Levels of Processing Effects on Implicit and Explicit Memory Tasks: Using Question Position to Investigate the Lexical-Processing Hypothesis

Experimental Psychology

Volumn 51, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 132-144

  Newell, Ben R ^a   Andrews, Sally ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Implicit and explicit memory; Levels of processing; Lexical processing hypothesis

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ASSOCIATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTROLLED STUDY; DECISION MAKING; HUMAN; LINGUISTICS; MEMORY; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL; SEMANTICS;

CUES; HUMANS; JUDGMENT; MEMORY; SEMANTICS; VOCABULARY;

EID: 1842659904     PISSN: 16183169     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169.51.2.132     Document Type: Article

References (36)

1. Andrews, S. (1982). Phonological encoding: Is the regularity effect consistent? Memory & Cognition, 10, 565-575.
2. Blaxton, T. A. (1989). Investigating dissociations among memory measures: Support for a transfer-appropriate processing framework. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 15, 657-668.
3. Bowers, J., & Schacter, D. L. (1990). Implicit memory and test awareness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 16, 404-416.
4. Brown, A. S., & Mitchell, D. B. (1994). A reevaluation of semantic versus nonsemantic processing in implicit memory. Memory & Cognition, 22, 533-541.
5. Buchner, A., & Wippich, W. (2000). On the reliability of implicit and explicit measures. Cognitive Psychology, 40, 227-259.
6. Challis, B. H., & Brodbeck, D. R. (1992). Levels of processing affects priming in word fragment completion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 18, 595-607.
7. Craik, F. I. M (1977). Depth of processing in recall and recognition. In S. Dornic (Ed.), Attention and Performance VI. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
8. Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal learning and Verbal Behaviour, 11, 671-684.
9. Draine, S. (1996). Inquisit (Version Build 1.28): Milli-second Software.
10. Dunn, J. C., & Kirsner, K. (1988). Discovering functionally independent mental processes: The principle of reversed association. Psychological Review, 95, 91-101.
11. Foster, J. K., & Jelicic, M. (Eds.) (1999). Memory: Systems, process or function. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
12. Graf, P., & Mandler, G. (1984). Activation makes words more accessible, but not necessarily more retrievable. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 23, 553-568.
13. Hamman, S. B. (1990). Level-of-processing effects in conceptually driven implicit tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, memory and cognition, 16, 970-977.
14. Hayman, C. G., & Jacoby, L. L. (1989). Specific word transfer as a measure of processing in the word-superiority paradigm. Memory and Cognition, 17(2), 125-133.
15. Jacoby, L. L. (1991). A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic from intentional uses of memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 513-541.
16. Jacoby, L. L., & Dallas, M. (1981). On the relationship between autobiographical memory and perceptual learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology General, 110, 306-340.
17. Java, R. I., & Gardiner, J. M. (1991). Priming and aging: Further evidence of preserved memory function. American Journal of Psychology, 104, 89-100.
18. MacDonald, P. A., & MacLeod, C. M. (1998). The influence of attention at encoding on direct and indirect remembering. Acta Psychologica, 98, 291-310.
19. Mandler, G., Hamson, C. O., & Dorfman, J. (1990). Tests of dual process theory: word priming and recognition. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Section A, 42A, 713-739.
20. Moeser, D. (1983). Levels of processing: Qualitative differences or task-demand differences? Memory & Cognition, 11, 316-323.
21. Mulligan, N. W., Guyer, P. S., & Beland, A. (1999). The effect of levels of processing and organization on conceptual implicit memory in the category exemplar production test. Memory & Cognition, 27, 633-647.
22. Mulligan, N. W., & Hartman, M. (1996). Divided attention and indirect memory tests. Memory & Cognition, 24, 453-465.
23. Naito, M. (1990). Repetition priming in children and adults: Age related dissociation between implicit and explicit memory. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 50, 462-484.
24. Park, D. C., & Shaw, R. J. (1992). Effect of environmental support on implicit and explicit memory in younger and older adults. Psychology & Aging, 7, 632-642.
25. Rajaram, S. & Roediger, H. L., III, (1993). Direct comparison of four implicit memory tests. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 19, 765-776.
26. Rajaram, S., Srinivas, K. & Travers, S. (2001). The effects of attention on perceptual implicit memory. Memory & Cognition, 29, 920-930.
27. Richardson-Klavehn, A., & Gardiner, J. M. (1998). Depth-of-processing effects on priming in stem completion: tests of the voluntary-contamination, conceptual-processing, and lexical-processing hypotheses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 24, 593-609.
28. Roediger, H. L., III, & McDermott, K. B. (1993). Implicit memory in normal human participants. In F. Boller & J. Grafman (Eds.), Handbook of Neuropsychology, Vol. 8 (pp. 63-131). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.
29. Roediger, H. L., III, Srinivas, K., & Weldon, M. S. (1989). Dissociations between implicit measures of retention. In S. Lewandowsky, J. C. Dunn, & K. Kirsner (Eds.), Implicit memory: Theoretical issues (pp. 67-84). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
30. Roediger, H. L., Weldon, M. S., Stadier, M. A., & Riegler, G. L. (1992). Direct comparison of two implicit memory tests: Word fragment and word stem completion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 1251-1269.
31. Schacter, D. L., Bowers, J., & Booker J. (1989). Intention, awareness and implicit memory: the retrieval intentionality criterion. In S. Lewandowsky, J. C. Dunn, & K. Kirsner (Eds.), Implicit memory: Theoretical issues (pp. 47-65). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
32. Squire, L. R. (1994). Declarative and nondeclarative memory: Multiple brain systems supporting learning and memory. In D. L. Schacter & E. Tulving (Eds.), Memory Systems 1994 (pp. 203°-31). MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
33. Thapar, A., & Greene, R. L. (1994). Effects of level of processing on implicit and explicit tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 20, 671-679.
34. Toth, J. P., Reingold, E. M., & Jacoby, L. L. (1994). Toward a redefinition of implicit memory: Process dissociation following elaborative processing and self-generation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 20, 290-303.
35. Tulving, E. (1983). Elements of episodic memory. Oxford University Press, New York.
36. Weldon, M. S. (1991). Mechanisms underlying priming on perceptual tests. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 17, 526-541.