"Our system demands the supreme being": The U.S. religious revival and the "Diem experiment," 1954-55

Diplomatic History

Volumn 25, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 589-624

  Jacobs, Seth ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 18544363299     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/0145-2096.00288     Document Type: Article

References (231)

1. H. W. Brands, The Devil We Knew: Americans and the Cold War (New York, 1993), 56.
2. Indeed, George Kennan once admonished John Foster Dulles: "Let us keep our morality to ourselves. . . . Let us not attempt to constitute ourselves the guardians of anyone else's virtue; we have enough trouble to guard our own." Cited in John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy (New York, 1982), 132. Wise counsel, although it might be argued that Kennan's words sat uncomfortably in the mouth of the man who closed his famous 1947 "X" article by expressing "a certain gratitude to . . . Providence." Kennan, "The Sources of Soviet Conduct," in The American Encounter: The United States and the Making of the Modern World, ed. James F. Hoge, Jr., and Fareed Zakaria (New York, 1997), 169.
3. Indeed, George Kennan once admonished John Foster Dulles: "Let us keep our morality to ourselves. . . . Let us not attempt to constitute ourselves the guardians of anyone else's virtue; we have enough trouble to guard our own." Cited in John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy (New York, 1982), 132. Wise counsel, although it might be argued that Kennan's words sat uncomfortably in the mouth of the man who closed his famous 1947 "X" article by expressing "a certain gratitude to . . . Providence." Kennan, "The Sources of Soviet Conduct," in The American Encounter: The United States and the Making of the Modern World, ed. James F. Hoge, Jr., and Fareed Zakaria (New York, 1997), 169.
4. Cited in Douglas Miller and Marion Nowak, The Fifties: The Way We Really Were (New York, 1977), 92.
5. Cited in Leonard Mosley, Dulles: A Biography of Eleanor, Allen, and John Foster Dulles and Their Family Network (New York, 1978), 256.
6. John Foster Dulles, "Faith of Our Fathers," in The Spiritual Legacy of John Foster Dalles: Selections from His Articles and Addresses, ed. Henry P. Van Dusen (Philadelphia, 1959), 9; idem, "World Brotherhood through the State," in ibid., 111.
7. John Foster Dulles, "Faith of Our Fathers," in The Spiritual Legacy of John Foster Dalles: Selections from His Articles and Addresses, ed. Henry P. Van Dusen (Philadelphia, 1959), 9; idem, "World Brotherhood through the State," in ibid., 111.
8. The most useful text, for my purposes, has been James Hudnut-Beumler, Looking for God in the Suburbs: The Religion of the American Dream and Its Critics, 1945-1965 (New Brunswick, 1994). A. Roy Eckardt, The Surge of Piety in America: An Appraisal (New York, 1958), is an excellent contemporary account of the religious revival of the 1950s. Will Herberg's Protestant-Catholic-Jew: An Essay in American Religious Sociology (New York, 1955) is indispensable reading. See also Donald Meyer, The Positive Thinkers: Religion as Pop Psychology from Mary Baker Eddy to Oral Roberts (New York, 1980); Mark Silk, Spiritual Politics: Religion in America since World War II (New York, 1968); and Robert Wuthnow, The Restructuring of American Religion: Society and Faith since World War II (Princeton, 1988).
9. The most useful text, for my purposes, has been James Hudnut-Beumler, Looking for God in the Suburbs: The Religion of the American Dream and Its Critics, 1945-1965 (New Brunswick, 1994). A. Roy Eckardt, The Surge of Piety in America: An Appraisal (New York, 1958), is an excellent contemporary account of the religious revival of the 1950s. Will Herberg's Protestant-Catholic-Jew: An Essay in American Religious Sociology (New York, 1955) is indispensable reading. See also Donald Meyer, The Positive Thinkers: Religion as Pop Psychology from Mary Baker Eddy to Oral Roberts (New York, 1980); Mark Silk, Spiritual Politics: Religion in America since World War II (New York, 1968); and Robert Wuthnow, The Restructuring of American Religion: Society and Faith since World War II (Princeton, 1988).
10. The most useful text, for my purposes, has been James Hudnut-Beumler, Looking for God in the Suburbs: The Religion of the American Dream and Its Critics, 1945-1965 (New Brunswick, 1994). A. Roy Eckardt, The Surge of Piety in America: An Appraisal (New York, 1958), is an excellent contemporary account of the religious revival of the 1950s. Will Herberg's Protestant-Catholic-Jew: An Essay in American Religious Sociology (New York, 1955) is indispensable reading. See also Donald Meyer, The Positive Thinkers: Religion as Pop Psychology from Mary Baker Eddy to Oral Roberts (New York, 1980); Mark Silk, Spiritual Politics: Religion in America since World War II (New York, 1968); and Robert Wuthnow, The Restructuring of American Religion: Society and Faith since World War II (Princeton, 1988).
11. The most useful text, for my purposes, has been James Hudnut-Beumler, Looking for God in the Suburbs: The Religion of the American Dream and Its Critics, 1945-1965 (New Brunswick, 1994). A. Roy Eckardt, The Surge of Piety in America: An Appraisal (New York, 1958), is an excellent contemporary account of the religious revival of the 1950s. Will Herberg's Protestant-Catholic-Jew: An Essay in American Religious Sociology (New York, 1955) is indispensable reading. See also Donald Meyer, The Positive Thinkers: Religion as Pop Psychology from Mary Baker Eddy to Oral Roberts (New York, 1980); Mark Silk, Spiritual Politics: Religion in America since World War II (New York, 1968); and Robert Wuthnow, The Restructuring of American Religion: Society and Faith since World War II (Princeton, 1988).
12. The most useful text, for my purposes, has been James Hudnut-Beumler, Looking for God in the Suburbs: The Religion of the American Dream and Its Critics, 1945-1965 (New Brunswick, 1994). A. Roy Eckardt, The Surge of Piety in America: An Appraisal (New York, 1958), is an excellent contemporary account of the religious revival of the 1950s. Will Herberg's Protestant-Catholic-Jew: An Essay in American Religious Sociology (New York, 1955) is indispensable reading. See also Donald Meyer, The Positive Thinkers: Religion as Pop Psychology from Mary Baker Eddy to Oral Roberts (New York, 1980); Mark Silk, Spiritual Politics: Religion in America since World War II (New York, 1968); and Robert Wuthnow, The Restructuring of American Religion: Society and Faith since World War II (Princeton, 1988).
13. The most useful text, for my purposes, has been James Hudnut-Beumler, Looking for God in the Suburbs: The Religion of the American Dream and Its Critics, 1945-1965 (New Brunswick, 1994). A. Roy Eckardt, The Surge of Piety in America: An Appraisal (New York, 1958), is an excellent contemporary account of the religious revival of the 1950s. Will Herberg's Protestant-Catholic-Jew: An Essay in American Religious Sociology (New York, 1955) is indispensable reading. See also Donald Meyer, The Positive Thinkers: Religion as Pop Psychology from Mary Baker Eddy to Oral Roberts (New York, 1980); Mark Silk, Spiritual Politics: Religion in America since World War II (New York, 1968); and Robert Wuthnow, The Restructuring of American Religion: Society and Faith since World War II (Princeton, 1988).
14. Michael H. Hunt, "Ideology," in Explaining the History of U.S. Foreign Relations, ed. Michael J. Hogan and Thomas G. Paterson (New York, 1991), 196.
15. William L. O'Neill, American High: The Years of Confidence, 1045-1960 (New York, 1986), 212.
16. Miller and Nowak, The Fifties, 87.
17. See Hudnut-Beumler, Looking for God in the Suburbs, 31-40; "I Believe," Newsweek, 20 October 1952, 106; "Protestant Architect," Time, 19 April 1954, 62; and "The Proof of God," Time, 10 January 1955, 60.
18. See Hudnut-Beumler, Looking for God in the Suburbs, 31-40; "I Believe," Newsweek, 20 October 1952, 106; "Protestant Architect," Time, 19 April 1954, 62; and "The Proof of God," Time, 10 January 1955, 60.
19. See Hudnut-Beumler, Looking for God in the Suburbs, 31-40; "I Believe," Newsweek, 20 October 1952, 106; "Protestant Architect," Time, 19 April 1954, 62; and "The Proof of God," Time, 10 January 1955, 60.
20. See Hudnut-Beumler, Looking for God in the Suburbs, 31-40; "I Believe," Newsweek, 20 October 1952, 106; "Protestant Architect," Time, 19 April 1954, 62; and "The Proof of God," Time, 10 January 1955, 60.
21. Leo P. Ribuffo, "God and Contemporary Politics," Journal of American History 80 (March 1993): 1517-18.
22. "Growth of U.S. Churches," Time, 2 April 1951, 81.
23. George Nash, The Conservative Intellectual Movement in America since 1945 (Wilmington, 1996), 50-74.
24. The Babbittish side of the 1950s revival is drolly explored by Miller and Nowak, The Fifties, 84-103.
25. See also J. Ronald Oakley, God's Country: America in the Fifties (New York, 1986), 311-27;
26. and James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1074 (New York, 1996), 329-33.
27. Charles R. Morris, American Catholic: The Saints and Sinners Who Built America's Most Powerful Church (New York, 1997), 221-27.
28. For the extent to which Luce shaped popular opinion in the early Cold War years see James L. Baughman, Henry R. Luce and the Rise of the American News Media (Boston, 1987); and Robert E. Hertzstein, Henry Luce: A Political Portrait of the Man Who Created the American Century (New York, 1994).
29. For the extent to which Luce shaped popular opinion in the early Cold War years see James L. Baughman, Henry R. Luce and the Rise of the American News Media (Boston, 1987); and Robert E. Hertzstein, Henry Luce: A Political Portrait of the Man Who Created the American Century (New York, 1994).
30. "Mighty Wave over the U.S.," Life, 6 December 1955, 45. Such Madison Avenue proselytism inspired the Jewish theologian Milton J. Rosenberg to pen the couplet: "Luce does more than Niebuhr can/To justify God's ways to man." Cited in Martin Marty, The New Shape of American Religion (New York, 1959), 17.
31. "Mighty Wave over the U.S.," Life, 6 December 1955, 45. Such Madison Avenue proselytism inspired the Jewish theologian Milton J. Rosenberg to pen the couplet: "Luce does more than Niebuhr can/To justify God's ways to man." Cited in Martin Marty, The New Shape of American Religion (New York, 1959), 17.
32. Cited in O'Neill, American High, 212.
33. See, for example, Warren Weaver, "Peace of Mind," Saturday Review, 11 December 1954, 11, 47-50; A. Roy Eckardt, "The New Look in American Piety," Christian Century, 17 November 1954, 1395-98; and "Religion in Popular Culture," Commonweal, 7 October 1955, 5-6.
34. See, for example, Warren Weaver, "Peace of Mind," Saturday Review, 11 December 1954, 11, 47-50; A. Roy Eckardt, "The New Look in American Piety," Christian Century, 17 November 1954, 1395-98; and "Religion in Popular Culture," Commonweal, 7 October 1955, 5-6.
35. See, for example, Warren Weaver, "Peace of Mind," Saturday Review, 11 December 1954, 11, 47-50; A. Roy Eckardt, "The New Look in American Piety," Christian Century, 17 November 1954, 1395-98; and "Religion in Popular Culture," Commonweal, 7 October 1955, 5-6.
36. Herberg, Protestant-Catholic-Jew, 55-57. See also Stanley Rowland, Jr., "Suburbia Buys Religion," Nation, 28 July 1956, 78-80.
37. Herberg, Protestant-Catholic-Jew, 55-57. See also Stanley Rowland, Jr., "Suburbia Buys Religion," Nation, 28 July 1956, 78-80.
38. Reinhold Niebuhr, "Varieties of Religious Revival," New Republic, 6 June 1955, 13-16.
39. Besides Herberg's seminal work, see Gibson Winter, The Suburban Captivity of the Churches: An Analysis of Protestant Responsibility in the Expanding Metropolis (Garden City 1961); Peter L. Berger, The Noise of Solemn Assemblies: Christian Commitment and the Religious Establishment in America (Garden City, 1961); and William Lee Miller, "Piety Along the Potomac," Reporter, 17 August 1954, 25-28.
40. Besides Herberg's seminal work, see Gibson Winter, The Suburban Captivity of the Churches: An Analysis of Protestant Responsibility in the Expanding Metropolis (Garden City 1961); Peter L. Berger, The Noise of Solemn Assemblies: Christian Commitment and the Religious Establishment in America (Garden City, 1961); and William Lee Miller, "Piety Along the Potomac," Reporter, 17 August 1954, 25-28.
41. Besides Herberg's seminal work, see Gibson Winter, The Suburban Captivity of the Churches: An Analysis of Protestant Responsibility in the Expanding Metropolis (Garden City 1961); Peter L. Berger, The Noise of Solemn Assemblies: Christian Commitment and the Religious Establishment in America (Garden City, 1961); and William Lee Miller, "Piety Along the Potomac," Reporter, 17 August 1954, 25-28.
42. Cited in Miller and Nowak, The Fifties, 90.
43. Inaugural address, 20 January 1953, Public Papers of the Presidents: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1953 (Washington, 1954), 1. See also Hudnut-Beumler, Looking for God in the Suburbs, 51.
44. Inaugural address, 20 January 1953, Public Papers of the Presidents: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1953 (Washington, 1954), 1. See also Hudnut-Beumler, Looking for God in the Suburbs, 51.
45. Paul Carter, Another Part of the Fifties (New York, 1983), 114-40.
46. Oakley, God's Country, 320.
47. High, "What the President Wants," Reader's Digest, April 1953, 2-4. Fittingly, High was the author of a best-selling biography of Billy Graham, the celebrity evangelist who often visited the president at the White House and gave him advice.
48. Cited in Patterson, Grand Expectations, 329.
49. Remarks to the 63d Continental Congress of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution, 22 April 1954, Public Papers of the Presidents: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1954 (Washington, 1955), 403.
50. "The Testimony of a Devout President," Life, 26 December 1955, 3.
51. Message to the mayor of Philadelphia for the Fourth of July ceremonies at Independence Hall, 4 July 1954, Public Papers of the Presidents: Dwight D. 617. For Eisenhower's post-oration activities see Miller, "Piety Along the Potomac," 27.
52. Message to the mayor of Philadelphia for the Fourth of July ceremonies at Independence Hall, 4 July 1954, Public Papers of the Presidents: Dwight D. 617. For Eisenhower's post-oration activities see Miller, "Piety Along the Potomac," 27.
53. Michael H. Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, 1987), 15.
54. Roscoe Drummond claims that Dulles's "political thinking could no more be separated from his religion than a lighted bulb from its current. . . . There is simply no understanding Dulles without understanding the depths of his religious adherence." Duel at the Brink: John Foster Dulles's Command of American Power (New York, 1960), 76-77.
55. For similar assertions see Ole Holsti, Enemies in Politics (Chicago, 1967), 28;
56. and Mark G. Toulouse, The Transformation of John Foster Dulles: From Prophet of Realism to Priest of Nationalism (Macon, 1985), xxi.
57. Townsend Hoopes, The Devil and John Foster Dulles (Boston, 1973), 184-85, 491.
58. For the vicissitudes of Dulles's reputation see Richard Immerman, introduction, John Foster Dulles and the Diplomacy of the Cold War, ed. Immerman (Princeton, 1990), 3.
59. Walter J Ong, Frontiers in American Catholicism: Essays on Ideology and Culture (New York, 1957), 32. For Wallace's impact on popular opinion in the United States see John Heidenry, Theirs Was the Kingdom: Lila and DeWitt Wallace and the Story of the Reader's Digest (New York, 1993).
60. Walter J Ong, Frontiers in American Catholicism: Essays on Ideology and Culture (New York, 1957), 32. For Wallace's impact on popular opinion in the United States see John Heidenry, Theirs Was the Kingdom: Lila and DeWitt Wallace and the Story of the Reader's Digest (New York, 1993).
61. Untitled speech, 20 May 1941, John Foster Dulles Papers, box 290, Seeley Mudd Library, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey.
62. Henry R. Luce interview, 28 July 1965, John Foster Dulles Oral History Project, Seeley Mudd Library.
63. Dulles Address on the Occasion of the 150th Anniversary of the Founding of the Watertown Church, 9 October 1952, Dulles Papers, box 309.
64. Daniel P. O'C. Greene, "John Foster Dulles and the End of the Franco-American Entente in Indochina," Diplomatic History 20 (Spring 1996): 551-71.
65. For examples of this argument see David Anderson, Trapped by Success: The Eisenhower Administration and Vietnam, 1953-1961 (New York, 1991), 52-57; Chester Cooper, The Lost Crusade: America in Vietnam (New York, 1970), 126-28; Lloyd C. Gardner, Approaching Vietnam: From World War II through Dienbienphu (New York, 1988), 292-93; and George C. Herring, America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975, 2d ed. (New York, 1986), 49-50.
66. For examples of this argument see David Anderson, Trapped by Success: The Eisenhower Administration and Vietnam, 1953-1961 (New York, 1991), 52-57; Chester Cooper, The Lost Crusade: America in Vietnam (New York, 1970), 126-28; Lloyd C. Gardner, Approaching Vietnam: From World War II through Dienbienphu (New York, 1988), 292-93; and George C. Herring, America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975, 2d ed. (New York, 1986), 49-50.
67. For examples of this argument see David Anderson, Trapped by Success: The Eisenhower Administration and Vietnam, 1953-1961 (New York, 1991), 52-57; Chester Cooper, The Lost Crusade: America in Vietnam (New York, 1970), 126-28; Lloyd C. Gardner, Approaching Vietnam: From World War II through Dienbienphu (New York, 1988), 292-93; and George C. Herring, America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975, 2d ed. (New York, 1986), 49-50.
68. For examples of this argument see David Anderson, Trapped by Success: The Eisenhower Administration and Vietnam, 1953-1961 (New York, 1991), 52-57; Chester Cooper, The Lost Crusade: America in Vietnam (New York, 1970), 126-28; Lloyd C. Gardner, Approaching Vietnam: From World War II through Dienbienphu (New York, 1988), 292-93; and George C. Herring, America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975, 2d ed. (New York, 1986), 49-50.
69. Heath to Dulles, 4 July 1954, Record Group 59, 751G00/7-454, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.
70. The ambassador in France to the Department of State, 20 June 1954, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954 (Washington, 1982), 13:1726. Maurice DeJean, former French commissioner general in Indochina, characterized Diem as "too narrow, too rigid, too unworldly, and too pure to have any chance of creating an effective government in Vietnam." The chargé in Saigon to the Department of State, 13 June 1954, FRUS, 1952-1954 13:1685. The archival record indicates that French civilian and military authorities unanimously disapproved of Diem's appointment.
71. The ambassador in France to the Department of State, 20 June 1954, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954 (Washington, 1982), 13:1726. Maurice DeJean, former French commissioner general in Indochina, characterized Diem as "too narrow, too rigid, too unworldly, and too pure to have any chance of creating an effective government in Vietnam." The chargé in Saigon to the Department of State, 13 June 1954, FRUS, 1952-1954 13:1685. The archival record indicates that French civilian and military authorities unanimously disapproved of Diem's appointment.
72. Embassy Saigon to the Department of State, 24, January 1951, FRUS, 1951 (Washington, 1977), 6:359.
73. Cited in Anderson, Trapped by Success, 54.
74. See also Bui Diem, In the Jaws of History (Bloomington, 1987), 86;
75. and Robert D. Schultzinger, A Time for War: The United States and Vietnam, 1941-1975 (New York, 1997), 78.
76. Examples of this argument may be found in Thomas D. Boettcher, Vietnam: The Valor and the Sorrow (Boston, 1985), 141;
77. Stanley Karnow, Vietnam: A History (New York, 1985), 214;
78. and Ellen J. Hammer, A Death in November: America in Vietnam, 1963 (New York, 1987), 50.
79. The "Collins mission" is given its fullest treatment in Anderson, Trapped by Success, 87-119. See also idem, "J. Lawton Collins, John Foster Dulles, and the Eisenhower Administration's 'Point of No Return' in Vietnam," Diplomatic History 12 (Spring 1988): 127-48; James R. Arnold, The First Domino: Eisenhower, the Military, and America's Intervention in Vietnam (New York, 1991), 249-89; and J. Lawton Collins, Lightning Joe: Autobiography (Novato, 1979), 378-411.
80. The "Collins mission" is given its fullest treatment in Anderson, Trapped by Success, 87-119. See also idem, "J. Lawton Collins, John Foster Dulles, and the Eisenhower Administration's 'Point of No Return' in Vietnam," Diplomatic History 12 (Spring 1988): 127-48; James R. Arnold, The First Domino: Eisenhower, the Military, and America's Intervention in Vietnam (New York, 1991), 249-89; and J. Lawton Collins, Lightning Joe: Autobiography (Novato, 1979), 378-411.
81. The "Collins mission" is given its fullest treatment in Anderson, Trapped by Success, 87-119. See also idem, "J. Lawton Collins, John Foster Dulles, and the Eisenhower Administration's 'Point of No Return' in Vietnam," Diplomatic History 12 (Spring 1988): 127-48; James R. Arnold, The First Domino: Eisenhower, the Military, and America's Intervention in Vietnam (New York, 1991), 249-89; and J. Lawton Collins, Lightning Joe: Autobiography (Novato, 1979), 378-411.
82. The "Collins mission" is given its fullest treatment in Anderson, Trapped by Success, 87-119. See also idem, "J. Lawton Collins, John Foster Dulles, and the Eisenhower Administration's 'Point of No Return' in Vietnam," Diplomatic History 12 (Spring 1988): 127-48; James R. Arnold, The First Domino: Eisenhower, the Military, and America's Intervention in Vietnam (New York, 1991), 249-89; and J. Lawton Collins, Lightning Joe: Autobiography (Novato, 1979), 378-411.
83. In fact, Quat once complained to U.S. diplomat U. Alexis Johnson that "many of Diem's supporters were neutralists of the Indian school" and "that neutralism was no answer to Communist attempts to take over Vietnam." Johnson to Dulles, 22 June 1954, RG 59, 751G.00/6-2254.
84. Collins to Dulles, 10 December 1954, J. Lawton Collins Papers, box 29, Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas. Collins's papers teem with hundreds of approbatory evaluations of Quat.
85. Collins to Dulles, 7 April 1955, Collins Papers, box 26. See also Collins to Dulles, 19 April 1955, RG 59, 751G.00/4-1955; and Collins to Dulles, 31 March 1955, Collins Papers, box 25.
86. Special representative in Vietnam tel. to Department of State, 10 April 1955, FRUS, 1955-1957 (Washington, 1985), 1:231-33.
87. For instances of the "special representative" stumping for these two statesmen see Collins to Dulles, 24 March 1955, RG 59, 751G.00/3-2455; Collins to Dulles, 20 April 1955, RG 59, 751G.00/4-2055; and Collins to Dulles, 14 April 1955, Collins Papers, box 26.
88. See Karnow, Vietnam: A History, 216-17; and Robert Shaplen, The Lost Revolution (New York, 1965), 110.
89. See Karnow, Vietnam: A History, 216-17; and Robert Shaplen, The Lost Revolution (New York, 1965), 110.
90. For the clash between anti-communist and anti-colonialist policymaking agendas in the Eisenhower administration see Walter LaFeber, America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945-1992, 7th ed. (New York, 1993), 152-55.
91. See, for example, William S. Borden, The Pacific Alliance: United States Foreign Economic Policy and Japanese Trade Recovery, 1947-1955 (Madison, 1984); Michael Schaller, The American Occupation of Japan: The Origins of the Cold War in Asia (New York, 1985); and Andrew J. Rotter, The Path to Vietnam: Origins of the American Commitment to Southeast Asia (Ithaca, 1987).
92. See, for example, William S. Borden, The Pacific Alliance: United States Foreign Economic Policy and Japanese Trade Recovery, 1947-1955 (Madison, 1984); Michael Schaller, The American Occupation of Japan: The Origins of the Cold War in Asia (New York, 1985); and Andrew J. Rotter, The Path to Vietnam: Origins of the American Commitment to Southeast Asia (Ithaca, 1987).
93. See, for example, William S. Borden, The Pacific Alliance: United States Foreign Economic Policy and Japanese Trade Recovery, 1947-1955 (Madison, 1984); Michael Schaller, The American Occupation of Japan: The Origins of the Cold War in Asia (New York, 1985); and Andrew J. Rotter, The Path to Vietnam: Origins of the American Commitment to Southeast Asia (Ithaca, 1987).
94. Joseph G. Morgan, The Vietnam Lobby: The American Friends of Vietnam, 1955-1975 (Chapel Hill, 1997), 12-13.
95. For examples of this argument see Joseph Buttinger, Vietnam: A Dragon Embattled (New York, 1967), 2: 850; James S. Olson and Randy Roberts, Where the Domino Fell: America and Vietnam, 1945-1995 (New York, 1996), 60; and Paul M. Kattenberg, The Vietnam Trauma in American Foreign Policy, 1945-1973 (New Brunswick, 1980), 51-52.
96. For examples of this argument see Joseph Buttinger, Vietnam: A Dragon Embattled (New York, 1967), 2: 850; James S. Olson and Randy Roberts, Where the Domino Fell: America and Vietnam, 1945-1995 (New York, 1996), 60; and Paul M. Kattenberg, The Vietnam Trauma in American Foreign Policy, 1945-1973 (New Brunswick, 1980), 51-52.
97. For examples of this argument see Joseph Buttinger, Vietnam: A Dragon Embattled (New York, 1967), 2: 850; James S. Olson and Randy Roberts, Where the Domino Fell: America and Vietnam, 1945-1995 (New York, 1996), 60; and Paul M. Kattenberg, The Vietnam Trauma in American Foreign Policy, 1945-1973 (New Brunswick, 1980), 51-52.
98. New York Times, 10 May 1957.
99. "The Beleaguered Man," Time, 4 April 1955, 23.
100. Denis Warner, The Last Confucian (Baltimore, 1964), 90.
101. Karnovv, Vietnam: A History, 215.
102. Anthony Trawick Bouscaren, The Last of the Mandarins: Diem of Vietnam (Pittsburgh, 1965), 2.
103. The ambassador in France to Department of State, 24 May 1954, FRUS, 1952-1954 13:1783.
104. Heath to Dulles, 29 August 1954, RG 59, 751G.00/8-2955.
105. Dillon to Dulles, 6 January 1955, RG 59, 751G.00/1-655.
106. Summary of Remarks of General J. Lawton Collins, 27 April 1955, FRUS, 1955-1957 1:293.
107. Anderson, Trapped by Success, 118.
108. Greene, "Franco-American Entente," 557. Anderson concurs with this assessment, noting that the administrative wrangle over Diem "never really diverted Eisenhower's attention from the concurrent Formosa crisis." Trapped by Success, 117.
109. Greene, "Franco-American Entente," 557. Anderson concurs with this assessment, noting that the administrative wrangle over Diem "never really diverted Eisenhower's attention from the concurrent Formosa crisis." Trapped by Success, 117.
110. Interview with John W. Hanes, Jr., 29 January and 12 August 1966, Dulles Oral History Project.
111. Interview with Walter F. Robertson, 23-24 July 1965, Dulles Oral History Project. See also interview with Roderic O'Connor, 2 April 1966, ibid.
112. Ambassador in France tel. to Department of State, 11 May 1955, FRUS, 1955-1957 1:397.
113. Premier Ngo Dinh Diem's New Year's Message to My People, 1 January 1955, Douglas Pike Collection, Unit IV - Republic of Vietnam, box 12, Vietnam Archive, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas.
114. The Constitution of the Republic of Vietnam, 1956, Pike Collection, Unit IV -Republic of Vietnam, box 13. See also Diem Victory Address, 26 October 1955, RG 59, 751G.00/10-2655; and President Ngo Dinh Diem's Message to the Free World and Christendom on the Balang Affair, 2 January 1955, RG 59, 751G.00/1-255.
115. Cited in the St. Paul Catholic Bulletin, 18 May 1957; and Catholic Universe-Bulletin, 17 May 1957.
116. Cited in the St. Paul Catholic Bulletin, 18 May 1957; and Catholic Universe-Bulletin, 17 May 1957.
117. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Cycles of American History (Boston, 1986), 394.
118. Morris, American Catholic, 247.
119. Patrick W. Carey, The Roman Catholics in America (Westport, 1996), 93.
120. David Caute, The Great Fear: Under Truman and Eisenhower (New York, 1978), 108.
121. Morris, American Catholic, 223.
122. Marty, The New Shape of American Religion, 74.
123. James Hennesey, American Catholics: A History of the Roman Catholic Community in the United States (New York, 1981), 283-84. See also Jay P. Dolan, The American Catholic Experience: A History from Colonial Times to the Present (New York, 1985), 392-93.
124. James Hennesey, American Catholics: A History of the Roman Catholic Community in the United States (New York, 1981), 283-84. See also Jay P. Dolan, The American Catholic Experience: A History from Colonial Times to the Present (New York, 1985), 392-93.
125. Morris, American Catholic, ix.
126. Patrick Allitt, Catholic Intellectuals and Conservative Politics in America, 1955-1980 (Ithaca, 1993), 23.
127. See also George Sirgiovanni, An Undercurrent of Suspicion: Anti-Communism in America during World War II (New Brunswick, 1990).
128. See Donald Crosby, God, Church, and Flag: Senator Joseph R. McCarthy and the Catholic Church, 1950-1957 (Chapel Hill, 1978); and Vincent P. DeSantis, "American Catholics and McCarthyism," Catholic Historical Review 51 (April 1965): 1-30.
129. See Donald Crosby, God, Church, and Flag: Senator Joseph R. McCarthy and the Catholic Church, 1950-1957 (Chapel Hill, 1978); and Vincent P. DeSantis, "American Catholics and McCarthyism," Catholic Historical Review 51 (April 1965): 1-30.
130. Daniel Patrick Moynihan and Nathan Patrick Glazer, Beyond the Melting Pot: The Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians, and Irish of New York City (Cambridge, MA, 1963), 271.
131. "Buddhism," Life, 7 March 1955, 100-103.
132. Perhaps most memorably by Paul Goodman, who opens Growing Up Absurd with the charge that Eisenhower-era "movies, TV, and Book-of-the-Month clubs are beneath contempt, but the Luce publications make you sick to the stomach." Growing Up Absurd' (New York, 1960), x.
133. New York Times, 21 July 1954.
134. "The Atlantic Report on the World Today: Cambodia," Atlantic, October 1955, 18.
135. I am indebted to Dr. Shibusawa for alerting me to this case. All of the press quotes are from her Ph.D. dissertation "America's Geisha Ally: Race, Gender, and Maturity in Reconfiguring the Japanese Enemy, 1945-1954" (Northwestern University, 1998), 316-42.
136. William O. Douglas, North from Malaya: An Adventure on Five Fronts (New York, 1953), 180-88.
137. Cited in Miller and Nowak, The Fifties, 89.
138. Henri De Lubac, Aspects of Buddhism (New York, 1953), 51-52, 49.
139. "The Beleaguered Man," Time, 4 April 1955, 22; Peter Schmid, "Free Indo-China Fights against Time," Commentary, January 1955, 24-25; "Violence in Vietnam," America, 9 April 1955, 32; "U.S. in Middle of Gang War," U.S. News and World Report, 13 May 1955, 39-41.
140. "The Beleaguered Man," Time, 4 April 1955, 22; Peter Schmid, "Free Indo-China Fights against Time," Commentary, January 1955, 24-25; "Violence in Vietnam," America, 9 April 1955, 32; "U.S. in Middle of Gang War," U.S. News and World Report, 13 May 1955, 39-41.
141. "The Beleaguered Man," Time, 4 April 1955, 22; Peter Schmid, "Free Indo-China Fights against Time," Commentary, January 1955, 24-25; "Violence in Vietnam," America, 9 April 1955, 32; "U.S. in Middle of Gang War," U.S. News and World Report, 13 May 1955, 39-41.
142. "The Beleaguered Man," Time, 4 April 1955, 22; Peter Schmid, "Free Indo-China Fights against Time," Commentary, January 1955, 24-25; "Violence in Vietnam," America, 9 April 1955, 32; "U.S. in Middle of Gang War," U.S. News and World Report, 13 May 1955, 39-41.
143. Untitled address, 29 April 1955, Mike Mansfield Papers, Series XXI, box 37, Maureen and Mike Mansfield Library, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana. See also Mansfield Address: "Foreign Policy in the Far East," 22 May 1955, Mansfield Papers, Series XXI, box 37.
144. Minutes of National Security Council Meeting, 4 February 1954, FRUS, 1952-1954 13:1014-15.
145. U.S. Congress, Executive Sessions of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, "Report on Indochina," 83d Cong., 2d sess., 16 February 1954 (Washington, 1977), 6:143.
146. Walter Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945-1961 (New York, 1997), 25.
147. Arnold, The First Domino, 342.
148. "Recommendations Concerning Study of Religious Factors in International Strategy," 13 April 1955, White House National Security Staff, Papers, 1948-1961: OCB Central File Series, box 2, Eisenhower Library.
149. See, for example, Stephen Ambrose, Ike's Spies: Eisenhower and the Espionage Establishment (New York, 1980); and Blanche Weisen Cook, The Declassified Eisenhower: A Divided Legacy of Peace and Political Warfare (New York, 1981).
150. See, for example, Stephen Ambrose, Ike's Spies: Eisenhower and the Espionage Establishment (New York, 1980); and Blanche Weisen Cook, The Declassified Eisenhower: A Divided Legacy of Peace and Political Warfare (New York, 1981).
151. Barbara Tuchman, The March of Folly: From Troy to Vietnam (New York, 1984), 265.
152. "Proposals Regarding U.S. Relations with Therawada Buddhist Countries," early draft, undated, White House National Security Council Staff, Papers, 1945-1961: OCB Central File Series, box 2. I am indebted to the archivists at the Eisenhower Library for their assistance in facilitating the speedy declassification of documents relating to this committee.
153. Memorandum of Meeting, Committee on Buddhism, 51 May 1956, White House National Security Council Staff, Papers, 1945-1961: OCB Central File Series, box 2.
154. See Anderson, Trapped by Success, 105-8; Arnold, The First Domino, 270-74; and Shaplen, The Lost Revolution, 121-23.
155. See Anderson, Trapped by Success, 105-8; Arnold, The First Domino, 270-74; and Shaplen, The Lost Revolution, 121-23.
156. See Anderson, Trapped by Success, 105-8; Arnold, The First Domino, 270-74; and Shaplen, The Lost Revolution, 121-23.
157. Young to Landon, 26 August 1956, White House National Security Council Staff, Papers, 1945-1961: OCB Central File Series, box 2.
158. "Outline Plan Regarding Buddhist Organizations," final draft, 16 January 1957, White House National Security Council Staff, Papers, 1945-1961: OCB Central File Series, box 2. See also "Proposals Regarding U.S. Relations with Therawada Buddhist Countries," undated, White House National Security Council Staff, Papers, 1945-1961: OCB Central File Series, box 2.
159. Coors memorandum for the record, 30 January 1951, RG 59, 751G.00/1-3051.
160. Hoey memorandum for the record, 15 January 1951, RG 59, Records of the Philippine and Southeast Asia Division, Country Files, 1929-1953, box 7.
161. A vivid case in point - albeit one that falls outside normal policymaking channels -may be found in Mike Mansfield's correspondence. Shortly before Diem assumed the premiership, Mansfield received a letter from Augustine Nguyen-Thai, a Catholic Vietnamese graduate student at Cornell. Nguyen-Thai enclosed a copy of an article he had written the previous year for the Catholic journal The Shield. Titled "Colonialism, Communism, or Catholicism?" - implying that these were the only possible paths for Vietnam to take - the piece was a paean to Diem, whom Nguyen-Thai described as "a nationalist leader whose integrity is beyond suspicion." Nguven-Thai claimed that "the Vietnamese Catholics [are] one of the few minorities which has a definite philosophy to oppose the materialist doctrine of communism. . . . Catholicism is Vietnam's only firm opponent to communism." Mansfield agreed to meet personally with Nguven-Thai and assured him "I have read the enclosure you sent me with great interest and am in full accord with the views expressed therein." Nguyen-Thai to Mansfield, 17 March 1954, plus enclosed article from The Shield, 15 October 1953, Mansfield to Nguyen-Thai, 19 March 1954, Mansfield Papers Series XIII, box 8. See also Duff to Dulles, 6 January 1953, Dulles Papers box 69; Rusk to McGuire, 2 October 1950, RG 59, 751G.00/10-250; Cory to Ross, 21 July 1951, RG 59, 751G.00/7-2151; secret memo: "The Catholic Position in Indo-Chma," 25 March 1950, RG 59, 751G.00/3-2550; Little to McCune, 13 September 1950, RG 59, Lot 54 D190; the acting secretary of state to the legation at Saigon, 28 September 1950, FRUS, 1950 (Washington, 1976), 6:885-86; the chargé in Saigon to the secretary of state, 24 January 1951, FRUS, 1951 6:360.
162. A vivid case in point - albeit one that falls outside normal policymaking channels -may be found in Mike Mansfield's correspondence. Shortly before Diem assumed the premiership, Mansfield received a letter from Augustine Nguyen-Thai, a Catholic Vietnamese graduate student at Cornell. Nguyen-Thai enclosed a copy of an article he had written the previous year for the Catholic journal The Shield. Titled "Colonialism, Communism, or Catholicism?" - implying that these were the only possible paths for Vietnam to take - the piece was a paean to Diem, whom Nguyen-Thai described as "a nationalist leader whose integrity is beyond suspicion." Nguven-Thai claimed that "the Vietnamese Catholics [are] one of the few minorities which has a definite philosophy to oppose the materialist doctrine of communism. . . . Catholicism is Vietnam's only firm opponent to communism." Mansfield agreed to meet personally with Nguven-Thai and assured him "I have read the enclosure you sent me with great interest and am in full accord with the views expressed therein." Nguyen-Thai to Mansfield, 17 March 1954, plus enclosed article from The Shield, 15 October 1953, Mansfield to Nguyen-Thai, 19 March 1954, Mansfield Papers Series XIII, box 8. See also Duff to Dulles, 6 January 1953, Dulles Papers box 69; Rusk to McGuire, 2 October 1950, RG 59, 751G.00/10-250; Cory to Ross, 21 July 1951, RG 59, 751G.00/7-2151; secret memo: "The Catholic Position in Indo-Chma," 25 March 1950, RG 59, 751G.00/3-2550; Little to McCune, 13 September 1950, RG 59, Lot 54 D190; the acting secretary of state to the legation at Saigon, 28 September 1950, FRUS, 1950 (Washington, 1976), 6:885-86; the chargé in Saigon to the secretary of state, 24 January 1951, FRUS, 1951 6:360.
163. Stuart to Hoey, 10 May 1954, RG 59, 751G.00/5-1154.
164. U.S. Policy for Post-Armistice Vietnam, 19 August 1954, Collins Papers box 24.
165. I am indebted to Gregory Allen Olson for pointing out the "American/Christian" bias in Collins's briefing book in Mansfield and Vietnam: A Study in Rhetorical Adaptation (East Lansing, 1995), 44-45.
166. For U.S. knowledge of Vietnamese language, culture, and history at the time of Collins's posting to Saigon see Pruett to Edman, 5 August 1953, White House Central Files, Confidential File, Subject Series, Department of State, box 67.
167. United States Information Agency, "Application of Project Action - Vietnam," 24 May 1955, White House Office, National Security Council Staff, Papers, 1948-1961: OCB Central File Series, box 39.
168. This operation is covered in day-by-day detail in Viet-Nam, the First Five Years: An International Symposium, ed. Richard W. Lindholm (East Lansing, 1959), 45-103. Other useful accounts may be found in Aaron Levenstein, Escape to Freedom: The Story of the International Rescue Committee (Westport, 1983), 203-8; Eric Thomas Chester, Covert Network: Progressives, the International Rescue Committee, and the CIA (Armonk, 1995), 143-56; Louis A. Wisner, Victims and Survivors: Displaced Persons and Other War Victims in Vietnam, 1954-1975 (New York, 1988), 1-18; and Eileen Egan, For Whom There Is No Room: Scenes from the Refugee World (New York, 1995), 317-54.
169. This operation is covered in day-by-day detail in Viet-Nam, the First Five Years: An International Symposium, ed. Richard W. Lindholm (East Lansing, 1959), 45-103. Other useful accounts may be found in Aaron Levenstein, Escape to Freedom: The Story of the International Rescue Committee (Westport, 1983), 203-8; Eric Thomas Chester, Covert Network: Progressives, the International Rescue Committee, and the CIA (Armonk, 1995), 143-56; Louis A. Wisner, Victims and Survivors: Displaced Persons and Other War Victims in Vietnam, 1954-1975 (New York, 1988), 1-18; and Eileen Egan, For Whom There Is No Room: Scenes from the Refugee World (New York, 1995), 317-54.
170. This operation is covered in day-by-day detail in Viet-Nam, the First Five Years: An International Symposium, ed. Richard W. Lindholm (East Lansing, 1959), 45-103. Other useful accounts may be found in Aaron Levenstein, Escape to Freedom: The Story of the International Rescue Committee (Westport, 1983), 203-8; Eric Thomas Chester, Covert Network: Progressives, the International Rescue Committee, and the CIA (Armonk, 1995), 143-56; Louis A. Wisner, Victims and Survivors: Displaced Persons and Other War Victims in Vietnam, 1954-1975 (New York, 1988), 1-18; and Eileen Egan, For Whom There Is No Room: Scenes from the Refugee World (New York, 1995), 317-54.
171. This operation is covered in day-by-day detail in Viet-Nam, the First Five Years: An International Symposium, ed. Richard W. Lindholm (East Lansing, 1959), 45-103. Other useful accounts may be found in Aaron Levenstein, Escape to Freedom: The Story of the International Rescue Committee (Westport, 1983), 203-8; Eric Thomas Chester, Covert Network: Progressives, the International Rescue Committee, and the CIA (Armonk, 1995), 143-56; Louis A. Wisner, Victims and Survivors: Displaced Persons and Other War Victims in Vietnam, 1954-1975 (New York, 1988), 1-18; and Eileen Egan, For Whom There Is No Room: Scenes from the Refugee World (New York, 1995), 317-54.
172. This operation is covered in day-by-day detail in Viet-Nam, the First Five Years: An International Symposium, ed. Richard W. Lindholm (East Lansing, 1959), 45-103. Other useful accounts may be found in Aaron Levenstein, Escape to Freedom: The Story of the International Rescue Committee (Westport, 1983), 203-8; Eric Thomas Chester, Covert Network: Progressives, the International Rescue Committee, and the CIA (Armonk, 1995), 143-56; Louis A. Wisner, Victims and Survivors: Displaced Persons and Other War Victims in Vietnam, 1954-1975 (New York, 1988), 1-18; and Eileen Egan, For Whom There Is No Room: Scenes from the Refugee World (New York, 1995), 317-54.
173. The Pentagon Papers, Gravel ed. (Boston, 1971), 1: 581.
174. James T. Fisher, Dr. America: The Lives of Thomas A. Dooley, 1927-1961 (Amherst, 1997). See also idem, The Catholic Counterculture in America, 1933-1962 (Chapel Hill, 1989), 131-204; Clive Christie, The Quiet American and the Ugly American: Western Literary Perspectives on Indo-China in a Decade of Transition, 1950-1060 (Canterbury, 1989), 49-60; Randy Shilts, Conduct Unbecoming: Lesbians and Gays in the U.S. Military from Vietnam to the Persian Gulf(New York, 1995), 21-27; and William Brownell, "The Vietnam Lobby: The Americans Who Lobbied for a Free and Independent South Vietnam in the 1940s and 1950s" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1993), 270-356.
175. James T. Fisher, Dr. America: The Lives of Thomas A. Dooley, 1927-1961 (Amherst, 1997). See also idem, The Catholic Counterculture in America, 1933-1962 (Chapel Hill, 1989), 131-204; Clive Christie, The Quiet American and the Ugly American: Western Literary Perspectives on Indo-China in a Decade of Transition, 1950-1060 (Canterbury, 1989), 49-60; Randy Shilts, Conduct Unbecoming: Lesbians and Gays in the U.S. Military from Vietnam to the Persian Gulf(New York, 1995), 21-27; and William Brownell, "The Vietnam Lobby: The Americans Who Lobbied for a Free and Independent South Vietnam in the 1940s and 1950s" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1993), 270-356.
176. James T. Fisher, Dr. America: The Lives of Thomas A. Dooley, 1927-1961 (Amherst, 1997). See also idem, The Catholic Counterculture in America, 1933-1962 (Chapel Hill, 1989), 131-204; Clive Christie, The Quiet American and the Ugly American: Western Literary Perspectives on Indo-China in a Decade of Transition, 1950-1060 (Canterbury, 1989), 49-60; Randy Shilts, Conduct Unbecoming: Lesbians and Gays in the U.S. Military from Vietnam to the Persian Gulf(New York, 1995), 21-27; and William Brownell, "The Vietnam Lobby: The Americans Who Lobbied for a Free and Independent South Vietnam in the 1940s and 1950s" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1993), 270-356.
177. James T. Fisher, Dr. America: The Lives of Thomas A. Dooley, 1927-1961 (Amherst, 1997). See also idem, The Catholic Counterculture in America, 1933-1962 (Chapel Hill, 1989), 131-204; Clive Christie, The Quiet American and the Ugly American: Western Literary Perspectives on Indo-China in a Decade of Transition, 1950-1060 (Canterbury, 1989), 49-60; Randy Shilts, Conduct Unbecoming: Lesbians and Gays in the U.S. Military from Vietnam to the Persian Gulf(New York, 1995), 21-27; and William Brownell, "The Vietnam Lobby: The Americans Who Lobbied for a Free and Independent South Vietnam in the 1940s and 1950s" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1993), 270-356.
178. James T. Fisher, Dr. America: The Lives of Thomas A. Dooley, 1927-1961 (Amherst, 1997). See also idem, The Catholic Counterculture in America, 1933-1962 (Chapel Hill, 1989), 131-204; Clive Christie, The Quiet American and the Ugly American: Western Literary Perspectives on Indo-China in a Decade of Transition, 1950-1060 (Canterbury, 1989), 49-60; Randy Shilts, Conduct Unbecoming: Lesbians and Gays in the U.S. Military from Vietnam to the Persian Gulf(New York, 1995), 21-27; and William Brownell, "The Vietnam Lobby: The Americans Who Lobbied for a Free and Independent South Vietnam in the 1940s and 1950s" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1993), 270-356.
179. Thomas A. Dooley, Deliver Us from Evil: The Story of Viet Nam's Flight to Freedom (New York, 1956), 173-87.
180. Diana Shaw accuses Dooley of manufacturing his Indochinese Grand Guignol out of whole cloth in "The Temptation of Tom Dooley," Los Angeles Times Magazine, December 1991, 16.
181. Brownell, "The Vietnam Lobby," 299.
182. "Pilgrims of the East," Newsweek, 24 January 1955, 42; William J. Lederer, "They'll Remember the Bayfield," Reader's Digest, March 1955, 2; New York Times, 21 December 1954; "Bug-Out in the Delta," Life, 12 July 1954, 13; "Retreat from Nam Dinh," Time, 12 July 1954, 25; Washington Sunday-Star, November 22, 1954. A clipping of Voss's article may be found in Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 7.
183. "Pilgrims of the East," Newsweek, 24 January 1955, 42; William J. Lederer, "They'll Remember the Bayfield," Reader's Digest, March 1955, 2; New York Times, 21 December 1954; "Bug-Out in the Delta," Life, 12 July 1954, 13; "Retreat from Nam Dinh," Time, 12 July 1954, 25; Washington Sunday-Star, November 22, 1954. A clipping of Voss's article may be found in Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 7.
184. "Pilgrims of the East," Newsweek, 24 January 1955, 42; William J. Lederer, "They'll Remember the Bayfield," Reader's Digest, March 1955, 2; New York Times, 21 December 1954; "Bug-Out in the Delta," Life, 12 July 1954, 13; "Retreat from Nam Dinh," Time, 12 July 1954, 25; Washington Sunday-Star, November 22, 1954. A clipping of Voss's article may be found in Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 7.
185. "Pilgrims of the East," Newsweek, 24 January 1955, 42; William J. Lederer, "They'll Remember the Bayfield," Reader's Digest, March 1955, 2; New York Times, 21 December 1954; "Bug-Out in the Delta," Life, 12 July 1954, 13; "Retreat from Nam Dinh," Time, 12 July 1954, 25; Washington Sunday-Star, November 22, 1954. A clipping of Voss's article may be found in Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 7.
186. "Pilgrims of the East," Newsweek, 24 January 1955, 42; William J. Lederer, "They'll Remember the Bayfield," Reader's Digest, March 1955, 2; New York Times, 21 December 1954; "Bug-Out in the Delta," Life, 12 July 1954, 13; "Retreat from Nam Dinh," Time, 12 July 1954, 25; Washington Sunday-Star, November 22, 1954. A clipping of Voss's article may be found in Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 7.
187. "Pilgrims of the East," Newsweek, 24 January 1955, 42; William J. Lederer, "They'll Remember the Bayfield," Reader's Digest, March
188. Ellen J. Hammer, The Struggle for Indochina, 1940-1955 ( Stanford, 1966), 348.
189. Catholic Bulletin, 21 May 1955; Fred Sparks, "Besieged Bishop," Jubilee, May 1954, 9; "Vietnam's Flight to Freedom," Catholic Digest, January 1955, 94-101; "Confession of the Faith," Ave Maria, 26 March 1955, 3.
190. Catholic Bulletin, 21 May 1955; Fred Sparks, "Besieged Bishop," Jubilee, May 1954, 9; "Vietnam's Flight to Freedom," Catholic Digest, January 1955, 94-101; "Confession of the Faith," Ave Maria, 26 March 1955, 3.
191. Catholic Bulletin, 21 May 1955; Fred Sparks, "Besieged Bishop," Jubilee, May 1954, 9; "Vietnam's Flight to Freedom," Catholic Digest, January 1955, 94-101; "Confession of the Faith," Ave Maria, 26 March 1955, 3.
192. Catholic Bulletin, 21 May 1955; Fred Sparks, "Besieged Bishop," Jubilee, May 1954, 9; "Vietnam's Flight to Freedom," Catholic Digest, January 1955, 94-101; "Confession of the Faith," Ave Maria, 26 March 1955, 3.
193. This is confirmed by a review of microfilm holdings for 1954-55 at Notre Dame's Heshurgh Library, which contains the largest collection of American Catholic newspapers in the world.
194. For O'Connor's work and influence see Fisher, Dr. America, 49-50. Frank A. Hall, director of the Far Eastern Staff of the NCWC News Service, revealed in 1955 that O'Connor "has often been chosen by the secular reporters to be their 'pool' representative on one-man assignments to stories. Thus he has represented all the world's leading wire services." Cited in the Catholic Universe-Bulletin, 20 May 1955; and Catholic Herald-Citizen, 21 May 1955.
195. For O'Connor's work and influence see Fisher, Dr. America, 49-50. Frank A. Hall, director of the Far Eastern Staff of the NCWC News Service, revealed in 1955 that O'Connor "has often been chosen by the secular reporters to be their 'pool' representative on one-man assignments to stories. Thus he has represented all the world's leading wire services." Cited in the Catholic Universe-Bulletin, 20 May 1955; and Catholic Herald-Citizen, 21 May 1955.
196. For O'Connor's work and influence see Fisher, Dr. America, 49-50. Frank A. Hall, director of the Far Eastern Staff of the NCWC News Service, revealed in 1955 that O'Connor "has often been chosen by the secular reporters to be their 'pool' representative on one-man assignments to stories. Thus he has represented all the world's leading wire services." Cited in the Catholic Universe-Bulletin, 20 May 1955; and Catholic Herald-Citizen, 21 May 1955.
197. New World, 10 December 1954; Catholic Herald-Citizen, 4 December 1954; Catholic Herald-Citizen, 27 November 1954; Patrick O'Connor, "Goodbye to Hanoi: Neck-Deep in Tears," Catholic Digest, October 1954, 79-82. For more O'Connor extracts from NCWC reports see Terror in Vietnam: A Record of Another Broken Promise, distributed by the NCWC and located in Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 8. See also Exodus - Report on a Voluntary Mass flight for freedom, Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 8. The reports of O'Connor and other journalists prompted the annual convocation in Washington of Roman Catholic bishops to petition the administration for a public denunciation of Viet Minh "trickery, pressure, and the most brutal violence." The White House, State Department, and Senate were deluged with telegrams protesting the treatment of Vietnamese Catholic refugees. See Saltzman to AmEmbassies Saigon, Hanoi, Paris, Warsaw, New Delhi, Ottawa, and New York, 26 November 1914, Collins Papers, box 52; and memorandum of bipartisan briefing of congressional leaders on foreign policy, 12 November 1954, Ann Whitman File, Legislative Meetings Series, box 1, Eisenhower Library.
198. New World, 10 December 1954; Catholic Herald-Citizen, 4 December 1954; Catholic Herald-Citizen, 27 November 1954; Patrick O'Connor, "Goodbye to Hanoi: Neck-Deep in Tears," Catholic Digest, October 1954, 79-82. For more O'Connor extracts from NCWC reports see Terror in Vietnam: A Record of Another Broken Promise, distributed by the NCWC and located in Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 8. See also Exodus - Report on a Voluntary Mass flight for freedom, Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 8. The reports of O'Connor and other journalists prompted the annual convocation in Washington of Roman Catholic bishops to petition the administration for a public denunciation of Viet Minh "trickery, pressure, and the most brutal violence." The White House, State Department, and Senate were deluged with telegrams protesting the treatment of Vietnamese Catholic refugees. See Saltzman to AmEmbassies Saigon, Hanoi, Paris, Warsaw, New Delhi, Ottawa, and New York, 26 November 1914, Collins Papers, box 52; and memorandum of bipartisan briefing of congressional leaders on foreign policy, 12 November 1954, Ann Whitman File, Legislative Meetings Series, box 1, Eisenhower Library.
199. New World, 10 December 1954; Catholic Herald-Citizen, 4 December 1954; Catholic Herald-Citizen, 27 November 1954; Patrick O'Connor, "Goodbye to Hanoi: Neck-Deep in Tears," Catholic Digest, October 1954, 79-82. For more O'Connor extracts from NCWC reports see Terror in Vietnam: A Record of Another Broken Promise, distributed by the NCWC and located in Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 8. See also Exodus - Report on a Voluntary Mass flight for freedom, Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 8. The reports of O'Connor and other journalists prompted the annual convocation in Washington of Roman Catholic bishops to petition the administration for a public denunciation of Viet Minh "trickery, pressure, and the most brutal violence." The White House, State Department, and Senate were deluged with telegrams protesting the treatment of Vietnamese Catholic refugees. See Saltzman to AmEmbassies Saigon, Hanoi, Paris, Warsaw, New Delhi, Ottawa, and New York, 26 November 1914, Collins Papers, box 52; and memorandum of bipartisan briefing of congressional leaders on foreign policy, 12 November 1954, Ann Whitman File, Legislative Meetings Series, box 1, Eisenhower Library.
200. New World, 10 December 1954; Catholic Herald-Citizen, 4 December 1954; Catholic Herald-Citizen, 27 November 1954; Patrick O'Connor, "Goodbye to Hanoi: Neck-Deep in Tears," Catholic Digest, October 1954, 79-82. For more O'Connor extracts from NCWC reports see Terror in Vietnam: A Record of Another Broken Promise, distributed by the NCWC and located in Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 8. See also Exodus - Report on a Voluntary Mass flight for freedom, Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 8. The reports of O'Connor and other journalists prompted the annual convocation in Washington of Roman Catholic bishops to petition the administration for a public denunciation of Viet Minh "trickery, pressure, and the most brutal violence." The White House, State Department, and Senate were deluged with telegrams protesting the treatment of Vietnamese Catholic refugees. See Saltzman to AmEmbassies Saigon, Hanoi, Paris, Warsaw, New Delhi, Ottawa, and New York, 26 November 1914, Collins Papers, box 52; and memorandum of bipartisan briefing of congressional leaders on foreign policy, 12 November 1954, Ann Whitman File, Legislative Meetings Series, box 1, Eisenhower Library.
201. New World, 10 December 1954; Catholic Herald-Citizen, 4 December 1954; Catholic Herald-Citizen, 27 November 1954; Patrick O'Connor, "Goodbye to Hanoi: Neck-Deep in Tears," Catholic Digest, October 1954, 79-82. For more O'Connor extracts from NCWC reports see Terror in Vietnam: A Record of Another Broken Promise, distributed by the NCWC and located in Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 8. See also Exodus - Report on a Voluntary Mass flight for freedom, Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 8. The reports of O'Connor and other journalists prompted the annual convocation in Washington of Roman Catholic bishops to petition the administration for a public denunciation of Viet Minh "trickery, pressure, and the most brutal violence." The White House, State Department, and Senate were deluged with telegrams protesting the treatment of Vietnamese Catholic refugees. See Saltzman to AmEmbassies Saigon, Hanoi, Paris, Warsaw, New Delhi, Ottawa, and New York, 26 November 1914, Collins Papers, box 52; and memorandum of bipartisan briefing of congressional leaders on foreign policy, 12 November 1954, Ann Whitman File, Legislative Meetings Series, box 1, Eisenhower Library.
202. New World, 10 December 1954; Catholic Herald-Citizen, 4 December 1954; Catholic Herald-Citizen, 27 November 1954; Patrick O'Connor, "Goodbye to Hanoi: Neck-Deep in Tears," Catholic Digest, October 1954, 79-82. For more O'Connor extracts from NCWC reports see Terror in Vietnam: A Record of Another Broken Promise, distributed by the NCWC and located in Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 8. See also Exodus - Report on a Voluntary Mass flight for freedom, Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 8. The reports of O'Connor and other journalists prompted the annual convocation in Washington of Roman Catholic bishops to petition the administration for a public denunciation of Viet Minh "trickery, pressure, and the most brutal violence." The White House, State Department, and Senate were deluged with telegrams protesting the treatment of Vietnamese Catholic refugees. See Saltzman to AmEmbassies Saigon, Hanoi, Paris, Warsaw, New Delhi, Ottawa, and New York, 26 November 1914, Collins Papers, box 52; and memorandum of bipartisan briefing of congressional leaders on foreign policy, 12 November 1954, Ann Whitman File, Legislative Meetings Series, box 1, Eisenhower Library.
203. O. Edmund Clubb, "Divided Vietnam: Second Korea?" Progressive, December 1955, 19.
204. John Cooney, The American Pope: The Life and Times of Francis Cardinal Spellman (New York, 1984), 241.
205. Stassen to Eisenhower, 6 October 1954, White House National Security Council Staff, Papers, 1948-1961: OCB Central File Series, box 58.
206. Duties, "Principles of Foreign Policy," 11 April 1955, Dulles Papers, box 335.
207. Useful coverage of the United States's campaign of "psywar" in North Vietnam is provided in Cecil Currey, Edward Lansdale: The Unquiet American (Boston, 1988), 156-66. See also Lansdale Team's Report on Covert Saigon Mission in 1954 and 1955, The Pentagon Papers 1:573-83; Bernard Fall, The Two Viet-Nams: A Political and Military Analysis (New York, 1963), 153-54; and B. S. N. Murti, Vietnam Divided: The Unfinished Struggle (London, 1964), 83.
208. Useful coverage of the United States's campaign of "psywar" in North Vietnam is provided in Cecil Currey, Edward Lansdale: The Unquiet American (Boston, 1988), 156-66. See also Lansdale Team's Report on Covert Saigon Mission in 1954 and 1955, The Pentagon Papers 1:573-83; Bernard Fall, The Two Viet-Nams: A Political and Military Analysis (New York, 1963), 153-54; and B. S. N. Murti, Vietnam Divided: The Unfinished Struggle (London, 1964), 83.
209. Useful coverage of the United States's campaign of "psywar" in North Vietnam is provided in Cecil Currey, Edward Lansdale: The Unquiet American (Boston, 1988), 156-66. See also Lansdale Team's Report on Covert Saigon Mission in 1954 and 1955, The Pentagon Papers 1:573-83; Bernard Fall, The Two Viet-Nams: A Political and Military Analysis (New York, 1963), 153-54; and B. S. N. Murti, Vietnam Divided: The Unfinished Struggle (London, 1964), 83.
210. Useful coverage of the United States's campaign of "psywar" in North Vietnam is provided in Cecil Currey, Edward Lansdale: The Unquiet American (Boston, 1988), 156-66. See also Lansdale Team's Report on Covert Saigon Mission in 1954 and 1955, The Pentagon Papers 1:573-83; Bernard Fall, The Two Viet-Nams: A Political and Military Analysis (New York, 1963), 153-54; and B. S. N. Murti, Vietnam Divided: The Unfinished Struggle (London, 1964), 83.
211. Kidder to Dulles, 6 December 1954, RG 59, 751G.00/12-654.
212. See Piero Gheddo, The Cross and Bo-Tree: Catholics and Buddhists in Vietnam, trans. Charles Underbill Quinn (New York, 1970), 107-65. See also Olson, Mansfield and Vietnam, 41-44; and Graham Greene, "Last Act in Indo-China," New Republic, 9 May 1955, 10.
213. See Piero Gheddo, The Cross and Bo-Tree: Catholics and Buddhists in Vietnam, trans. Charles Underbill Quinn (New York, 1970), 107-65. See also Olson, Mansfield and Vietnam, 41-44; and Graham Greene, "Last Act in Indo-China," New Republic, 9 May 1955, 10.
214. See Piero Gheddo, The Cross and Bo-Tree: Catholics and Buddhists in Vietnam, trans. Charles Underbill Quinn (New York, 1970), 107-65. See also Olson, Mansfield and Vietnam, 41-44; and Graham Greene, "Last Act in Indo-China," New Republic, 9 May 1955, 10.
215. Collins, Lightning Joe, 389.
216. Hoa Hao handbill: "Here Is Premier Diem's True Face," submitted by Kidder to Dulles, 13 February 19155, RG 59, 751G.00/2-1355. See also Cao Dai handbill: "Where Does Totalitarianism Lead Us?" submitted by Ainsworth to Dulles, 12 February 1955, RG 59, 751G.00/2-1255; and Cao Dai dissidents to Diem, 50 December 1954, RG 59, 751G.00/12-3054. For Cardinal Spellman's 1956 visit to Saigon see "Catholic Relief Services - NCWC: Viet-Nam Mission: January 1956," Mansfield Papers, Series XIII, box 8.
217. Collins to Dulles, 12 February 1955, Collins Papers, box 31.
218. Kidder to Dulles, 18 April 1955, RG 59, 751G.00/4-1855.
219. Robert Scheer, "Hang Down Your Head, Tom Dooley," January-February 1965, 28. See also Robert Scheer and Warren Hinkle, "The Vietnam Lobby," Ramparts, July 1965, 15-22.
220. Robert Scheer, "Hang Down Your Head, Tom Dooley," January-February 1965, 28. See also Robert Scheer and Warren Hinkle, "The Vietnam Lobby," Ramparts, July 1965, 15-22.
221. Cited in Carter, Another Part of the Fifties, 125.
222. Harold Isaacs, Scratches on Our Minds: American Images of China and India (Westport, 1958), 11-22, 45, 82, 259, 278, 401-5.
223. Landon to Eisenhower, "Problem: To Determine the Advisability of a Presidential Message on the Occasion of the '2,500th Anniversary of Buddha,'" undated, White House Office, National Security Council Staff, Papers, 1948-1961: OCB Central File Series, box 2 (emphasis mine).
224. Inaugural address, 20 January 1953, Public Papers of The Presidents. Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1953, 1-3.
225. See Van Dusen, introduction, The Spiritual Legacy of John Foster Duties, xiv.
226. Address to the Second Assembly of the World Council of Churches, Evanston, Illinois, 19 August 1954, Public Papers of the Presidents: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1954, 736.
227. Diem to Dulles, 9 May 1957, Dulles Papers, box 115.
228. Oakley, God's Country, 327.
229. Immerman, introduction, John Foster Duties and the Diplomacy of the Cold War, 3.
230. Cited in Hammer, A Death in November, 53.
231. Bui Diem, In the Jaws of History, 166.