Turkey: How far from consolidation?

Journal of Democracy

Volumn 7, Issue 3, 1996, Pages

  Özbudun, Ergun ^a,b,c  

^a BILKENT UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

^b Turkish Democracy Foundation

^c Och Spine at New York Presbyterian Hospitals

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 1842588501     PISSN: 10455736     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jod.1996.0049     Document Type: Article

References (31)

1. On the waves of democratization, see Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 13-26. On the second reverse wave, see Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, eds., The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978).
2. On the waves of democratization, see Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 13-26. On the second reverse wave, see Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, eds., The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978).
3. The best-known work on authoritarian breakdown and democratic transition is Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Prospects for Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).
4. Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 26. See also Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, and South America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming).
5. Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 26. See also Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, and South America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming).
6. Guillermo O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela, eds., Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992), 48-49.
7. Ibid., 19-20. See also Samuel P. Huntington, "Will More Countries Become Democratic?" Political Science Quarterly 99 (Summer 1984): 212.
8. Ibid., 19-20. See also Samuel P. Huntington, "Will More Countries Become Democratic?" Political Science Quarterly 99 (Summer 1984): 212.
9. Dankwart A. Rustow was one of the first scholars who observed that to promote democracy one did not need to foster democrats first. See his "Transitions to Democracy: Toward a Dynamic Model," Comparative Politics 2 (April 1970): 337-63.
10. Huntington, The Third Wave, 266-67.
11. O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," 18-19.
12. Huntington, The Third Wave, 270-71. Cf. Adam Przeworski, Michael Alvarez, Jose Antonio Cheibub, and Fernando Limongi, "What Makes Democracies Endure?" Journal of Democracy 7 (January 1996): 43-44.
13. Huntington, The Third Wave, 270-71. Cf. Adam Przeworski, Michael Alvarez, Jose Antonio Cheibub, and Fernando Limongi, "What Makes Democracies Endure?" Journal of Democracy 7 (January 1996): 43-44.
14. Metin Heper, "Strong State as a Problem for the Consolidation of Democracy: Turkey and Germany Compared," Comparative Political Studies 25 (July 1992): 169-94.
15. Metin Heper, The State Tradition in Turkey (Walkington, England: Eothen, 1985); Ergun Özbudun, "The Ottoman Legacy and the Middle East State Tradition," in L. Carl Brown, ed., Imperial Legacy: The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 133-57.
16. Metin Heper, The State Tradition in Turkey (Walkington, England: Eothen, 1985); Ergun Özbudun, "The Ottoman Legacy and the Middle East State Tradition," in L. Carl Brown, ed., Imperial Legacy: The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 133-57.
17. Frederick W. Frey, The Turkish Political Elite (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1965), 301-3.
18. Ùstün Ergüder and Richard I. Hofferbert, "The 1983 General Elections in Turkey: Continuity or Change in Voting Patterns?" in Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin, eds., State, Democracy, and Military: Turkey In the 1980s (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1988), 81-102; Ergun Özbudun, "The Turkish Party System: Institutionalization, Polarization, and Fragmentation," Middle Eastern Studies 17 (April 1981): 228-40.
19. Ùstün Ergüder and Richard I. Hofferbert, "The 1983 General Elections in Turkey: Continuity or Change in Voting Patterns?" in Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin, eds., State, Democracy, and Military: Turkey In the 1980s (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1988), 81-102; Ergun Özbudun, "The Turkish Party System: Institutionalization, Polarization, and Fragmentation," Middle Eastern Studies 17 (April 1981): 228-40.
20. Larry Diamond, "Democracy in Latin America: Degrees, Illusions, and Directions for Consolidation," in Tom Farer, ed., Beyond Sovereignty: Collectively Defending Democracy in the Americas (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 77; Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, "Political Grafting of Democratic Consolidation or Destruction: European and South American Comparisons," in Robert A. Pastor, ed., Democracy in the Americas: Stopping the Pendulum (New York and London: Holmes and Meier, 1989), 47.
21. Larry Diamond, "Democracy in Latin America: Degrees, Illusions, and Directions for Consolidation," in Tom Farer, ed., Beyond Sovereignty: Collectively Defending Democracy in the Americas (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 77; Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, "Political Grafting of Democratic Consolidation or Destruction: European and South American Comparisons," in Robert A. Pastor, ed., Democracy in the Americas: Stopping the Pendulum (New York and London: Holmes and Meier, 1989), 47.
22. O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," 21.
23. The Turkish Constitution of 1982 established a parliamentary rather than a semipresidential system. The president is elected by the Grand National Assembly, not by the people. Although the president is given some important appointive and other powers which he can use autonomously from the government, the prime minister remains the effective head of the executive. Özal's role in the presidency did not conform to this model, however, since he was the founder and the undisputed leader of the Motherland Party, which until 1991 enjoyed a solid majority in parliament. After Motherland lost its majority, Özal had to act much more like a parliamentary head of state.
24. Metin Heper quotes a private admission of one of the five generals who led the 1980 intervention: "We think that the country is going down the drain; we intervene, make a new constitution in the hope that we can have a better democracy, and withdraw to our barracks; soon we see that democracy reverts back to its old ways." Heper, "Consolidating Turkish Democracy," Journal of Democracy 3 (April 1992): 114.
25. This survey was published as Türk Toplumunun Deǧerleri (The values of Turkish society) (Istanbul: TÜSİAD, 1991), 22.
26. See, for example, Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
27. O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," 22-23.
28. Michael Burton, Richard Gunther, and John Higley, "Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe: An Overview," in John Higley and Richard Gunther, eds., Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 339, 323-24, and passim.
29. Guillermo O'Donnell, "Delegative Democracy," Journal of Democracy 5 (January 1994): 55-69.
30. In an interview that ran in the Istanbul daily Milliyet on 13 June 1995, then-Prime Minister Tansu Çiller described how she had "worked for hours on my computer" and personally "determined even the finest details" of the economic-policy package that her government announced on 5 April 1994.
31. Diamond, "Democracy in Latin America," 76.