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Reliably timed action potentials occurring up to 300 ms after stimulus onset are observed in an organotypic cortical slice preparation obtained from rat auditory cortex. The late responses are attributed to the intrinsic dynamics of the neural network, consistent with modeling work in which slow physiological processes are hypothesized to be capable of processing temporal information in the order of hundreds of milliseconds. The authors hypothesize that timing in this range could be a local process, reflected in the dynamics of neurons recruited in a task-specific manner.
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Buonomano D.V. Timing of neural responses in cortical organotypic slices. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 100:2003;4897-4902 Reliably timed action potentials occurring up to 300 ms after stimulus onset are observed in an organotypic cortical slice preparation obtained from rat auditory cortex. The late responses are attributed to the intrinsic dynamics of the neural network, consistent with modeling work in which slow physiological processes are hypothesized to be capable of processing temporal information in the order of hundreds of milliseconds. The authors hypothesize that timing in this range could be a local process, reflected in the dynamics of neurons recruited in a task-specific manner.
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Animals were trained to judge the duration of a visual stimulus and indicate their response with an eye movement after an extended delay. Neural activity was time-dependent during the stimulus period, indicating that the cells were not simply recruited at the time of the response. However, it remains plausible that the neural activity reflects the dynamics of decision processes with temporal coding originating upstream.
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Leon M.I., Shadlen M.N. Representation of time by neurons in the posterior parietal cortex of the macaque. Neuron. 38:2003;317-327 Animals were trained to judge the duration of a visual stimulus and indicate their response with an eye movement after an extended delay. Neural activity was time-dependent during the stimulus period, indicating that the cells were not simply recruited at the time of the response. However, it remains plausible that the neural activity reflects the dynamics of decision processes with temporal coding originating upstream.
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The authors present a computationally oriented review of how eyeblink conditioning provides a model system for understanding feedforward control mechanisms used to support sensorimotor learning. The review emphasizes the importance of error signals in this form of learning, how error signals are used to support associative processes that operate at various levels and how they can shape behavior that is temporally specific.
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Ohyama T., Nores W.L., Murphy M., Mauk M.D. What the cerebellum computes. Trends Neurosci. 26:2003;222-227 The authors present a computationally oriented review of how eyeblink conditioning provides a model system for understanding feedforward control mechanisms used to support sensorimotor learning. The review emphasizes the importance of error signals in this form of learning, how error signals are used to support associative processes that operate at various levels and how they can shape behavior that is temporally specific.
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The authors used fMRI to study the neural correlates for processing the phonemic cue of closure duration for stop consonants. Acoustically, this cue can be signaled temporally by the duration of silence or by a combination of spectral and temporal information. Importantly, people might be unaware of this manipulation; thus, the two imaging conditions are essentially identical. Nonetheless, when the cues were purely temporal, activation was restricted to left frontal and right cerebellar foci; by contrast, the inclusion of spectral cues resulted in a shift of activation to left superior temporal lobe.
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Mathiak K., Hertrich I., Grodd W., Ackermann H. Cerebellum and speech perception: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. J Cogn Neurosci. 14:2002;902-912 The authors used fMRI to study the neural correlates for processing the phonemic cue of closure duration for stop consonants. Acoustically, this cue can be signaled temporally by the duration of silence or by a combination of spectral and temporal information. Importantly, people might be unaware of this manipulation; thus, the two imaging conditions are essentially identical. Nonetheless, when the cues were purely temporal, activation was restricted to left frontal and right cerebellar foci; by contrast, the inclusion of spectral cues resulted in a shift of activation to left superior temporal lobe.
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The roles of the cerebellum and basal ganglia in timing and error prediction
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Both the cerebellum and the basal ganglia have been implicated in similar cognitive operations including timing, error prediction, and the coordination of attentional set. In an attempt to directly evaluate these hypotheses, the authors conducted an fMRI study of task switching in which the timing and order of changes in a task set were manipulated. Cerebellar activation was sensitive to the temporal manipulation. By contrast, striatal activation was sensitive to task order predictability, interpreted as reflecting a role in error prediction. Activation in neither cerebellum nor striatum increased during attention switching compared to a control condition with similar working memory demands.
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Dreher J.-C., Grafman J. The roles of the cerebellum and basal ganglia in timing and error prediction. Eur J Neurosci. 16:2002;1609-1619 Both the cerebellum and the basal ganglia have been implicated in similar cognitive operations including timing, error prediction, and the coordination of attentional set. In an attempt to directly evaluate these hypotheses, the authors conducted an fMRI study of task switching in which the timing and order of changes in a task set were manipulated. Cerebellar activation was sensitive to the temporal manipulation. By contrast, striatal activation was sensitive to task order predictability, interpreted as reflecting a role in error prediction. Activation in neither cerebellum nor striatum increased during attention switching compared to a control condition with similar working memory demands.
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