. Roy M. Harrison (Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 1990), 287-88.
26. Augustus A. Straub, "Some Engineering Phases of Pittsburgh's Smoke Problem," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 8 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1914), 12. See also Robert Dale Grinder, "From Insurgency to Efficiency: The Smoke Abatement Campaign in Pittsburgh Before World War I," Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine 61 (1978): 187-202; Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Convention of the International Association for the Prevention of Smoke (Cincinnati: n.p., 1915), 36; and Richard Macrory, "The Legal Control of Pollution," in Pollution: Causes, Effects, and Control, 2d ed., ed. Roy M. Harrison (Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 1990), 287-88.
27. Augustus A. Straub, "Some Engineering Phases of Pittsburgh's Smoke Problem," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 8 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1914), 12. See also Robert Dale Grinder, "From Insurgency to Efficiency: The Smoke Abatement Campaign in Pittsburgh Before World War I," Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine 61 (1978): 187-202; Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Convention of the International Association for the Prevention of Smoke (Cincinnati: n.p., 1915), 36; and Richard Macrory, "The Legal Control of Pollution," in Pollution: Causes, Effects, and Control, 2d ed., ed. Roy M. Harrison (Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 1990), 287-88.
28. Rollo Russell, London Fogs (London: Edward Stanford, 1880), 6; Parton, "Pittsburgh," 21; Eric Stuart Bruce, "Town Fogs: Their Amelioration and Prevention," Dublin Review 114 (1894): 132-34, esp. 138; Cleveland Press, 6 January 1905; and R. C. Benner, "Papers on the Effect of Smoke on Building Materials," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 6 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1913). On smoke's health effects, see "Advantages of Fogs," Lancet, 25 June 1892, 1433; Oskar Klotz and William Charles White, eds., "Papers on the Influence of Smoke on Health," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 9 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1914); G. Melvyn Howe, Man, Environment, and Disease in Britain: A Medical Geography of Britain Through the Ages (New York: Harper and Row; Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1972), esp. 192; and Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), 205-32. The word smog appears to have been coined in 1905 by Dr. H. A. Des Voeux, the honorary treasurer of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society. See Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., s.v. "smog."
29. Rollo Russell, London Fogs (London: Edward Stanford, 1880), 6; Parton, "Pittsburgh," 21; Eric Stuart Bruce, "Town Fogs: Their Amelioration and Prevention," Dublin Review 114 (1894): 132-34, esp. 138; Cleveland Press, 6 January 1905; and R. C. Benner, "Papers on the Effect of Smoke on Building Materials," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 6 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1913). On smoke's health effects, see "Advantages of Fogs," Lancet, 25 June 1892, 1433; Oskar Klotz and William Charles White, eds., "Papers on the Influence of Smoke on Health," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 9 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1914); G. Melvyn Howe, Man, Environment, and Disease in Britain: A Medical Geography of Britain Through the Ages (New York: Harper and Row; Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1972), esp. 192; and Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), 205-32. The word smog appears to have been coined in 1905 by Dr. H. A. Des Voeux, the honorary treasurer of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society. See Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., s.v. "smog."
30. Rollo Russell, London Fogs (London: Edward Stanford, 1880), 6; Parton, "Pittsburgh," 21; Eric Stuart Bruce, "Town Fogs: Their Amelioration and Prevention," Dublin Review 114 (1894): 132-34, esp. 138; Cleveland Press, 6 January 1905; and R. C. Benner, "Papers on the Effect of Smoke on Building Materials," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 6 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1913). On smoke's health effects, see "Advantages of Fogs," Lancet, 25 June 1892, 1433; Oskar Klotz and William Charles White, eds., "Papers on the Influence of Smoke on Health," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 9 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1914); G. Melvyn Howe, Man, Environment, and Disease in Britain: A Medical Geography of Britain Through the Ages (New York: Harper and Row; Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1972), esp. 192; and Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), 205-32. The word smog appears to have been coined in 1905 by Dr. H. A. Des Voeux, the honorary treasurer of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society. See Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., s.v. "smog."
31. Rollo Russell, London Fogs (London: Edward Stanford, 1880), 6; Parton, "Pittsburgh," 21; Eric Stuart Bruce, "Town Fogs: Their Amelioration and Prevention," Dublin Review 114 (1894): 132-34, esp. 138; Cleveland Press, 6 January 1905; and R. C. Benner, "Papers on the Effect of Smoke on Building Materials," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 6 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1913). On smoke's health effects, see "Advantages of Fogs," Lancet, 25 June 1892, 1433; Oskar Klotz and William Charles White, eds., "Papers on the Influence of Smoke on Health," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 9 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1914); G. Melvyn Howe, Man, Environment, and Disease in Britain: A Medical Geography of Britain Through the Ages (New York: Harper and Row; Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1972), esp. 192; and Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), 205-32. The word smog appears to have been coined in 1905 by Dr. H. A. Des Voeux, the honorary treasurer of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society. See Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., s.v. "smog."
32. Rollo Russell, London Fogs (London: Edward Stanford, 1880), 6; Parton, "Pittsburgh," 21; Eric Stuart Bruce, "Town Fogs: Their Amelioration and Prevention," Dublin Review 114 (1894): 132-34, esp. 138; Cleveland Press, 6 January 1905; and R. C. Benner, "Papers on the Effect of Smoke on Building Materials," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 6 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1913). On smoke's health effects, see "Advantages of Fogs," Lancet, 25 June 1892, 1433; Oskar Klotz and William Charles White, eds., "Papers on the Influence of Smoke on Health," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 9 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1914); G. Melvyn Howe, Man, Environment, and Disease in Britain: A Medical Geography of Britain Through the Ages (New York: Harper and Row; Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1972), esp. 192; and Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), 205-32. The word smog appears to have been coined in 1905 by Dr. H. A. Des Voeux, the honorary treasurer of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society. See Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., s.v. "smog."
33. Rollo Russell, London Fogs (London: Edward Stanford, 1880), 6; Parton, "Pittsburgh," 21; Eric Stuart Bruce, "Town Fogs: Their Amelioration and Prevention," Dublin Review 114 (1894): 132-34, esp. 138; Cleveland Press, 6 January 1905; and R. C. Benner, "Papers on the Effect of Smoke on Building Materials," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 6 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1913). On smoke's health effects, see "Advantages of Fogs," Lancet, 25 June 1892, 1433; Oskar Klotz and William Charles White, eds., "Papers on the Influence of Smoke on Health," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 9 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1914); G. Melvyn Howe, Man, Environment, and Disease in Britain: A Medical Geography of Britain Through the Ages (New York: Harper and Row; Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1972), esp. 192; and Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), 205-32. The word smog appears to have been coined in 1905 by Dr. H. A. Des Voeux, the honorary treasurer of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society. See Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., s.v. "smog."
34. Rollo Russell, London Fogs (London: Edward Stanford, 1880), 6; Parton, "Pittsburgh," 21; Eric Stuart Bruce, "Town Fogs: Their Amelioration and Prevention," Dublin Review 114 (1894): 132-34, esp. 138; Cleveland Press, 6 January 1905; and R. C. Benner, "Papers on the Effect of Smoke on Building Materials," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 6 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1913). On smoke's health effects, see "Advantages of Fogs," Lancet, 25 June 1892, 1433; Oskar Klotz and William Charles White, eds., "Papers on the Influence of Smoke on Health," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 9 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1914); G. Melvyn Howe, Man, Environment, and Disease in Britain: A Medical Geography of Britain Through the Ages (New York: Harper and Row; Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1972), esp. 192; and Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), 205-32. The word smog appears to have been coined in 1905 by Dr. H. A. Des Voeux, the honorary treasurer of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society. See Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., s.v. "smog."
35. Rollo Russell, London Fogs (London: Edward Stanford, 1880), 6; Parton, "Pittsburgh," 21; Eric Stuart Bruce, "Town Fogs: Their Amelioration and Prevention," Dublin Review 114 (1894): 132-34, esp. 138; Cleveland Press, 6 January 1905; and R. C. Benner, "Papers on the Effect of Smoke on Building Materials," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 6 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1913). On smoke's health effects, see "Advantages of Fogs," Lancet, 25 June 1892, 1433; Oskar Klotz and William Charles White, eds., "Papers on the Influence of Smoke on Health," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 9 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1914); G. Melvyn Howe, Man, Environment, and Disease in Britain: A Medical Geography of Britain Through the Ages (New York: Harper and Row; Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1972), esp. 192; and Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), 205-32. The word smog appears to have been coined in 1905 by Dr. H. A. Des Voeux, the honorary treasurer of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society. See Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., s.v. "smog."
36. Rollo Russell, London Fogs (London: Edward Stanford, 1880), 6; Parton, "Pittsburgh," 21; Eric Stuart Bruce, "Town Fogs: Their Amelioration and Prevention," Dublin Review 114 (1894): 132-34, esp. 138; Cleveland Press, 6 January 1905; and R. C. Benner, "Papers on the Effect of Smoke on Building Materials," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 6 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1913). On smoke's health effects, see "Advantages of Fogs," Lancet, 25 June 1892, 1433; Oskar Klotz and William Charles White, eds., "Papers on the Influence of Smoke on Health," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 9 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1914); G. Melvyn Howe, Man, Environment, and Disease in Britain: A Medical Geography of Britain Through the Ages (New York: Harper and Row; Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1972), esp. 192; and Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), 205-32. The word smog appears to have been coined in 1905 by Dr. H. A. Des Voeux, the honorary treasurer of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society. See Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., s.v. "smog."
37. Rollo Russell, London Fogs (London: Edward Stanford, 1880), 6; Parton, "Pittsburgh," 21; Eric Stuart Bruce, "Town Fogs: Their Amelioration and Prevention," Dublin Review 114 (1894): 132-34, esp. 138; Cleveland Press, 6 January 1905; and R. C. Benner, "Papers on the Effect of Smoke on Building Materials," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 6 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1913). On smoke's health effects, see "Advantages of Fogs," Lancet, 25 June 1892, 1433; Oskar Klotz and William Charles White, eds., "Papers on the Influence of Smoke on Health," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 9 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1914); G. Melvyn Howe, Man, Environment, and Disease in Britain: A Medical Geography of Britain Through the Ages (New York: Harper and Row; Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1972), esp. 192; and Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), 205-32. The word smog appears to have been coined in 1905 by Dr. H. A. Des Voeux, the honorary treasurer of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society. See Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., s.v. "smog."
38. See T. E. C. Leslie, "The Known and the Unknown in the Economic World," Fortnightly Review 31 (1879): 934-49, esp. 934; and Lancet Analytical Sanitary Commission, "Report on Perfect Combustion and Smoke Prevention," Lancet, 21 March 1891, 682-85, esp. 682.
39. See T. E. C. Leslie, "The Known and the Unknown in the Economic World," Fortnightly Review 31 (1879): 934-49, esp. 934; and Lancet Analytical Sanitary Commission, "Report on Perfect Combustion and Smoke Prevention," Lancet, 21 March 1891, 682-85, esp. 682.
40. Samuel Hays makes this argument specifically about conservationists. Unfortunately, Hays's paradigm-setting work on progressive environmental activism all but ignores urban reform. Hays grounds conservationism in the Western concern for water reclamation and fails to suggest implications of scientific management of resources for urban environments. See Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959). See also Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967); Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1955); and Martin Melosi, ed., Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980).
41. Samuel Hays makes this argument specifically about conservationists. Unfortunately, Hays's paradigm-setting work on progressive environmental activism all but ignores urban reform. Hays grounds conservationism in the Western concern for water reclamation and fails to suggest implications of scientific management of resources for urban environments. See Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959). See also Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967); Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1955); and Martin Melosi, ed., Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980).
42. Samuel Hays makes this argument specifically about conservationists. Unfortunately, Hays's paradigm-setting work on progressive environmental activism all but ignores urban reform. Hays grounds conservationism in the Western concern for water reclamation and fails to suggest implications of scientific management of resources for urban environments. See Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959). See also Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967); Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1955); and Martin Melosi, ed., Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980).
43. Samuel Hays makes this argument specifically about conservationists. Unfortunately, Hays's paradigm-setting work on progressive environmental activism all but ignores urban reform. Hays grounds conservationism in the Western concern for water reclamation and fails to suggest implications of scientific management of resources for urban environments. See Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959). See also Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967); Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1955); and Martin Melosi, ed., Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980).
44. Illustrated London News, 3 January 1880, 2; R. C. Mossman, "The Non-Instrumental Meteorology of London, 1713-1896," Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 23 (1897): 287-304, esp. 290; and W. C., "A London Fog," Chambers's Journal, 4 December 1880, 769.
45. Illustrated London News, 3 January 1880, 2; R. C. Mossman, "The Non-Instrumental Meteorology of London, 1713-1896," Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 23 (1897): 287-304, esp. 290; and W. C., "A London Fog," Chambers's Journal, 4 December 1880, 769.
46. Illustrated London News, 3 January 1880, 2; R. C. Mossman, "The Non-Instrumental Meteorology of London, 1713-1896," Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 23 (1897): 287-304, esp. 290; and W. C., "A London Fog," Chambers's Journal, 4 December 1880, 769.
47. Hart's group also worked to raise money to "pay for a few weeks' country air for the little children of our overcrowded London courts." National Health Society, Seventh Annual Report (1880), British Library, 3, 13. On the Fog and Smoke Committee's early activities, see "Smoke-Abatement Exhibition," Nature 25 (8 December 1881): 121-22; and W. F. Pollock, "Smoke Prevention," Nineteenth Century 9 (1881): 473-90, esp. 483.
48. Hart's group also worked to raise money to "pay for a few weeks' country air for the little children of our overcrowded London courts." National Health Society, Seventh Annual Report (1880), British Library, 3, 13. On the Fog and Smoke Committee's early activities, see "Smoke-Abatement Exhibition," Nature 25 (8 December 1881): 121-22; and W. F. Pollock, "Smoke Prevention," Nineteenth Century 9 (1881): 473-90, esp. 483.
49. Hart's group also worked to raise money to "pay for a few weeks' country air for the little children of our overcrowded London courts." National Health Society, Seventh Annual Report (1880), British Library, 3, 13. On the Fog and Smoke Committee's early activities, see "Smoke-Abatement Exhibition," Nature 25 (8 December 1881): 121-22; and W. F. Pollock, "Smoke Prevention," Nineteenth Century 9 (1881): 473-90, esp. 483.
50. Robert Martin, "Sanitary' Progress and Its Obstacles in Manchester," paper presented on 14 April 1875, Transactions of the Manchester Statistical Society (Session 1874-1875): 87-98, esp. 93; J. Milner Fothergill, The Town Dweller: His Needs and His Wants, intro. B. W. Richardson (1889), reprinted in Lynn Hollen Lees and Andrew Lees eds., The Rise of Urban Britain: A Collection of Thirty-five Important Titles Documenting This Major Transformation and the Responses to It (New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1985), 31; Louis C. Parkes, "The Air and Water of London: Are They Deteriorating?" Transactions of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain 13 (1892): 59-69, esp. 62. On the American use of "lungs of the city," see David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 59-60. On British concerns about the effects of the natural environment on health, see Christopher Hamlin, "Providence and Putrefaction: Victorian Sanitarians and the Natural Theology of Health and Disease," Victorian Studies 28 (1985): 381-411; H. L. Malchow, "Public Gardens and Social Action in Late Victorian London," Victorian Studies 29 (1985): 97-124; and John Ranlett, "'Checking Nature's Desecration': Late-Victorian Environmental Organization," Victorian Studies 26 (1983): 197-222.
51. Robert Martin, "Sanitary' Progress and Its Obstacles in Manchester," paper presented on 14 April 1875, Transactions of the Manchester Statistical Society (Session 1874-1875): 87-98, esp. 93; J. Milner Fothergill, The Town Dweller: His Needs and His Wants, intro. B. W. Richardson (1889), reprinted in Lynn Hollen Lees and Andrew Lees eds., The Rise of Urban Britain: A Collection of Thirty-five Important Titles Documenting This Major Transformation and the Responses to It (New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1985), 31; Louis C. Parkes, "The Air and Water of London: Are They Deteriorating?" Transactions of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain 13 (1892): 59-69, esp. 62. On the American use of "lungs of the city," see David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 59-60. On British concerns about the effects of the natural environment on health, see Christopher Hamlin, "Providence and Putrefaction: Victorian Sanitarians and the Natural Theology of Health and Disease," Victorian Studies 28 (1985): 381-411; H. L. Malchow, "Public Gardens and Social Action in Late Victorian London," Victorian Studies 29 (1985): 97-124; and John Ranlett, "'Checking Nature's Desecration': Late-Victorian Environmental Organization," Victorian Studies 26 (1983): 197-222.
52. Robert Martin, "Sanitary' Progress and Its Obstacles in Manchester," paper presented on 14 April 1875, Transactions of the Manchester Statistical Society (Session 1874-1875): 87-98, esp. 93; J. Milner Fothergill, The Town Dweller: His Needs and His Wants, intro. B. W. Richardson (1889), reprinted in Lynn Hollen Lees and Andrew Lees eds., The Rise of Urban Britain: A Collection of Thirty-five Important Titles Documenting This Major Transformation and the Responses to It (New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1985), 31; Louis C. Parkes, "The Air and Water of London: Are They Deteriorating?" Transactions of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain 13 (1892): 59-69, esp. 62. On the American use of "lungs of the city," see David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 59-60. On British concerns about the effects of the natural environment on health, see Christopher Hamlin, "Providence and Putrefaction: Victorian Sanitarians and the Natural Theology of Health and Disease," Victorian Studies 28 (1985): 381-411; H. L. Malchow, "Public Gardens and Social Action in Late Victorian London," Victorian Studies 29 (1985): 97-124; and John Ranlett, "'Checking Nature's Desecration': Late-Victorian Environmental Organization," Victorian Studies 26 (1983): 197-222.
53. Robert Martin, "Sanitary' Progress and Its Obstacles in Manchester," paper presented on 14 April 1875, Transactions of the Manchester Statistical Society (Session 1874-1875): 87-98, esp. 93; J. Milner Fothergill, The Town Dweller: His Needs and His Wants, intro. B. W. Richardson (1889), reprinted in Lynn Hollen Lees and Andrew Lees eds., The Rise of Urban Britain: A Collection of Thirty-five Important Titles Documenting This Major Transformation and the Responses to It (New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1985), 31; Louis C. Parkes, "The Air and Water of London: Are They Deteriorating?" Transactions of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain 13 (1892): 59-69, esp. 62. On the American use of "lungs of the city," see David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 59-60. On British concerns about the effects of the natural environment on health, see Christopher Hamlin, "Providence and Putrefaction: Victorian Sanitarians and the Natural Theology of Health and Disease," Victorian Studies 28 (1985): 381-411; H. L. Malchow, "Public Gardens and Social Action in Late Victorian London," Victorian Studies 29 (1985): 97-124; and John Ranlett, "'Checking Nature's Desecration': Late-Victorian Environmental Organization," Victorian Studies 26 (1983): 197-222.
54. Robert Martin, "Sanitary' Progress and Its Obstacles in Manchester," paper presented on 14 April 1875, Transactions of the Manchester Statistical Society (Session 1874-1875): 87-98, esp. 93; J. Milner Fothergill, The Town Dweller: His Needs and His Wants, intro. B. W. Richardson (1889), reprinted in Lynn Hollen Lees and Andrew Lees eds., The Rise of Urban Britain: A Collection of Thirty-five Important Titles Documenting This Major Transformation and the Responses to It (New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1985), 31; Louis C. Parkes, "The Air and Water of London: Are They Deteriorating?" Transactions of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain 13 (1892): 59-69, esp. 62. On the American use of "lungs of the city," see David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 59-60. On British concerns about the effects of the natural environment on health, see Christopher Hamlin, "Providence and Putrefaction: Victorian Sanitarians and the Natural Theology of Health and Disease," Victorian Studies 28 (1985): 381-411; H. L. Malchow, "Public Gardens and Social Action in Late Victorian London," Victorian Studies 29 (1985): 97-124; and John Ranlett, "'Checking Nature's Desecration': Late-Victorian Environmental Organization," Victorian Studies 26 (1983): 197-222.
55. Robert Martin, "Sanitary' Progress and Its Obstacles in Manchester," paper presented on 14 April 1875, Transactions of the Manchester Statistical Society (Session 1874-1875): 87-98, esp. 93; J. Milner Fothergill, The Town Dweller: His Needs and His Wants, intro. B. W. Richardson (1889), reprinted in Lynn Hollen Lees and Andrew Lees eds., The Rise of Urban Britain: A Collection of Thirty-five Important Titles Documenting This Major Transformation and the Responses to It (New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1985), 31; Louis C. Parkes, "The Air and Water of London: Are They Deteriorating?" Transactions of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain 13 (1892): 59-69, esp. 62. On the American use of "lungs of the city," see David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 59-60. On British concerns about the effects of the natural environment on health, see Christopher Hamlin, "Providence and Putrefaction: Victorian Sanitarians and the Natural Theology of Health and Disease," Victorian Studies 28 (1985): 381-411; H. L. Malchow, "Public Gardens and Social Action in Late Victorian London," Victorian Studies 29 (1985): 97-124; and John Ranlett, "'Checking Nature's Desecration': Late-Victorian Environmental Organization," Victorian Studies 26 (1983): 197-222.
56. Robert Martin, "Sanitary' Progress and Its Obstacles in Manchester," paper presented on 14 April 1875, Transactions of the Manchester Statistical Society (Session 1874-1875): 87-98, esp. 93; J. Milner Fothergill, The Town Dweller: His Needs and His Wants, intro. B. W. Richardson (1889), reprinted in Lynn Hollen Lees and Andrew Lees eds., The Rise of Urban Britain: A Collection of Thirty-five Important Titles Documenting This Major Transformation and the Responses to It (New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1985), 31; Louis C. Parkes, "The Air and Water of London: Are They Deteriorating?" Transactions of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain 13 (1892): 59-69, esp. 62. On the American use of "lungs of the city," see David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 59-60. On British concerns about the effects of the natural environment on health, see Christopher Hamlin, "Providence and Putrefaction: Victorian Sanitarians and the Natural Theology of Health and Disease," Victorian Studies 28 (1985): 381-411; H. L. Malchow, "Public Gardens and Social Action in Late Victorian London," Victorian Studies 29 (1985): 97-124; and John Ranlett, "'Checking Nature's Desecration': Late-Victorian Environmental Organization," Victorian Studies 26 (1983): 197-222.
57. Robert Martin, "Sanitary' Progress and Its Obstacles in Manchester," paper presented on 14 April 1875, Transactions of the Manchester Statistical Society (Session 1874-1875): 87-98, esp. 93; J. Milner Fothergill, The Town Dweller: His Needs and His Wants, intro. B. W. Richardson (1889), reprinted in Lynn Hollen Lees and Andrew Lees eds., The Rise of Urban Britain: A Collection of Thirty-five Important Titles Documenting This Major Transformation and the Responses to It (New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1985), 31; Louis C. Parkes, "The Air and Water of London: Are They Deteriorating?" Transactions of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain 13 (1892): 59-69, esp. 62. On the American use of "lungs of the city," see David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 59-60. On British concerns about the effects of the natural environment on health, see Christopher Hamlin, "Providence and Putrefaction: Victorian Sanitarians and the Natural Theology of Health and Disease," Victorian Studies 28 (1985): 381-411; H. L. Malchow, "Public Gardens and Social Action in Late Victorian London," Victorian Studies 29 (1985): 97-124; and John Ranlett, "'Checking Nature's Desecration': Late-Victorian Environmental Organization," Victorian Studies 26 (1983): 197-222.
58. For a discussion of links between environmental and social order, see Roger Cooter, "The Power of the Body: The Early Nineteenth Century," in Natural Order: Historical Studies of Scientific Culture, ed. Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (Beverly Hills and London: Sage, 1979), 73-92; and Bill Luckin, Pollution and Control: A Social History of the Thames in the Nineteenth Century (Bristol: Adam Hilger, 1986), esp. 20-30.
59. For a discussion of links between environmental and social order, see Roger Cooter, "The Power of the Body: The Early Nineteenth Century," in Natural Order: Historical Studies of Scientific Culture, ed. Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (Beverly Hills and London: Sage, 1979), 73-92; and Bill Luckin, Pollution and Control: A Social History of the Thames in the Nineteenth Century (Bristol: Adam Hilger, 1986), esp. 20-30.
60. Coles, "Smoke Abatement," 336.
61. "The Smoke Abatement Exhibition," Nature 25 (5 January 1882): 219-21; Times (London), 9 December 1881; John Ranlett, "The Smoke Abatement Exhibition of 1881," History Today 31 (November 1981): 10-13; and P. A. Ryan, "Public Health and Voluntary Effort in Nineteenth Century Manchester, with Particular Reference to the Manchester and Salford Sanitary Association," (master's thesis, University of Manchester, [1974]).
62. "The Smoke Abatement Exhibition," Nature 25 (5 January 1882): 219-21; Times (London), 9 December 1881; John Ranlett, "The Smoke Abatement Exhibition of 1881," History Today 31 (November 1981): 10-13; and P. A. Ryan, "Public Health and Voluntary Effort in Nineteenth Century Manchester, with Particular Reference to the Manchester and Salford Sanitary Association," (master's thesis, University of Manchester, [1974]).
63. "The Smoke Abatement Exhibition," Nature 25 (5 January 1882): 219-21; Times (London), 9 December 1881; John Ranlett, "The Smoke Abatement Exhibition of 1881," History Today 31 (November 1981): 10-13; and P. A. Ryan, "Public Health and Voluntary Effort in Nineteenth Century Manchester, with Particular Reference to the Manchester and Salford Sanitary Association," (master's thesis, University of Manchester, [1974]).
64. "The Smoke Abatement Exhibition," Nature 25 (5 January 1882): 219-21; Times (London), 9 December 1881; John Ranlett, "The Smoke Abatement Exhibition of 1881," History Today 31 (November 1981): 10-13; and P. A. Ryan, "Public Health and Voluntary Effort in Nineteenth Century Manchester, with Particular Reference to the Manchester and Salford Sanitary Association," (master's thesis, University of Manchester, [1974]).
65. Report of the Smoke Abatement Committee, 1882 (London: Smith Elder and Co., 1883), 143; and W. C., "London Fog," 770-71.
66. Report of the Smoke Abatement Committee, 1882 (London: Smith Elder and Co., 1883), 143; and W. C., "London Fog," 770-71.
67. Galton was president of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain in 1882. Douglas Galton, "On Some Preventible Causes of Impurity in London Air," paper presented to the Sanitary Institute, 8 July 1880, British Library, 6.
68. National Smoke Abatement Institution, Smoke Abatement, 13; "The Fog in Parliament," Lancet, 5 January 1889, 35; Ashby and Anderson, Politics of Clean Air, 60-63.
69. National Smoke Abatement Institution, Smoke Abatement, 13; "The Fog in Parliament," Lancet, 5 January 1889, 35; Ashby and Anderson, Politics of Clean Air, 60-63.
70. National Smoke Abatement Institution, Smoke Abatement, 13; "The Fog in Parliament," Lancet, 5 January 1889, 35; Ashby and Anderson, Politics of Clean Air, 60-63.
71. "Life and Talk in London: Political, Social, and Literary Affairs," New York Times, 16 February 1880.
72. New York Times, 29 December 1889; see also 3 January 1892.
73. U.S. Senate, Report from the Secretary of State, and its Accompanying Papers, Concerning the Smoke Abatement Exhibition Which was Held at South Kensington, London Last Winter, 47th Cong., 1st sess., 1882, Ex. Doc. 183, 1-5; Journal of the Western Society of Engineers 11 (1906): 731. The British also expressed interest in the American effort to follow British activities. To emphasize the importance of the work in which they were engaged, the National Smoke Abatement Institution's 1884 report boasted that "the United States Government, who sent a special Commissioner to the Smoke Abatement Exhibition, and printed his report as a State document, have recently applied for additional copies of the reports and publications of the Institution." National Smoke Abatement Institution, Smoke Abatement: Report of Council, 16 July 1884, British Library, 10.
74. U.S. Senate, Report from the Secretary of State, and its Accompanying Papers, Concerning the Smoke Abatement Exhibition Which was Held at South Kensington, London Last Winter, 47th Cong., 1st sess., 1882, Ex. Doc. 183, 1-5; Journal of the Western Society of Engineers 11 (1906): 731. The British also expressed interest in the American effort to follow British activities. To emphasize the importance of the work in which they were engaged, the National Smoke Abatement Institution's 1884 report boasted that "the United States Government, who sent a special Commissioner to the Smoke Abatement Exhibition, and printed his report as a State document, have recently applied for additional copies of the reports and publications of the Institution." National Smoke Abatement Institution, Smoke Abatement: Report of Council, 16 July 1884, British Library, 10.
75. U.S. Senate, Report from the Secretary of State, and its Accompanying Papers, Concerning the Smoke Abatement Exhibition Which was Held at South Kensington, London Last Winter, 47th Cong., 1st sess., 1882, Ex. Doc. 183, 1-5; Journal of the Western Society of Engineers 11 (1906): 731. The British also expressed interest in the American effort to follow British activities. To emphasize the importance of the work in which they were engaged, the National Smoke Abatement Institution's 1884 report boasted that "the United States Government, who sent a special Commissioner to the Smoke Abatement Exhibition, and printed his report as a State document, have recently applied for additional copies of the reports and publications of the Institution." National Smoke Abatement Institution, Smoke Abatement: Report of Council, 16 July 1884, British Library, 10.
76. For a fuller discussion of the smoke abatement movement in the United States, see David Stradling, Smokestacks and Progressives: Environmentalists, Engineers, and Air Quality, 1881-1951 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming). See also the groundbreaking essays of Joel A. Tarr, now collected in one volume, The Search for the Ultimate Sink: Urban Pollution in Historical Perspective (Akron, Ohio: University of Akron Press, 1996); and Joel A. Tarr and Carl A. Zimring, "The Struggle for Smoke Control in St. Louis," in Common Fields: An Environmental History of St. Louis, ed. Andrew Hurley (St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society Press, 1997), 199-220.
77. For a fuller discussion of the smoke abatement movement in the United States, see David Stradling, Smokestacks and Progressives: Environmentalists, Engineers, and Air Quality, 1881-1951 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming). See also the groundbreaking essays of Joel A. Tarr, now collected in one volume, The Search for the Ultimate Sink: Urban Pollution in Historical Perspective (Akron, Ohio: University of Akron Press, 1996); and Joel A. Tarr and Carl A. Zimring, "The Struggle for Smoke Control in St. Louis," in Common Fields: An Environmental History of St. Louis, ed. Andrew Hurley (St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society Press, 1997), 199-220.
78. For a fuller discussion of the smoke abatement movement in the United States, see David Stradling, Smokestacks and Progressives: Environmentalists, Engineers, and Air Quality, 1881-1951 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming). See also the groundbreaking essays of Joel A. Tarr, now collected in one volume, The Search for the Ultimate Sink: Urban Pollution in Historical Perspective (Akron, Ohio: University of Akron Press, 1996); and Joel
79. Proceedings of the Engineers' Society of Western Pennsylvania 8 (1892): 31, 44-46. See also Grinder, "From Insurgency to Efficiency."
80. Proceedings of the Engineers' Society of Western Pennsylvania 8 (1892): 31, 44-46. See also Grinder, "From Insurgency to Efficiency."
81. "Smoke Prevention: Report of the Special Committee on Prevention of Smoke, Presented to Engineers' Club of St. Louis," Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies 11 (1892): 322-23; "To Stop the Smoke," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 22 January 1893; Cannon, Smoke Abatement, 212.
82. "Smoke Prevention: Report of the Special Committee on Prevention of Smoke, Presented to Engineers' Club of St. Louis," Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies 11 (1892): 322-23; "To Stop the Smoke," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 22 January 1893; Cannon, Smoke Abatement, 212.
83. "Smoke Prevention: Report of the Special Committee on Prevention of Smoke, Presented to Engineers' Club of St. Louis," Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies 11 (1892): 322-23; "To Stop the Smoke," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 22 January 1893; Cannon, Smoke Abatement, 212.
84. Industrial World 41, pt. 2 (1907): 860-61 [indicated as X and XI in the volume]; Elroy McKendree Avery, A History of Cleveland and its Environs, vol. 1 (Chicago: Lewis Publishing Company, 1918), 467. Quotation is from an undated and untitled speech which begins, "My Dear Friends," and probably dates from 1897 or 1898. Charles Fayette Olney Papers, Oberlin College Archives. Some Chicago residents also crusaded against coal smoke largely on aesthetic grounds, but with a narrow goal. In 1891, several civic-minded business elites formed the Society for the Prevention of Smoke and began a campaign designed to protect the White City of the World's Fair from Chicago's dense smoke and soot, and not coincidentally, to protect their investments in the fair. The Society lasted only until 1893, just long enough to see the White City become the model for the clean, planned, healthful city of the future. See Christine Meisner Rosen, "Businessmen Against Pollution in Late Nineteenth Century Chicago," Business Histion Review 69 (1995): 351-97; William F. M. Goss, Smoke Abatement and Electrification of Railway Terminals in Chicago (Chicago: Chicago Association of Commerce, 1915), 82-96; and Charles Zueblin, "The White City' and After," Chautauquan 38 (1903): 373-84.
85. Industrial World 41, pt. 2 (1907): 860-61 [indicated as X and XI in the volume]; Elroy McKendree Avery, A History of Cleveland and its Environs, vol. 1 (Chicago: Lewis Publishing Company, 1918), 467. Quotation is from an undated and untitled speech which begins, "My Dear Friends," and probably dates from 1897 or 1898. Charles Fayette Olney Papers, Oberlin College Archives. Some Chicago residents also crusaded against coal smoke largely on aesthetic grounds, but with a narrow goal. In 1891, several civic-minded business elites formed the Society for the Prevention of Smoke and began a campaign designed to protect the White City of the World's Fair from Chicago's dense smoke and soot, and not coincidentally, to protect their investments in the fair. The Society lasted only until 1893, just long enough to see the White City become the model for the clean, planned, healthful city of the future. See Christine Meisner Rosen, "Businessmen Against Pollution in Late Nineteenth Century Chicago," Business Histion Review 69 (1995): 351-97; William F. M. Goss, Smoke Abatement and Electrification of Railway Terminals in Chicago (Chicago: Chicago Association of Commerce, 1915), 82-96; and Charles Zueblin, "The White City' and After," Chautauquan 38 (1903): 373-84.
86. Industrial World 41, pt. 2 (1907): 860-61 [indicated as X and XI in the volume]; Elroy McKendree Avery, A History of Cleveland and its Environs, vol. 1 (Chicago: Lewis Publishing Company, 1918), 467. Quotation is from an undated and untitled speech which begins, "My Dear Friends," and probably dates from 1897 or 1898. Charles Fayette Olney Papers, Oberlin College Archives. Some Chicago residents also crusaded against coal smoke largely on aesthetic grounds, but with a narrow goal. In 1891, several civic-minded business elites formed the Society for the Prevention of Smoke and began a campaign designed to protect the White City of the World's Fair from Chicago's dense smoke and soot, and not coincidentally, to protect their investments in the fair. The Society lasted only until 1893, just long enough to see the White City become the model for the clean, planned, healthful city of the future. See Christine Meisner Rosen, "Businessmen Against Pollution in Late Nineteenth Century Chicago," Business Histion Review 69 (1995): 351-97; William F. M. Goss, Smoke Abatement and Electrification of Railway Terminals in Chicago (Chicago: Chicago Association of Commerce, 1915), 82-96; and Charles Zueblin, "The White City' and After," Chautauquan 38 (1903): 373-84.
87. Industrial World 41, pt. 2 (1907): 860-61 [indicated as X and XI in the volume]; Elroy McKendree Avery, A History of Cleveland and its Environs, vol. 1 (Chicago: Lewis Publishing Company, 1918), 467. Quotation is from an undated and untitled speech which begins, "My Dear Friends," and probably dates from 1897 or 1898. Charles Fayette Olney Papers, Oberlin College Archives. Some Chicago residents also crusaded against coal smoke largely on aesthetic grounds, but with a narrow goal. In 1891, several civic-minded business elites formed the Society for the Prevention of Smoke and began a campaign designed to protect the White City of the World's Fair from Chicago's dense smoke and soot, and not coincidentally, to protect their investments in the fair. The Society lasted only until 1893, just long enough to see the White City become the model for the clean, planned, healthful city of the future. See Christine Meisner Rosen, "Businessmen Against Pollution in Late Nineteenth Century Chicago," Business Histion Review 69 (1995): 351-97; William F. M. Goss, Smoke Abatement and Electrification of Railway Terminals in Chicago (Chicago: Chicago Association of Commerce, 1915), 82-96; and Charles Zueblin, "The White City' and After," Chautauquan 38 (1903): 373-84.
88. Industrial World 41, pt. 2 (1907): 860-61 [indicated as X and XI in the volume]; Elroy McKendree Avery, A History of Cleveland and its Environs, vol. 1 (Chicago: Lewis Publishing Company, 1918), 467. Quotation is from an undated and untitled speech which begins, "My Dear Friends," and probably dates from 1897 or 1898. Charles Fayette Olney Papers, Oberlin College Archives. Some Chicago residents also crusaded against coal smoke largely on aesthetic grounds, but with a narrow goal. In 1891, several civic-minded business elites formed the Society for the Prevention of Smoke and began a campaign designed to protect the White City of the World's Fair from Chicago's dense smoke and soot, and not coincidentally, to protect their investments in the fair. The Society lasted only until 1893, just long enough to see the White City become the model for the clean, planned, healthful city of the future. See Christine Meisner Rosen, "Businessmen Against Pollution in Late Nineteenth Century Chicago," Business Histion Review 69 (1995): 351-97; William F. M. Goss, Smoke Abatement and Electrification of Railway Terminals in Chicago (Chicago: Chicago Association of Commerce, 1915), 82-96; and Charles Zueblin, "The White City' and After," Chautauquan 38 (1903): 373-84.
89. Historians have called the linkage between environment and character "positive environmentalism." See Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), 220-51; and Stanley Schultz, Constructing Urban Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989), 112-14. See also R. Dale Grinder, "The Battle for Clean Air: The Smoke Problem in Post-Civil War America," in Melosi, Pollution and Reform, 83-103, esp. 86; and "The Smoke Nuisance," Sanitary News 18 (1891): 129.
90. Historians have called the linkage between environment and character "positive environmentalism." See Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), 220-51; and Stanley Schultz, Constructing Urban Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989), 112-14. See also R. Dale Grinder, "The Battle for Clean Air: The Smoke Problem in Post-Civil War America," in Melosi, Pollution and Reform, 83-103, esp. 86; and "The Smoke Nuisance," Sanitary News 18 (1891): 129.
91. Historians have called the linkage between environment and character "positive environmentalism." See Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), 220-51; and Stanley Schultz, Constructing Urban Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989), 112-14. See also R. Dale Grinder, "The Battle for Clean Air: The Smoke Problem in Post-Civil War America," in Melosi, Pollution and Reform, 83-103, esp. 86; and "The Smoke Nuisance," Sanitary News 18 (1891): 129.
92. Historians have called the linkage between environment and character "positive environmentalism." See Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), 220-51; and Stanley Schultz, Constructing Urban Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989), 112-14. See also R. Dale Grinder, "The Battle for Clean Air: The Smoke Problem in Post-Civil War America," in Melosi, Pollution and Reform, 83-103, esp. 86; and "The Smoke Nuisance," Sanitary News 18 (1891): 129.
93. In 1894, the Minneapolis Improvement League, a small group of middle-class women, began a crusade against smoke in their city. The city council unanimously passed a smoke ordinance the following year, but court challenges prevented prosecution of the law. By the time the state supreme court declared the law constitutional, city officials had apparently lost interest in the cause. More effective action in Minneapolis would wait more than a decade, just as it would in dozens of other American cities. Mrs. David F. Simpson to John O'Connor, [1916?], Smoke Activities Committee Manuscripts, Series 1, Folder 21, University of Pittsburgh.
94. Julius B. Cohen, "The Air of Towns," in Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, 1895 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1896), 349-87, esp. 351; and Rollo Russell, "The Atmosphere in Relation to Human Life and Health," in Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, 1895 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1896), 203-348, esp. 290-93.
95. Julius B. Cohen, "The Air of Towns," in Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, 1895 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1896), 349-87, esp. 351; and Rollo Russell, "The Atmosphere in Relation to Human Life and Health," in Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, 1895 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1896), 203-348, esp. 290-93.
96. George Brown Goode, ed., The Smithsonian Institution, 1846-1896: The History of Its First Half Century (Washington, D.C.: [Smithsonian Institution], 1897), 241-45, 623-26; Helen Waldo Burnside, "The Hodgkins Fund of the Smithsonian Institution," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 45 (1903): 168-74; Times (London), 26 April 1893.
97. George Brown Goode, ed., The Smithsonian Institution, 1846-1896: The History of Its First Half Century (Washington, D.C.: [Smithsonian Institution], 1897), 241-45, 623-26; Helen Waldo Burnside, "The Hodgkins Fund of the Smithsonian Institution," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 45 (1903): 168-74; Times (London), 26 April 1893.
98. George Brown Goode, ed., The Smithsonian Institution, 1846-1896: The History of Its First Half Century (Washington, D.C.: [Smithsonian Institution], 1897), 241-45, 623-26; Helen Waldo Burnside, "The Hodgkins Fund of the Smithsonian Institution," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 45 (1903): 168-74; Times (London), 26 April 1893.
99. J. Milner Fothergill stated this case in blunt terms in 1889, declaring that "town life is seen to have a malignant and sinister effect upon the physique." Fothergill described inhabitants of cities as "a doomed race" whose descendants would scarcely survive beyond a few generations without "infusions of new blood" from the countryside. Fothergill Town Dweller, 4, 16-17. Another article warned that if a dense fog lasted tor a week without interruption, food might be unable to reach the metropolis and a famine of "unutterable misery" would result. "The Reign of Darkness," Spectator 62 (19 January 1889): 85-86.
100. J. Milner Fothergill stated this case in blunt terms in 1889, declaring that "town life is seen to have a malignant and sinister effect upon the physique." Fothergill described inhabitants of cities as "a doomed race" whose descendants would scarcely survive beyond a few generations without "infusions of new blood" from the countryside. Fothergill Town Dweller, 4, 16-17. Another article warned that if a dense fog lasted tor a week without interruption, food might be unable to reach the metropolis and a famine of "unutterable misery" would result. "The Reign of Darkness," Spectator 62 (19 January 1889): 85-86.
101. Reginald Brabazon, "Decay of Bodily Strength in Towns," Nineteenth Century 21 (1887): 673-676 Over one-third of the military recruits who volunteered between 1893 and 1902 failed their induction physical exams. See Wohl, Endangered Lives, 332; George F. Shee, "The Deterioration in the National Physique," Nineteenth Century 53 (1903): 797-805, esp 797; and William Nicholson, Smoke Abatement: A Manual for the Use of Manufacturers, Inspectors, Medical Officers of Health, Engineers, and Others (London: Charles Griffin and Co., 1905), 2. On turn-of-the-century concerns linking biological and national decline, see Bernard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform: English Social-Imperial Thought, 1895-1914 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1960); G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1809-1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971); Bentley B. Gilbert "Health and Politics: The British Physical Deterioration Report of 1904," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 39 (1965): 143-53: Dorothy Porter, "'Enemies of the Race': Biologism Environmentalism, and Public Health in Edwardian England," Victorian Studies 34 (1991): 159-78; and F. H. A. Aalen, "Lord Meath, City Improvement, and Social Imperialism, Planning Perspectives 4 (1989): 127-52.
102. Reginald Brabazon, "Decay of Bodily Strength in Towns," Nineteenth Century 21 (1887): 673-676 Over one-third of the military recruits who volunteered between 1893 and 1902 failed their induction physical exams. See Wohl, Endangered Lives, 332; George F. Shee, "The Deterioration in the National Physique," Nineteenth Century 53 (1903): 797-805, esp 797; and William Nicholson, Smoke Abatement: A Manual for the Use of Manufacturers, Inspectors, Medical Officers of Health, Engineers, and Others (London: Charles Griffin and Co., 1905), 2. On turn-of-the-century concerns linking biological and national decline, see Bernard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform: English Social-Imperial Thought, 1895-1914 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1960); G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1809-1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971); Bentley B. Gilbert "Health and Politics: The British Physical Deterioration Report of 1904," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 39 (1965): 143-53: Dorothy Porter, "'Enemies of the Race': Biologism Environmentalism, and Public Health in Edwardian England," Victorian Studies 34 (1991): 159-78; and F. H. A. Aalen, "Lord Meath, City Improvement, and Social Imperialism, Planning Perspectives 4 (1989): 127-52.
103. Reginald Brabazon, "Decay of Bodily Strength in Towns," Nineteenth Century 21 (1887): 673-676 Over one-third of the military recruits who volunteered between 1893 and 1902 failed their induction physical exams. See Wohl, Endangered Lives, 332; George F. Shee, "The Deterioration in the National Physique," Nineteenth Century 53 (1903): 797-805, esp 797; and William Nicholson, Smoke Abatement: A Manual for the Use of Manufacturers, Inspectors, Medical Officers of Health, Engineers, and Others (London: Charles Griffin and Co., 1905), 2. On turn-of-the-century concerns linking biological and national decline, see Bernard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform: English Social-Imperial Thought, 1895-1914 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1960); G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1809-1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971); Bentley B. Gilbert "Health and Politics: The British Physical Deterioration Report of 1904," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 39 (1965): 143-53: Dorothy Porter, "'Enemies of the Race': Biologism Environmentalism, and Public Health in Edwardian England," Victorian Studies 34 (1991): 159-78; and F. H. A. Aalen, "Lord Meath, City Improvement, and Social Imperialism, Planning Perspectives 4 (1989): 127-52.
104. Reginald Brabazon, "Decay of Bodily Strength in Towns," Nineteenth Century 21 (1887): 673-676 Over one-third of the military recruits who volunteered between 1893 and 1902 failed their induction physical exams. See Wohl, Endangered Lives, 332; George F. Shee, "The Deterioration in the National Physique," Nineteenth Century 53 (1903): 797-805, esp 797; and William Nicholson, Smoke Abatement: A Manual for the Use of Manufacturers, Inspectors, Medical Officers of Health, Engineers, and Others (London: Charles Griffin and Co., 1905), 2. On turn-of-the-century concerns linking biological and national decline, see Bernard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform: English Social-Imperial Thought, 1895-1914 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1960); G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1809-1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971); Bentley B. Gilbert "Health and Politics: The British Physical Deterioration Report of 1904," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 39 (1965): 143-53: Dorothy Porter, "'Enemies of the Race': Biologism Environmentalism, and Public Health in Edwardian England," Victorian Studies 34 (1991): 159-78; and F. H. A. Aalen, "Lord Meath, City Improvement, and Social Imperialism, Planning Perspectives 4 (1989): 127-52.
105. Reginald Brabazon, "Decay of Bodily Strength in Towns," Nineteenth Century 21 (1887): 673-676 Over one-third of the military recruits who volunteered between 1893 and 1902 failed their induction physical exams. See Wohl, Endangered Lives, 332; George F. Shee, "The Deterioration in the National Physique," Nineteenth Century 53 (1903): 797-805, esp 797; and William Nicholson, Smoke Abatement: A Manual for the Use of Manufacturers, Inspectors, Medical Officers of Health, Engineers, and Others (London: Charles Griffin and Co., 1905), 2. On turn-of-the-century concerns linking biological and national decline, see Bernard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform: English Social-Imperial Thought, 1895-1914 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1960); G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1809-1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971); Bentley B. Gilbert "Health and Politics: The British Physical Deterioration Report of 1904," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 39 (1965): 143-53: Dorothy Porter, "'Enemies of the Race': Biologism Environmentalism, and Public Health in Edwardian England," Victorian Studies 34 (1991): 159-78; and F. H. A. Aalen, "Lord Meath, City Improvement, and Social Imperialism, Planning Perspectives 4 (1989): 127-52.
106. Reginald Brabazon, "Decay of Bodily Strength in Towns," Nineteenth Century 21 (1887): 673-676 Over one-third of the military recruits who volunteered between 1893 and 1902 failed their induction physical exams. See Wohl, Endangered Lives, 332; George F. Shee, "The Deterioration in the National Physique," Nineteenth Century 53 (1903): 797-805, esp 797; and William Nicholson, Smoke Abatement: A Manual for the Use of Manufacturers, Inspectors, Medical Officers of Health, Engineers, and Others (London: Charles Griffin and Co., 1905), 2. On turn-of-the-century concerns linking biological and national decline, see Bernard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform: English Social-Imperial Thought, 1895-1914 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1960); G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1809-1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971); Bentley B. Gilbert "Health and Politics: The British Physical Deterioration Report of 1904," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 39 (1965): 143-53: Dorothy Porter, "'Enemies of the Race': Biologism Environmentalism, and Public Health in Edwardian England," Victorian Studies 34 (1991): 159-78; and F. H. A. Aalen, "Lord Meath, City Improvement, and Social Imperialism, Planning Perspectives 4 (1989): 127-52.
107. Reginald Brabazon, "Decay of Bodily Strength in Towns," Nineteenth Century 21 (1887): 673-676 Over one-third of the military recruits who volunteered between 1893 and 1902 failed their induction physical exams. See Wohl, Endangered Lives, 332; George F. Shee, "The Deterioration in the National Physique," Nineteenth Century 53 (1903): 797-805, esp 797; and William Nicholson, Smoke Abatement: A Manual for the Use of Manufacturers, Inspectors, Medical Officers of Health, Engineers, and Others (London: Charles Griffin and Co., 1905), 2. On turn-of-the-century concerns linking biological and national decline, see Bernard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform: English Social-Imperial Thought, 1895-1914 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1960); G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1809-1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971); Bentley B. Gilbert "Health and Politics: The British Physical Deterioration Report of 1904," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 39 (1965): 143-53: Dorothy Porter, "'Enemies of the Race': Biologism Environmentalism, and Public Health in Edwardian England," Victorian Studies 34 (1991): 159-78; and F. H. A. Aalen, "Lord Meath, City Improvement, and Social Imperialism, Planning Perspectives 4 (1989): 127-52.
108. Reginald Brabazon, "Decay of Bodily Strength in Towns," Nineteenth Century 21 (1887): 673-676 Over one-third of the military recruits who volunteered between 1893 and 1902 failed their induction physical exams. See Wohl, Endangered Lives, 332; George F. Shee, "The Deterioration in the National Physique," Nineteenth Century 53 (1903): 797-805, esp 797; and William Nicholson, Smoke Abatement: A Manual for the Use of Manufacturers, Inspectors, Medical Officers of Health, Engineers, and Others (London: Charles Griffin and Co., 1905), 2. On turn-of-the-century concerns linking biological and national decline, see Bernard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform: English Social-Imperial Thought, 1895-1914 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1960); G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1809-1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971); Bentley B. Gilbert "Health and Politics: The British Physical Deterioration Report of 1904," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 39 (1965): 143-53: Dorothy Porter, "'Enemies of the Race': Biologism Environmentalism, and Public Health in Edwardian England," Victorian Studies 34 (1991): 159-78; and F. H. A. Aalen, "Lord Meath, City Improvement, and Social Imperialism, Planning Perspectives 4 (1989): 127-52.
109. Reginald Brabazon, "Decay of Bodily Strength in Towns," Nineteenth Century 21 (1887): 673-676 Over one-third of the military recruits who volunteered between 1893 and 1902 failed their induction physical exams. See Wohl, Endangered Lives, 332; George F. Shee, "The Deterioration in the National Physique," Nineteenth Century 53 (1903): 797-805, esp 797; and William Nicholson, Smoke Abatement: A Manual for the Use of Manufacturers, Inspectors, Medical Officers of Health, Engineers, and Others (London: Charles Griffin and Co., 1905), 2. On turn-of-the-century concerns linking biological and national decline, see Bernard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform: English Social-Imperial Thought, 1895-1914 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1960); G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1809-1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971); Bentley B. Gilbert "Health and Politics: The British Physical Deterioration Report of 1904," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 39 (1965): 143-53: Dorothy Porter, "'Enemies of the Race': Biologism Environmentalism, and Public Health in Edwardian England," Victorian Studies 34 (1991): 159-78; and F. H. A. Aalen, "Lord Meath, City Improvement, and Social Imperialism, Planning Perspectives 4 (1989): 127-52.
110. Brabazon, "Decay," 676; William Bousfield, "Smoke in the Manufacturing Districts," Art Journal (1882): 9-10.
111. Brabazon, "Decay," 676; William Bousfield, "Smoke in the Manufacturing Districts," Art Journal (1882): 9-10.
112. L. Sohncke, "The Problem of the Exhaustion of Coal," Open Court 4 (1890): 2389-92, esp 2391. Despite occasional warnings that Britain's coal reserves would soon be exhausted conservation remained a minor concern for most advocates of smoke prevention until after the turn of the century. As the Lancet Analytical Sanitary Commission put it in 1892 the nation's known supply of coal "is practically as abundant as ever it was and there is no reason to fear that our resources are likely to fail for years yet to come." See their "Second Report on Perfect Combustion and Smoke Prevention," Lancet, 5 March 1892, 548-50, esp. 548.
113. L. Sohncke, "The Problem of the Exhaustion of Coal," Open Court 4 (1890): 2389-92, esp 2391. Despite occasional warnings that Britain's coal reserves would soon be exhausted conservation remained a minor concern for most advocates of smoke prevention until after the turn of the century. As the Lancet Analytical Sanitary Commission put it in 1892 the nation's known supply of coal "is practically as abundant as ever it was and there is no reason to fear that our resources are likely to fail for years yet to come." See their "Second Report on Perfect Combustion and Smoke Prevention," Lancet, 5 March 1892, 548-50, esp. 548.
114. Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Minutes of a Meeting for the Purpose of Forming a Smoke Abatement Society, 5 December 1898, NSCA; William Blake Richmond, "The Black City: London Fog and Smoking Chimneys," Pall Mall Magazine, April 1903, 462-73, esp. 463.
115. Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Minutes of a Meeting for the Purpose of Forming a Smoke Abatement Society, 5 December 1898, NSCA; William Blake Richmond, "The Black City: London Fog and Smoking Chimneys," Pall Mall Magazine, April 1903, 462-73, esp. 463.
116. Lawrence W. Chubb, "Smoke Abatement," paper presented to the Institute of Sanitary Engineers, 22 January 1912 (London: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, [1912]), Box 5, NSCA, 9; H. A. Des Voeux, "Ten Years' Work of Smoke Abatement in London," [1909], Box 6, NSCA, 3-6; Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Minute Book 3, 4 March 1904, 38, and 20 May 1904, 86, NSCA; Great Britain, Parliamentary Papers (PP), 1905, Cd. 2347, lxxxv, Reports on the Laws in Force in Certain Foreign Countries in Regard to the Emission of Smoke from Chimneys.
117. Lawrence W. Chubb, "Smoke Abatement," paper presented to the Institute of Sanitary Engineers, 22 January 1912 (London: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, [1912]), Box 5, NSCA, 9; H. A. Des Voeux, "Ten Years' Work of Smoke Abatement in London," [1909], Box 6, NSCA, 3-6; Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Minute Book 3, 4 March 1904, 38, and 20 May 1904, 86, NSCA; Great Britain, Parliamentary Papers (PP), 1905, Cd. 2347, lxxxv, Reports on the Laws in Force in Certain Foreign Countries in Regard to the Emission of Smoke from Chimneys.
118. Lawrence W. Chubb, "Smoke Abatement," paper presented to the Institute of Sanitary Engineers, 22 January 1912 (London: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, [1912]), Box 5, NSCA, 9; H. A. Des Voeux, "Ten Years' Work of Smoke Abatement in London," [1909], Box 6, NSCA, 3-6; Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Minute Book 3, 4 March 1904, 38, and 20 May 1904, 86, NSCA; Great Britain, Parliamentary Papers (PP), 1905, Cd. 2347, lxxxv, Reports on the Laws in Force in Certain Foreign Countries in Regard to the Emission of Smoke from Chimneys.
119. Lawrence W. Chubb, "Smoke Abatement," paper presented to the Institute of Sanitary Engineers, 22 January 1912 (London: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, [1912]), Box 5, NSCA, 9; H. A. Des Voeux, "Ten Years' Work of Smoke Abatement in London," [1909], Box 6, NSCA, 3-6; Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Minute Book 3, 4 March 1904, 38, and 20 May 1904, 86, NSCA; Great Britain, Parliamentary Papers (PP), 1905, Cd. 2347, lxxxv, Reports on the Laws in Force in Certain Foreign Countries in Regard to the Emission of Smoke from Chimneys.
120. Charles A. L. Reed, "An Address on the Smoke Problem," paper presented to the Woman's Club of Cincinnati, 24 April 1905, Cincinnati Historical Society. Reed enjoyed national recognition among physicians, serving as president of the American Medical Association and, at the time of his address to the Woman's Club, the chairman of the legislative committee of the A.M.A. Summaries of Reed's speech appeared twice in the organizations's official journal. See Journal of the American Medical Association 44 (1905): 1619-20, and 49 (1907): 813. For a brief biography of Reed, see Rev. Charles Goss, Cincinnati: The Queen City, 1788-1912, vol. 3 (Cincinnati: S. J. Clarke Publishing Company, 1912), 662-66.
121. Charles A. L. Reed, "An Address on the Smoke Problem," paper presented to the Woman's Club of Cincinnati, 24 April 1905, Cincinnati Historical Society. Reed enjoyed national recognition among physicians, serving as president of the American Medical Association and, at the time of his address to the Woman's Club, the chairman of the legislative committee of the A.M.A. Summaries of Reed's speech appeared twice in the organizations's official journal. See Journal of the American Medical Association 44 (1905): 1619-20, and 49 (1907): 813. For a brief biography of Reed, see Rev. Charles Goss, Cincinnati: The Queen City, 1788-1912, vol. 3 (Cincinnati: S. J. Clarke Publishing Company, 1912), 662-66.
122. Charles A. L. Reed, "An Address on the Smoke Problem," paper presented to the Woman's Club of Cincinnati, 24 April 1905, Cincinnati Historical Society. Reed enjoyed national recognition among physicians, serving as president of the American Medical Association and, at the time of his address to the Woman's Club, the chairman of the legislative committee of the A.M.A. Summaries of Reed's speech appeared twice in the organizations's official journal. See Journal of the American Medical Association 44 (1905): 1619-20, and 49 (1907): 813. For a brief biography of Reed, see Rev. Charles Goss, Cincinnati: The Queen City, 1788-1912, vol. 3 (Cincinnati: S. J. Clarke Publishing Company, 1912), 662-66.
123. Charles A. L. Reed, "An Address on the Smoke Problem," paper presented to the Woman's Club of Cincinnati, 24 April 1905, Cincinnati Historical Society. Reed enjoyed national recognition among physicians, serving as president of the American Medical Association and, at the time of his address to the Woman's Club, the chairman of the legislative committee of the A.M.A. Summaries of Reed's speech appeared twice in the organizations's official journal. See Journal of the American Medical Association 44 (1905): 1619-20, and 49 (1907): 813. For a brief biography of Reed, see Rev. Charles Goss, Cincinnati: The Queen City, 1788-1912, vol. 3 (Cincinnati: S. J. Clarke Publishing Company, 1912), 662-66.
124. Reed, "Address on the Smoke Problem," 1-4; The Woman's Club of Cincinnati, "Reports of the Department of Civics, 1895-1906," 186, 188; and Woman's Club, "Minutes of the Executive Board, 1902-," 130-31, 136. The Woman's Club's records are held in private in the club's library. See David Stradling, "To Breathe Pure Air: Cincinnati's Smoke Abatement Crusade, 1904-1916," Queen City Heritage 55 (1997): 3-18.
125. Reed, "Address on the Smoke Problem," 1-4; The Woman's Club of Cincinnati, "Reports of the Department of Civics, 1895-1906," 186, 188; and Woman's Club, "Minutes of the Executive Board, 1902-," 130-31, 136. The Woman's Club's records are held in private in the club's library. See David Stradling, "To Breathe Pure Air: Cincinnati's Smoke Abatement Crusade, 1904-1916," Queen City Heritage 55 (1997): 3-18.
126. Reed, "Address on the Smoke Problem," 1-4; The Woman's Club of Cincinnati, "Reports of the Department of Civics, 1895-1906," 186, 188; and Woman's Club, "Minutes of the Executive Board, 1902-," 130-31, 136. The Woman's Club's records are held in private in the club's library. See David Stradling, "To Breathe Pure Air: Cincinnati's Smoke Abatement Crusade, 1904-1916," Queen City Heritage 55 (1997): 3-18.
127. Reed, "Address on the Smoke Problem," 1-4; The Woman's Club of Cincinnati, "Reports of the Department of Civics, 1895-1906," 186, 188; and Woman's Club, "Minutes of the Executive Board, 1902-," 130-31, 136. The Woman's Club's records are held in private in the club's library. See David Stradling, "To Breathe Pure Air: Cincinnati's Smoke Abatement Crusade, 1904-1916," Queen City Heritage 55 (1997): 3-18.
128. Charles Reed, "The Smoke Campaign in Cincinnati," remarks made before the National Association of Stationary Engineers, 10 July 1906; and Smoke Abatement League of Cincinnati, "History of the Anti-Smoke Movement in Cincinnati, Ohio," (The Health Exposition, 1921), both located at the Cincinnati Historical Society.
129. Charles Reed, "The Smoke Campaign in Cincinnati," remarks made before the National Association of Stationary Engineers, 10 July 1906; and Smoke Abatement League of Cincinnati, "History of the Anti-Smoke Movement in Cincinnati, Ohio," (The Health Exposition, 1921), both located at the Cincinnati Historical Society.
130. New York Times, 27 April 1905, 5 September 1905; 6 March 1905; 8 March 1905; 15 March 1905; 4 May 1906; 17 May 1906. See also Industrial World 41, pt. 2 (1907): 855-57 [indicated as V-VII in the volume].
131. New York Times, 27 April 1905, 5 September 1905; 6 March 1905; 8 March 1905; 15 March 1905; 4 May 1906; 17 May 1906. See also Industrial World 41, pt. 2 (1907): 855-57 [indicated as V-VII in the volume].
132. Medical Record 70 (1906): 420.
133. The league's president was the mayor of Manchester, and among its vice-presidents were the mayor of Salford, the bishop of Manchester, two members of the House of Lords, the editor of the Manchester Guardian, and the philanthropist Thomas Coglan Horsfall. See Smoke Abatement League of Great Britain: Manchester & District Branch, Annual Report (1913), NSCA, 1, 4-6; Diane Joan Buxton, "The Decline of Air Pollution in Manchester, 1880-1985: A Reinterpretation" (master's thesis, University of Manchester, 1993); and Michael Harrison, "Thomas Coglan Horsfall and 'the Example of Germany,'" Planning Perspectives 6 (1991): 297-314, esp. 300.
134. The league's president was the mayor of Manchester, and among its vice-presidents were the mayor of Salford, the bishop of Manchester, two members of the House of Lords, the editor of the Manchester Guardian, and the philanthropist Thomas Coglan Horsfall. See Smoke Abatement League of Great Britain: Manchester & District Branch, Annual Report (1913), NSCA, 1, 4-6; Diane Joan Buxton, "The Decline of Air Pollution in Manchester, 1880-1985: A Reinterpretation" (master's thesis, University of Manchester, 1993); and Michael Harrison, "Thomas Coglan Horsfall and 'the Example of Germany,'" Planning Perspectives 6 (1991): 297-314, esp. 300.
135. The league's president was the mayor of Manchester, and among its vice-presidents were the mayor of Salford, the bishop of Manchester, two members of the House of Lords, the editor of the Manchester Guardian, and the philanthropist Thomas Coglan Horsfall. See Smoke Abatement League of Great Britain: Manchester & District Branch, Annual Report (1913), NSCA, 1, 4-6; Diane Joan Buxton, "The Decline of Air Pollution in Manchester, 1880-1985: A Reinterpretation" (master's thesis, University of Manchester, 1993); and Michael Harrison, "Thomas Coglan Horsfall and 'the Example of Germany,'" Planning Perspectives 6 (1991): 297-314, esp. 300.
136. Fred Scott, "The Administration of the Law Relating to Smoke," [1899?], Box 5, NSCA, 4; and Nicholson, Smoke Abatement, 6. On Scott's enormous influence on air pollution reform, see "Mr. Fred Scott," Manchester Faces and Places 5 (1893-94): 86-88.
137. Fred Scott, "The Administration of the Law Relating to Smoke," [1899?], Box 5, NSCA, 4; and Nicholson, Smoke Abatement, 6. On Scott's enormous influence on air pollution reform, see "Mr. Fred Scott," Manchester Faces and Places 5 (1893-94): 86-88.
138. Fred Scott, "The Administration of the Law Relating to Smoke," [1899?], Box 5, NSCA, 4; and Nicholson, Smoke Abatement, 6. On Scott's enormous influence on air pollution reform, see "Mr. Fred Scott," Manchester Faces and Places 5 (1893-94): 86-88.
139. William Charles Popplewell, The Prevention of Smoke, Combined with the Economical Combustion of Fuel (London: Scott, Greenwood, and Co., 1901), xviii.
140. John W. Graham, The Destruction of Daylight: A Study in the Smoke Problem (London: George Allen, 1907), 2-3, 55-56.
141. Smoke Abatement League of Great Britain, First Annual Report (1909-1910), Box 5, NSCA, 4; William B. Smith, "The Abatement of Smoke on Two Continents: A British View," Industrial World 48 (1914): 15-16.
142. Smoke Abatement League of Great Britain, First Annual Report (1909-1910), Box 5, NSCA, 4; William B. Smith, "The Abatement of Smoke on Two Continents: A British View," Industrial World 48 (1914): 15-16.
143. The Department of Industrial Research soon bore Mellon's name. In 1928, the Mellon Institute separated from the University of Pittsburgh and continued to conduct research in close affiliation with industry. For a good early history of the Mellon Institute, see John W. Servos, "Changing Partners: The Mellon Institute, Private Industry, and the Federal Patron," Technology and Culture 35 (1994): 221-57.
144. Mellon Institute of Industrial Research Smoke Investigation, Bulletins 1-9 (Pittsburgh, 1913-1914). Together, Benner and O'Connor's works appeared in at least ten different periodicals, including Science, National Municipal Review, American City; American Architect, and Scientific American. British clean air advocates praised the project and hoped that a similarly comprehensive investigation might be undertaken in their country. See Smoke Abatement League of Great Britain, Third Annual Report (1912), C22, Box 5, NSCA, 6-8; and John B. C. Kershaw, "Smoke Abatement in Europe and America," Nature 93 (19 March 1914): 69-70.
145. Mellon Institute of Industrial Research Smoke Investigation, Bulletins 1-9 (Pittsburgh, 1913-1914). Together, Benner and O'Connor's works appeared in at least ten different periodicals, including Science, National Municipal Review, American City; American Architect, and Scientific American. British clean air advocates praised the project and hoped that a similarly comprehensive investigation might be undertaken in their country. See Smoke Abatement League of Great Britain, Third Annual Report (1912), C22, Box 5, NSCA, 6-8; and John B. C. Kershaw, "Smoke Abatement in Europe and America," Nature 93 (19 March 1914): 69-70.
146. Mellon Institute of Industrial Research Smoke Investigation, Bulletins 1-9 (Pittsburgh, 1913-1914). Together, Benner and O'Connor's works appeared in at least ten different periodicals, including Science, National Municipal Review, American City; American Architect, and Scientific American. British clean air advocates praised the project and hoped that a similarly comprehensive investigation might be undertaken in their country. See Smoke Abatement League of Great Britain, Third Annual Report (1912), C22, Box 5, NSCA, 6-8; and John B. C. Kershaw, "Smoke Abatement in Europe and America," Nature 93 (19 March 1914): 69-70.
147. Pittsburgh Post, 8 September 1912; A. A. Straub, "Some Engineering Phases of Pittsburgh's Smoke Problem," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 8 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1914), 24-25, 85-180; and Power 40 (1914): 349.
148. Pittsburgh Post, 8 September 1912; A. A. Straub, "Some Engineering Phases of Pittsburgh's Smoke Problem," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 8 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1914), 24-25, 85-180; and Power 40 (1914): 349.
149. Pittsburgh Post, 8 September 1912; A. A. Straub, "Some Engineering Phases of Pittsburgh's Smoke Problem," Mellon Institute Smoke Investigation Bulletin No. 8 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1914), 24-25, 85-180; and Power 40 (1914): 349.
150. Oskar Klotz and William Charles White, eds., "Papers on the Influence of Smoke on Health." A wide variety of publications carried Ascher's findings, including the Engineering News in the United States and the Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute in Britain. See Engineering News 58 (1907): 434-35; and Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute 28 (1907): 88-93.
151. Oskar Klotz and William Charles White, eds., "Papers on the Influence of Smoke on Health." A wide variety of publications carried Ascher's findings, including the Engineering News in the United States and the Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute in Britain. See Engineering News 58 (1907): 434-35; and Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute 28 (1907): 88-93.
152. Oskar Klotz and William Charles White, eds., "Papers on the Influence of Smoke on Health." A wide variety of publications carried Ascher's findings, including the Engineering News in the United States and the Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute in Britain. See Engineering News 58 (1907): 434-35; and Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute 28 (1907): 88-93.
153. Correspondence between Lawrence Chubb and John O'Connor, January-February 1915, Series 1, Folder 2, Mellon Smoke Investigation Activities Manuscripts, University of Pittsburgh Library. O'Connor and Raymond Benner also corresponded with Peter Fyfe, Chief Sanitary Inspector of Glasgow, and John B. Kershaw of Liverpool. See Series 1, Folder 22. For O'Connor's collection of British publications, see Series 4, Folder 4.
154. R. C. Benner, "Smoke Abatement in Pittsburgh," 81-83, and Thomas E. Donnelly, "Smoke Abatement in Chicago," 51-58, in Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Papers Read at the Smoke Abatement Conferences, March 26, 27 & 28, 1912 ( [London]: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, [1912]); "The Smoke Abatement Conference," Power 35 (1912): 617-19; and Harold Platt, "Invisible Gases: Smoke, Gender, and the Redefinition of Environmental Policy in Chicago, 1900-1920," Planning Perspectives 10 (1995): 67-97.
155. R. C. Benner, "Smoke Abatement in Pittsburgh," 81-83, and Thomas E. Donnelly, "Smoke Abatement in Chicago," 51-58, in Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Papers Read at the Smoke Abatement Conferences, March 26, 27 & 28, 1912 ( [London]: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, [1912]); "The Smoke Abatement Conference," Power 35 (1912): 617-19; and Harold Platt, "Invisible Gases: Smoke, Gender, and the Redefinition of Environmental Policy in Chicago, 1900-1920," Planning Perspectives 10 (1995): 67-97.
156. R. C. Benner, "Smoke Abatement in Pittsburgh," 81-83, and Thomas E. Donnelly, "Smoke Abatement in Chicago," 51-58, in Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Papers Read at the Smoke Abatement Conferences, March 26, 27 & 28, 1912 ( [London]: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, [1912]); "The Smoke Abatement Conference," Power 35 (1912): 617-19; and Harold Platt, "Invisible Gases: Smoke, Gender, and the Redefinition of Environmental Policy in Chicago, 1900-1920," Planning Perspectives 10 (1995): 67-97.
157. R. C. Benner, "Smoke Abatement in Pittsburgh," 81-83, and Thomas E. Donnelly, "Smoke Abatement in Chicago," 51-58, in Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Papers Read at the Smoke Abatement Conferences, March 26, 27 & 28, 1912 ( [London]: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, [1912]); "The Smoke Abatement Conference," Power 35 (1912): 617-19; and Harold Platt, "Invisible Gases: Smoke, Gender, and the Redefinition of Environmental Policy in Chicago, 1900-1920," Planning Perspectives 10 (1995): 67-97.
158. R. C. Benner, "Smoke Abatement in Pittsburgh," 81-83, and Thomas E. Donnelly, "Smoke Abatement in Chicago," 51-58, in Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Papers Read at the Smoke Abatement Conferences, March 26, 27 & 28, 1912 ( [London]: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, [1912]); "The Smoke Abatement Conference," Power 35 (1912): 617-19; and Harold Platt, "Invisible Gases: Smoke, Gender, and the Redefinition of Environmental Policy in Chicago, 1900-1920," Planning Perspectives 10 (1995): 67-97.
159. For example, see the Milwaukee ordinance of 1914. Bureau of Smoke Suppression, City of Milwaukee, "Smoke Suppression Ordinances" (1914), Milwaukee Municipal Reference Library, 3-9. Cannon, Smoke Abatement, contains the ordinances from dozens of cities, most of them from a slightly later period.
160. For example, see the Milwaukee ordinance of 1914. Bureau of Smoke Suppression, City of Milwaukee, "Smoke Suppression Ordinances" (1914), Milwaukee Municipal Reference Library, 3-9. Cannon, Smoke Abatement, contains the ordinances from dozens of cities, most of them from a slightly later period.
161. Tarr and Zimring, "Struggle for Smoke Control," 204-9.
162. William Nicholson, "Smoke Abatement from the Inspector's Point of View," in Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Papers Read at the Smoke Abatement Conferences, March 26, 27, & 28, 1912 (London: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, 1912), 76-80. On the search for technological solutions to the smoke problem, see Carlos Flick, "The Movement for Smoke Abatement in 19th-Century Britain," Technology and Culture 21 (1980): 29-50. For examples of the growing emphasis on coal conservation after 1900, see Arthur John Martin, "Coal Conservation, Power Transmission, and Smoke Prevention," paper presented on 28 March 1906, Journal of the Society of Arts 54 (1906): 531-53; Graham, Destruction of Daylight, 134-35; and John W. Cobb, "Coal Conservation," Edinburgh Review 229 (1919): 39-61.
163. William Nicholson, "Smoke Abatement from the Inspector's Point of View," in Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Papers Read at the Smoke Abatement Conferences, March 26, 27, & 28, 1912 (London: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, 1912), 76-80. On the search for technological solutions to the smoke problem, see Carlos Flick, "The Movement for Smoke Abatement in 19th-Century Britain," Technology and Culture 21 (1980): 29-50. For examples of the growing emphasis on coal conservation after 1900, see Arthur John Martin, "Coal Conservation, Power Transmission, and Smoke Prevention," paper presented on 28 March 1906, Journal of the Society of Arts 54 (1906): 531-53; Graham, Destruction of Daylight, 134-35; and John W. Cobb, "Coal Conservation," Edinburgh Review 229 (1919): 39-61.
164. William Nicholson, "Smoke Abatement from the Inspector's Point of View," in Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Papers Read at the Smoke Abatement Conferences, March 26, 27, & 28, 1912 (London: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, 1912), 76-80. On the search for technological solutions to the smoke problem, see Carlos Flick, "The Movement for Smoke Abatement in 19th-Century Britain," Technology and Culture 21 (1980): 29-50. For examples of the growing emphasis on coal conservation after 1900, see Arthur John Martin, "Coal Conservation, Power Transmission, and Smoke Prevention," paper presented on 28 March 1906, Journal of the Society of Arts 54 (1906): 531-53; Graham, Destruction of Daylight, 134-35; and John W. Cobb, "Coal Conservation," Edinburgh Review 229 (1919): 39-61.
165. William Nicholson, "Smoke Abatement from the Inspector's Point of View," in Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Papers Read at the Smoke Abatement Conferences, March 26, 27, & 28, 1912 (London: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, 1912), 76-80. On the search for technological solutions to the smoke problem, see Carlos Flick, "The Movement for Smoke Abatement in 19th-Century Britain," Technology and Culture 21 (1980): 29-50. For examples of the growing emphasis on coal conservation after 1900, see Arthur John Martin, "Coal Conservation, Power Transmission, and Smoke Prevention," paper presented on 28 March 1906, Journal of the Society of Arts 54 (1906): 531-53; Graham, Destruction of Daylight, 134-35; and John W. Cobb, "Coal Conservation," Edinburgh Review 229 (1919): 39-61.
166. William Nicholson, "Smoke Abatement from the Inspector's Point of View," in Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Papers Read at the Smoke Abatement Conferences, March 26, 27, & 28, 1912 (London: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, 1912), 76-80. On the search for technological solutions to the smoke problem, see Carlos Flick, "The Movement for Smoke Abatement in 19th-Century Britain," Technology and Culture 21 (1980): 29-50. For examples of the growing emphasis on coal conservation after 1900, see Arthur John Martin, "Coal Conservation, Power Transmission, and Smoke Prevention," paper presented on 28 March 1906, Journal of the Society of Arts 54 (1906): 531-53; Graham, Destruction of Daylight, 134-35; and John W. Cobb, "Coal Conservation," Edinburgh Review 229 (1919): 39-61.
167. John B. C. Kershaw, "Notes on Recent Progress in the Campaign Against Black Smoke in this Country," in Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Papers Read at the Smoke Abatement Conferences, March 26, 27 & 28, 1912 ([London]: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, [1912]), 68-75.
168. William B. Smith, "Should the Domestic Smoke Nuisance Be Any Longer Tolerated?" in Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Papers Read at the Smoke Abatement Conferences, March 26, 27 & 28, 1912 ([London]: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, [1912]), 62-67. Many municipalities discouraged people from adopting cleaner sources of energy by using gas and electricity revenues to "relieve the rates." On the practice of using gas profits to reduce local taxes, see Robert Millward, "The Market Behaviour of Local Utilities in Pre-World War I Britain: The Case of Gas," Economic History Review 44 (1991): 102-27.
169. William B. Smith, "Should the Domestic Smoke Nuisance Be Any Longer Tolerated?" in Coal Smoke Abatement Society, Papers Read at the Smoke Abatement Conferences, March 26, 27 & 28, 1912 ([London]: Coal Smoke Abatement Society, [1912]), 62-67. Many municipalities discouraged people from adopting cleaner sources of energy by using gas and electricity revenues to "relieve the rates." On the practice of using gas profits to reduce local taxes, see Robert Millward, "The Market Behaviour of Local Utilities in Pre-World War I Britain: The Case of Gas," Economic History Review 44 (1991): 102-27.
170. A bill introduced to parliament in 1913 would have given regional and national governmental bodies greater authority to regulate smoke when local authorities failed to act. In London, enforcement would have become the direct responsibility of the London County Council; elsewhere the Local Government Board would have gained power "to set up local smoke abatement authorities" as needed. As had happened with many previous attempts to strengthen smoke enforcement, this bill failed to win enough support to become law. Great Britain, PP, 1913 (136) v, A Bill to Provide for the Abatement of Smoke.
171. Pittsburgh Gazette Times, 10 September 1913; 13 September 1913.
172. Nature 93 (14 May 1914): 274; and Smoke Abatement League of Great Britain, Fourth Report (1913-1914), Box 5, NSCA, 6. The British government's smoke committee reconvened after the war. In a 1920 report, it concluded that the bulk of Britain's smoke came from domestic rather than industrial sources and suggested requiring smokeless heating system in all future government-sponsored housing projects. Reflecting a strong faith that technology would solve the smoke problem, the committee concluded by urging the government to "encourage the co-ordination and extension of research into domestic heating generally." Great Britain, PP, 1920, Cmd. 755, xxv, Interim Report of the Committee on Smoke and Noxious Vapours Abatement.
173. Nature 93 (14 May 1914): 274; and Smoke Abatement League of Great Britain, Fourth Report (1913-1914), Box 5, NSCA, 6. The British government's smoke committee reconvened after the war. In a 1920 report, it concluded that
174. Nature 93 (14 May 1914): 274; and Smoke Abatement League of Great Britain, Fourth Report (1913-1914), Box 5, NSCA, 6. The British government's smoke committee reconvened after the war. In a 1920 report, it concluded that the bulk of Britain's smoke came from domestic rather than industrial sources and suggested requiring smokeless heating system in all future government-sponsored housing projects. Reflecting a strong faith that technology would solve the smoke problem, the committee concluded by urging the government to "encourage the co-ordination and extension of research into domestic heating generally." Great Britain, PP, 1920, Cmd. 755, xxv, Interim Report of the Committee on Smoke and Noxious Vapours Abatement.
175. Osborn Monnett, "Smoke Abatement," Bureau of Mines Technical Paper 275 (1923): 1. See also Philadelphia Annual Reports (1917), 1: 299, and (1918), 1:283, Philadelphia Public Library; and "Pittsburgh Smoke Regulation in 1918," Power 49 (1919): 469.
176. Osborn Monnett, "Smoke Abatement," Bureau of Mines Technical Paper 275 (1923): 1. See also Philadelphia Annual Reports (1917), 1: 299, and (1918), 1:283, Philadelphia Public Library; and "Pittsburgh Smoke Regulation in 1918," Power 49 (1919): 469.
177. Osborn Monnett, "Smoke Abatement," Bureau of Mines Technical Paper 275 (1923): 1. See also Philadelphia Annual Reports (1917), 1: 299, and (1918), 1:283, Philadelphia Public Library; and "Pittsburgh Smoke Regulation in 1918," Power 49 (1919): 469.
178. Osborn Monnett, "Smoke Abatement," Bureau of Mines Technical Paper 275 (1923): 1. See also Philadelphia Annual Reports (1917), 1: 299, and (1918), 1:283, Philadelphia Public Library; and "Pittsburgh Smoke Regulation in 1918," Power 49 (1919): 469.
179. World War I forged strong new connections between government and science in both countries. In Britain, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, itself a product of the war, continued this linkage into peacetime. Its Fuel Research Board quickly emerged as a dominant sponsor of research into coal smoke and clearinghouse for information on the subject. Its findings appeared in a series of technical papers during the 1920s. See, for example, Margaret White Fishenden, The Efficiency of Low Temperature Coke in Domestic Appliances (London: HMSO, 1921); and Roy M. MacLeod and E. Kay Andrews, "The Origins of the D.S.I.R.: Reflections on Ideas and Men, 1915-1916," Public Administration 48 (1970): 23-48. In 1924, an internal document from the British Medical Association's Public Health Committee noted that the Smoke Abatement League had been "completely shattered by the activities of the war" and had not resumed meeting until 1923. Minute 14, 22 October 1924, SA/BMA/F.39, Contemporary Medical Archives Centre, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London.
180. World War I forged strong new connections between government and science in both countries. In Britain, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, itself a product of the war, continued this linkage into peacetime. Its Fuel Research Board quickly emerged as a dominant sponsor of research into coal smoke and clearinghouse for information on the subject. Its findings appeared in a series of technical papers during the 1920s. See, for example, Margaret White Fishenden, The Efficiency of Low Temperature Coke in Domestic Appliances (London: HMSO, 1921); and Roy M. MacLeod and E. Kay Andrews, "The Origins of the D.S.I.R.: Reflections on Ideas and Men, 1915-1916," Public Administration 48 (1970): 23-48. In 1924, an internal document from the British Medical Association's Public Health Committee noted that the Smoke Abatement League had been "completely shattered by the activities of the war" and had not resumed meeting until 1923. Minute 14, 22 October 1924, SA/BMA/F.39, Contemporary Medical Archives Centre, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London.