Educational exchange and cultural diplomacy in the cold war

Journal of American Studies

Volumn 33, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 393-415

  Bu, Liping ^a  

^a ALMA COLLEGE   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 1842863331     PISSN: 00218758     EISSN: 14695154     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0021875899006167     Document Type: Article

References (82)

1. George F. Kennan, "International Exchange in the Arts," in Perspectives USA, 16 (1956), 8.
2. Perspectives USA, Ibid., 11.
3. "Educational exchange" was long regarded as synonym for cultural relations. According to Walter Johnson and Francis J. Colligan, it was first formally used in the Information and Educational Act of 1948 (the Smith-Mundt Act). It included all elements of cultural relations activities. See Walter Johnson and Francis J. Colligan, The Fulbright Program: A History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 19 n. 21.
4. The role of culture in international relations is gaining more scholarly attention recently. Akira Iriye offered a conceptual discussion of the relations etween culture and power in his book, Cultural Internationalism and World Order (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
5. Frank A. Ninkovich, Tie Diplomacy of Ideas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
6. For information on Inter-American cultural activities, see J. Manuel Espinosa, The Inter- American Beginnings ofU.S. Cultural Diplomacy, 1936-1948 (Washington, D.C.: State Department, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, History Studies, US Government Printing Office, 1976);
7. Francis J. Colligan, "Twenty Years After: Two Decades of Government-Sponsored Cultural Relations," U.S. Department of State Bulletin, 39 (July 1958), 112-120
8. In his inaugural address of January 1949, President Harry S Truman spoke of four courses of action in international relations by the United States - support of the United Nations, programs for world economic recovery, strengthening of freedom-loving nations against the dangers of communist aggression, and lastly, "Point Four," a "bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of under-developed areas" ("Inaugural Address of the President," U.S. Department of State Bulletin, 20 [January 1949], 125.)
9. Different interpretations of Point Four were presented in various books such as I. F. Stone, Tie Truman Era i1945-1952 (Boston: Little Brown, 1972), 71-74;
10. Ernest R. May, Anxiety and Affluence: 1941-1965 (New York : McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966), 223 ;
11. J. B. Bingham, Shirt-sleeve Diplomacy: Point Four in Action (New York: J. Day Co., 1954);
12. Edward S. Mason, Foreign Aid and Foreign Policy, (New York: Harper & Row, 1964).
13. Report of the Conference on International Educational Exchanges, Congress Hotel, Chicago, 111., 22-25 Mar. 1950 (New York: National Association for Foreign Student Affairs, 1950).
14. Dwight D.Eisenhower to Kenneth Holand (president of IIE), October 16, 1952. Fulbright Papers, bcn i : 20, University of Arkansas.
15. Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945-1961 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997), xii.
16. Stewart E. Fraser, ed., Government Policy and International Education (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1965), 100.
17. Philip H. Coombs, The Fourth Dimension of Foreign Policy: Educational and Cultural Affairs (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), 6-7, 17.
18. William Benton, "The Role of International Information Service in Conduct of Foreign Relations," U.S. Department of State Bulletin, 13 (July-December 1945), 589-593
19. Charles Thomson and Walter H. C. Laves, Cultural Relations and U.S. Foreign Policy (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1963), 61.
20. Benton, 589-593
21. Johnson and Colligan, The Fulbright Program, 9.
22. Report of Conference of College and University Administrators and Foreign Student Advisers, Chicago, 29 Apr.-I May 1946 (New York, IIE, 1946), 91.
23. Iie news release 4 May 1948, box 10, file 9, nafsa Records, University of Arkansas.
24. For the history of IIE, see Stephen Mark Halpern, "The Institute of International Education: A History," (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1969).
25. Iie Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the Director (New York: IIE, i Oct. 1944), 10-11.
26. " Brief Summary of Accomplishments of nafsa during the First Year to June 1, 1949," 1, nafsa records.
27. Iie news release, 4 May 1948, box 10, file 9, nafsa Records.
28. For nafsa, see Liping Bu, "Foreign Students and the Emergence of Modern International Education in the United States, 1910-1970," (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 1995), Ch. 7.
29. The Ford Foundation defined five areas of interest: Area I - peace, Area II - democracy, Area III - the advancement of economic well-being, Area Iv - education, and Area v - knowledge of human behavior (The Ford Foundation Annual Report for 1951). The objectives of Area i were to achieve a peaceful and democratic world. Specific programs under Area i included Overseas Development, Overseas Training and Research, International Affairs, and the Exchange of Persons. All the programs were supposed "to foster international understanding, maintain world peace, and combat communist threats to the western'world by strengthening politically and economically the position of the free world, particularly the uncommitted developing countries" ("Scope and Content Note," The Office of the President Papers of H. Rowan Gaither, Ford Foundation Archives).
30. Memo to Chester Davis, from William C.Johnstone, 27 Feb. 1951, 4-5. Ford Foundation Archives, PA 5 1-29.
31. Memo to Carl Spaeth, from Dyke Brown, "The Foundation's Exchange of Persons Program and the Institute of International Education," 6 Mar. 1952, 2. Ford Foundation Archives, Report 003325.
32. For details of the Ford Foundation exchange programs and policy, and its role in educational exchange in general, see Bu, Ch. 6.
33. Chester Davis, "Exchange of Persons," Apr. 1953, 5. Ford Foundation Archives, Report 010590.
34. International Programs, International Training and Research, "Grant Summary; Appropriation for Exchange Strengthening," 1956, 2;
35. Docket, "Background Materials Regarding Committee on Friendly Relations among Foreign Students," Trustee Meeting, 18-19 June 1956. Ford Foundation Archives, PA54-63.
36. The Ford Foundation to the IIE, "Relationships and Procedures Governing Ford ; Foundation Exchange-of-Persons Activities," 27 Feb. 1951, 9. Ford Foundation Archives, pa51-29.
37. Letter to Chester Davis, from William C. Johnstone, Jr., 27 July 1951. Ford Foundation Archives, pa51-29.
38. Memo to Chester Davis, from Kenneth Holland, "General Procedures for Review of Projects in International Exchange of Persons for the Ford Foundation," 5 Nov. 1951, 2. Ford Foundation Archives, pa51-29.
39. The Ford Foundation to the he, "Relationships and Procedures." Ford Foundation Archives, pa 51-129
40. Memo to Chester Davis, from William C. Johnstone, 27 Feb. 1951. Ford Foundation Archives, PA51-29.
41. Ibid,.
42. Memo to Chester Davis, from Bernard Gladieux, "State Department Comments on Present Review Procedures," 18 Jan. 1952. Ford Foundation Archives, PA51-29.
43. Memo to Bernard Gladieux, from Melvin Fox, "Iie Exchange Persons Activities." 6 Mar. 1952, 4. Ford Foundation Archives, paj 1-29.
44. Iie Exchange Persons Activities, Ibid., 5.
45. The Ford Foundation to the IIE, "Relationships and Procedures," 3-9. Ford Foundation Archives, PA51-29.
46. Education for One World (New York: Institute of International Education, 1952), 12.
47. "Third Report of the ICA Inter-Agency Working Group on University Relationships, Apr 14. i960, nafsa Association files, box 14, nafsa Records.
48. "Report on the First & Second Meetings of the Working Group on University Relationships, June 24-July 1, 1959," nafsa Association files, box 14, nafsa Records.
49. Studies were sponsored by various public and private organizations such as the US. Advisory Commission on Educational Exchange and Fund for Adult Education, and by major philanthropies such as the Rockefeller, the Ford, and the Carnegie.
50. The Comparative Education Society was founded in the fall of 1956. It became the Comparative and International Education Society (cies) in September 1969 when international education was added to the Society. (Introduction to "Cies Archives : A Selection from the Records," Kent State University Libraries.)
51. Those universities included the University of California, California Institute of Technology, Case Institute of Technology, University of Chicago, University of Colorado, Columbia University, Cornell University, Harvard University, University of Illinois, Indiana University, Iowa State University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, University of Michigan, University of Minnesota, Notre Dame University, University of Pennsylvania, Princeton University, Stanford University, Syracuse University, University of Washington, University of Wisconsin, and Yale University.
52. Fulbright Papers, second accession, series 2, bcn 14; 6, University of Arkansas.
53. NAFSA Newsletter, Aug. 1956, 4.
54. NAFSA Newsletter, Apr. 1958, 20.
55. "Minutes of Meeting of the nafsa-iie Liaison Committee, Mar 17-18, 1958," 1-2, nafsa Association files, box II, nafsa Records.
56. Special Report: Tie National Association of Foreign Student Advisers Annual Meeting, 28-30 Mar. 1949, Wade Park Manor, Cleveland, Ohio.
57. Sixth Semiannual Report of the United States Advisory Commission on Information, 1952, 2, House document. No.526, 82nd Congress, 2nd Session.
58. Thomson and Laves, Cultural Relations and U.S. Foreign Policy, 78-80. A bi-partisan resolution calling for a "worldwide Marshal Plan in the field of ideas was sponsored by twelve Senators based on a proposal by Assistant Secretary of State Edward Barrett in March, 1950. In April, President Truman underlined the essence of the proposal in a speech to the American Society of Newspaper Editors, urging a worldwide "Campaign of Truth."
59. Third Semiannual Report of the United States Advisory Commission on Educational Exchange Activities, House document, No.556, 81st Congress, 2nd Session, 1950, 6.
60. Thomson and Laves, Cultural Relations, 96;
61. Education for One World (1953/1954), 17.
62. Ben M. Cherrington, "Ten Years After," Association of American Colleges Bulletin, 34 (Dec. 1948), 507-520
63. Mary Thompson, ed., Unofficial Ambassadors: Tie Story of International Student Service (New York: International Student Service, 1982), 77.
64. "Report of the Bronxville Consultation Conference, June 14-15, 1944," Tie Unofficial Ambassadors (annual report of the Committee on Friendly Relations Among Foreign Students, 1944), II;
65. " Summary of the Sessions of Consultative Conference, Committee on Friendly Relations Among Foreign Students, Bethlehem, pa, Oct. 8-9, 1946," 3-4, "Everett Stowe Folder," cfrfs box 3, ymca Archives.
66. The State Department appointed Howland Sargeant, a lawyer with a background in educational administration to investigate he's administration of student exchanges in September 1946. After interviews with many concerned persons, Sargeant came up with a 35-page report officially known as "The United States Program for the Exchange of Students and Industrial Trainees." Sargeant recommended the use of student exchange for implementing foreign policy objectives. For details of the report, see Halpern, "Institute of International Education," 185-250
67. Before coming to the IIe, Laurence Duggan was Chief of the Division of Cultural Relations with Latin America of the State Department. He died unexpectedly in 1948. Kenneth Holland, formerly Assistant Director of the Office of International Information and Cultural Affairs of the State Department, became president of the IIe in 1950 and served in that capacity in the 1950S-60S.
68. Halpern, 192.
69. Thomson and Laves, Cultural Relations, 72.
70. Cultural Relations, Ibid., 66.
71. First Semiannual Report of United States Advisory Commission on Educational Exchange (February 1949), 4.
72. Time-Herald, Washington, D.C., 30 Oct. 1953, Fulbright Papers, second accession, State Department, series 2, educational and cultural exchange, box 14-b.
73. Thomas G. Paterson, J. Garry Clifford, and Kenneth J. Hagan, American Foreign Relations, A History since 1895 (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath and Company, 1995), 333.
74. In 1953, the House voted to reduce the requested Si5 million to S9 million for 1954 educational exchanges. Again in 1954 the House cut exchange budget from 22 million down to 12 million. In the 1950s, private money was a major source for exchange programs, which increased from $12 million to S20 from 1952 to 1958 (J.Manuel Espinosa, landmarks in the History of the Cultural Relations Programs of the Department of State,1938-1976, 6).
75. Congressional Record, vol.101, 14 Apr. 1955, 4460-4499.
76. The Department of State, "Effects of House Cut: International Education Exchange for 1956," 16 Apr. 1955, Fulbright Papers, bcn 90:13. Thomson and Laves, Cultural Relations, 118-119
77. Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), vii.
78. Fulbright to Foster Dulles, 12 Jan. 1956, Fulbright Papers, bcn 84:27.
79. J. L. Morrill to Fulbright, 12 May 1953, Fulbright Papers, bcn 90:4.
80. " Report on Exchange of Persons Activities of the Ford Foundation," Melvin Fox, Jan. 1953, 6. Ford Foundation Archives, Report 001567.
81. The US Advisory Commission on Educational Exchange, "Report to Congress," 9 Dec. 1949. (See Johnson and Colligan, Tie Fulbright Program, 34-36.)
82. Anders Stephanson, Manifest Destiny: American Expansionism and the Empire of Right (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995).