Policies of Inclusion: Immigrants, Disease, Dependency, and American Immigration Policy at the Dawn and Dusk of the 20th Century

American Journal of Public Health

Volumn 94, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 528-539

  Fairchild, Amy L ^a,b  

^a Columbia University ^*  (United States)

^b Department of Medicine   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ECONOMIC ASPECT; HEALTH CARE SYSTEM; HEALTH EDUCATION; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMIGRATION; LEGAL ASPECT; POLICY; POLITICS; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; RACE DIFFERENCE; REVIEW; SEVERE ACUTE RESPIRATORY SYNDROME; UNITED STATES;

EID: 1842582443     PISSN: 00900036     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.94.4.528     Document Type: Review

References (167)

1. While the national origins system was eliminated, the use of quotas continued. Total hemispheric quotas capped at 290 000 per year. In 1976, hemispheric caps were abandoned and each country was allotted a quota of 20 000, and the Refugee Act of 1980 excluded refugees from the preference system. Roger Daniels, "Two Cheers for Immigration," in Debating American Immigration, 1882-Present, ed. Roger Daniels and Otis L. Graham (New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc, 2001), 37, 41, 78.
2. Quoted in Daniels, "Two Cheers for Immigration," 43.
3. Rudolph J. Vecoli, "Ethnicity: A Neglected Dimension of American History," in The State of American History, ed Herbert J. Bass (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1970), 73.
4. Amy L. Fairchild and Eileen A. Tynan, "Policies of Containment: Immigration in the Era of AIDS," American Journal of Public Health 84 (1994): 2011-2022.
5. Howard Markel, Quarantine! East European Jewish Immigrants and the New York City Epidemics of 1892 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997); Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color. European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press); Alan M. Kraut, Silent Travelers: Germs, Genes, and the Immigrant Menace (New York: Basic Books, 1994); Kenneth Ludmerer, Genetics and American Society: A Historical Appraisal (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972).
6. Howard Markel, Quarantine! East European Jewish Immigrants and the New York City Epidemics of 1892 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997); Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color. European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press); Alan M. Kraut, Silent Travelers: Germs, Genes, and the Immigrant Menace (New York: Basic Books, 1994); Kenneth Ludmerer, Genetics and American Society: A Historical Appraisal (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972).
7. Howard Markel, Quarantine! East European Jewish Immigrants and the New York City Epidemics of 1892 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997); Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color. European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press); Alan M. Kraut, Silent Travelers: Germs, Genes, and the Immigrant Menace (New York: Basic Books, 1994); Kenneth Ludmerer, Genetics and American Society: A Historical Appraisal (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972).
8. Howard Markel, Quarantine! East European Jewish Immigrants and the New York City Epidemics of 1892 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997); Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color. European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press); Alan M. Kraut, Silent Travelers: Germs, Genes, and the Immigrant Menace (New York: Basic Books, 1994); Kenneth Ludmerer, Genetics and American Society: A Historical Appraisal (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972).
9. It was such a notion of political citizenship that in part motivated Chinese exclusion in 1882. Congress deemed the Chinese unfit for democratic self-rule and barred the Chinese not only from entry into the United States but also from naturalization. The 14th Amendment, ratified in 1868, made citizenship and equal protection under the law a constitutional birthright. The Naturalization Law of 1870 subsequently affirmed the right of persons of African descent to naturalization and their right to vote. But it also denied citizenship to first-generation Asian immigrants. Eric Foner, The Story of American Freedom (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998), 112. The Immigration Act of 1917 and subsequent Supreme Court decisions in Ozawa v the United States (1922) and The United States v Thind (1923) reaffirmed such exclusion on the grounds that Asians were not "White." See also Ian F. Haney-Lopez, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: New York University Press, 1996).
10. It was such a notion of political citizenship that in part motivated Chinese exclusion in 1882. Congress deemed the Chinese unfit for democratic self-rule and barred the Chinese not only from entry into the United States but also from naturalization. The 14th Amendment, ratified in 1868, made citizenship and equal protection under the law a constitutional birthright. The Naturalization Law of 1870 subsequently affirmed the right of persons of African descent to naturalization and their right to vote. But it also denied citizenship to first-generation Asian immigrants. Eric Foner, The Story of American Freedom (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998), 112. The Immigration Act of 1917 and subsequent Supreme Court decisions in Ozawa v the United States (1922) and The United States v Thind (1923) reaffirmed such exclusion on the grounds that Asians were not "White." See also Ian F. Haney-Lopez, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: New York University Press, 1996).
11. It was such a notion of political citizenship that in part motivated Chinese exclusion in 1882. Congress deemed the Chinese unfit for democratic self-rule and barred the Chinese not only from entry into the United States but also from naturalization. The 14th Amendment, ratified in 1868, made citizenship and equal protection under the law a constitutional birthright. The Naturalization Law of 1870 subsequently affirmed the right of persons of African descent to naturalization and their right to vote. But it also denied citizenship to first-generation Asian immigrants. Eric Foner, The Story of American Freedom (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998), 112. The Immigration Act of 1917 and subsequent Supreme Court decisions in Ozawa v the United States (1922) and The United States v Thind (1923) reaffirmed such exclusion on the grounds that Asians were not "White." See also Ian F. Haney-Lopez, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: New York University Press, 1996).
12. John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994), 103.
13. Francis A. Walker, "Restriction of Immigration," Atlantic Monthly, June 1896, p. 828.
14. Higham, Strangers in the Land, 43-44, 48-49, 73, 99-100, 112, 129-130, 202, 203-204, 221.
15. Likewise, the movement for Chinese exclusion was not rooted exclusively in questions of fitness to participate in American public life. Congress-in rare concordance with organized labor, which saw Chinese workers as severely depressing White wages-responded to a perceived threat that the Chinese posed to industrial civilization. Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986), 90-91, 96; Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971). The 1882 Exclusion Act did not bar the entry of all Chinese immigrants; it targeted laborers only.
16. Likewise, the movement for Chinese exclusion was not rooted exclusively in questions of fitness to participate in American public life. Congress-in rare concordance with organized labor, which saw Chinese workers as severely depressing White wages-responded to a perceived threat that the Chinese posed to industrial civilization. Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986), 90-91, 96; Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971). The 1882 Exclusion Act did not bar the entry of all Chinese immigrants; it targeted laborers only.
17. David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism, 1865-1925 (Paris: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 24, 25.
18. William D. Haywood and Frank Bohn, Industrial Socialism (Chicago, n.d.), 25, quoted in Montgomery, Fall of the House of Labor, 45.
19. William D. Haywood and Frank Bohn, Industrial Socialism (Chicago, n.d.), 25, quoted in Montgomery, Fall of the House of Labor, 45.
20. Fredrick Winslow Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management (Norcross, Ga: Engineering and Managing Press, 1911), viii-xi, 50.
21. Montgomery, Fall of the House of Labor, 252.
22. Alexander Keyssar, Out of Work: The First Century of Unemployment in Massachusetts (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 25.
23. During these years, the economy faltered 13 times, meaning that each decade brought 4 years of depression or recession. Keyssar, Out of Work, 47.
24. Unemployment Committee of the National Federation of Settlements, Case Studies of Unemployment (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1931), 71.
25. Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 57.
26. Commissioner-General's Annual Report (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1898), 2. See also memorandum abstracting information in "The Alien as Charity Seeker," Children's Bureau, US Department of Labor, Vol. IV, No. 29, October 1927; "Aliens and Charity," Immigration History Research Center, University of Minnesota, St. Paul; US Senate, Reports of the Immigration Commission, Abstracts of Reports of the Immigration Commission, Abstract of the Report on Immigrants as Charity Seekers, Vol. 2
27. Commissioner-General's Annual Report (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1898), 2. See also memorandum abstracting information in "The Alien as Charity Seeker," Children's Bureau, US Department of Labor, Vol. IV, No. 29, October 1927; "Aliens and Charity," Immigration History Research Center, University of Minnesota, St. Paul; US Senate, Reports of the Immigration Commission, Abstracts of Reports of the Immigration Commission, Abstract of the Report on Immigrants as Charity Seekers, Vol. 2
28. Commissioner-General's Annual Report (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1898), 2. See also memorandum abstracting information in "The Alien as Charity Seeker," Children's Bureau, US Department of Labor, Vol. IV, No. 29, October 1927; "Aliens and Charity," Immigration History Research Center, University of Minnesota, St. Paul; US Senate, Reports of the Immigration Commission, Abstracts of Reports of the Immigration Commission, Abstract of the Report on Immigrants as Charity Seekers, Vol. 2
29. Commissioner-General's Annual Report (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1898), 2. See also memorandum abstracting information in "The Alien as Charity Seeker," Children's Bureau, US Department of Labor, Vol. IV, No. 29, October 1927; "Aliens and Charity," Immigration History Research Center, University of Minnesota, St. Paul; US Senate, Reports of the Immigration Commission, Abstracts of Reports of the Immigration Commission, Abstract of the Report on Immigrants as Charity Seekers, Vol. 2
30. The Supreme Court had ruled in 1849 that control of immigration, as a matter of "foreign commerce," fell within the authority of Congress, but the Immigration Act of 1882 is generally regarded as the first federal effort to assert its authority. Higham, Strangers in the Land. 356, note 19; Benjamin Klebaner, "State and Local Immigration Regulation in the United States Before 1882," International Review of Social History 3 (1958): 269-295.
31. The Supreme Court had ruled in 1849 that control of immigration, as a matter of "foreign commerce," fell within the authority of Congress, but the Immigration Act of 1882 is generally regarded as the first federal effort to assert its authority. Higham, Strangers in the Land. 356, note 19; Benjamin Klebaner, "State and Local Immigration Regulation in the United States Before 1882," International Review of Social History 3 (1958): 269-295.
32. Higham, Strangers in the Land, 43-44; John Higham, "Origins of Immigration Restriction, 1882-1897: A Social Analysis," Mississippi Valley Historical Review 39 (June 1952): 79-80.
33. Higham, Strangers in the Land, 43-44; John Higham, "Origins of Immigration Restriction, 1882-1897: A Social Analysis," Mississippi Valley Historical Review 39 (June 1952): 79-80.
34. The Public Health Service (PHS) was created in 1798 as the United States Marine Hospital Service under the jurisdiction of the Treasury Department, where it remained until 1939. Its initial function was to provide medical care to merchant marines. Although I refer to it consistently as the PHS here, it was renamed several times and was not known as such until 1912. Ralph Chester Williams, MD, The United States Public Health Service, 1798-1950 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1951). Officers of the Immigration Service made the final decisions regarding whether immigrants would be deported for disease, although deportation of immigrants with class A diseases was mandatory. Although I refer to it as the Immigration Service, it, too, was renamed and reorganized several times throughout its history. Darrel H. Smith, The Bureau of Immigration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1926); Darrel H. Smith, The Bureau of Naturalization (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1926).
35. The Public Health Service (PHS) was created in 1798 as the United States Marine Hospital Service under the jurisdiction of the Treasury Department, where it remained until 1939. Its initial function was to provide medical care to merchant marines. Although I refer to it consistently as the PHS here, it was renamed several times and was not known as such until 1912. Ralph Chester Williams, MD, The United States Public Health Service, 1798-1950 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1951). Officers of the Immigration Service made the final decisions regarding whether immigrants would be deported for disease, although deportation of immigrants with class A diseases was mandatory. Although I refer to it as the Immigration Service, it, too, was renamed and reorganized several times throughout its history. Darrel H. Smith, The Bureau of Immigration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1926); Darrel H. Smith, The Bureau of Naturalization (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1926).
36. The Public Health Service (PHS) was created in 1798 as the United States Marine Hospital Service under the jurisdiction of the Treasury Department, where it remained until 1939. Its initial function was to provide medical care to merchant marines. Although I refer to it consistently as the PHS here, it was renamed several times and was not known as such until 1912. Ralph Chester Williams, MD, The United States Public Health Service, 1798-1950 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1951). Officers of the Immigration Service made the final decisions regarding whether immigrants would be deported for disease, although deportation of immigrants with class A diseases was mandatory. Although I refer to it as the Immigration Service, it, too, was renamed and reorganized several times throughout its history. Darrel H. Smith, The Bureau of Immigration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1926); Darrel H. Smith, The Bureau of Naturalization (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1926).
37. Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), 16-18; Sheila M. Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1994), 13-15.
38. Barbara Bates, Bargaining for Life: A Social History of Tuberculosis, 1876-1938 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), 16-18; Sheila M. Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1994), 13-15.
39. Bureau of Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service, Book of Instructions for the Medical Inspection of Immigrants (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1903), 5, 10-11.
40. Amy L. Fairchild, Science at the Borders: Immigrant Medical Inspection and the Making of the Modern Industrial Labor Force (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 32.
41. Fairchild, Science at the Borders, 14.
42. Joan Morrison and Charlotte Fox Zabnsky, American Mosaic: The Immigrant Experience in the Words of Those Who Lived It (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1980), 42. As an employee, she described herself as "a 'useful girl.'"
43. On average, 4.4% of all immigrants were certified annually from 1909 to 1930, peaking at more than 8.0% in 1918 and 1919, although only about 11% were ever deported. The medical deportation rate for medical causes never exceeded 1%. Fairchild, Science at the Borders, 4-5. The immigrant medical inspection was designed for processing third-class or steerage passengers. Although an officer might occasionally send a first-class passenger for closer examination, he searched primarily not for physical but for social aberration: "If a passenger is seen in the first cabin, but his appearance stamps him as belonging in the steerage or second cabin, his examination usually follows." Letter from Assistant Surgeon General H.D. Geddings to Surgeon General, November 16, 1906, RG90, Central File, 1897 to 1923, Box 36, File No. 219, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Md.
44. A. H. Doty, "The Use of the Clinical Thermometer as an Aid in Quarantine Inspection," Medical Record, 1 November 1902, p. 690; A. H. Doty, "Modification of Present Port Inspection," American Public Health Association Reports 21 (1906): 260.
45. A. H. Doty, "The Use of the Clinical Thermometer as an Aid in Quarantine Inspection," Medical Record, 1 November 1902, p. 690; A. H. Doty, "Modification of Present Port Inspection," American Public Health Association Reports 21 (1906): 260.
46. Letter from Assistant Surgeon General H. D. Geddings to the Surgeon General, November 16, 1923, RG90, Central File, 1897 to 1923, Box 36, File No. 219, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park Md; E. H. Mullan, "The Medical Inspection of Immigrants at Ellis Island," Medical Record, 27 December 1913, p. 1168.
47. Quoted in Irving Howe, World of Our Fathers (New York: Galahad Books, 1976), 43.
48. Paul Sigrist, interview with Manny Steen, March 22, 1991, Ellis Island Oral History Project.
49. Janet Levine, interview with Enid Griffiths Jones, April 18, 1993, Ellis Island Oral History Project.
50. There is no precise data to support this estimate. Allan Kraut cites this figure, which appears sporadically in the PHS records. No doubt, during some of the peak immigration years before the war, a far smaller percentage was turned off the line; likewise, during the war, when immigration levels were very low and the PHS experimented with the utility of conducting a more intensive medical examination, the percentage was higher.
51. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Vintage Books, 1979), 34, 111.
52. Bessie Kriesberg, Hard Soil, Tough Roots: An Immigrant Woman's Story (Jericho, NY: Exposition Press Inc, 1973), 138, 139.
53. Michael La Sorte, La Merica: Images of Italian Greenhorn Experience (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985), 48.
54. Markel, Quarantine!; Kraut, Silent Travelers; Nayah Shah, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco's Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); Emily Abel, "From Exclusion to Expulsion: Mexicans and Tuberculosis in Los Angeles, 1914-1940," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 77 (Winter 2003): 823-849.
55. Markel, Quarantine!; Kraut, Silent Travelers; Nayah Shah, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco's Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); Emily Abel, "From Exclusion to Expulsion: Mexicans and Tuberculosis in Los Angeles, 1914-1940," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 77 (Winter 2003): 823-849.
56. Markel, Quarantine!; Kraut, Silent Travelers; Nayah Shah, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco's Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); Emily Abel, "From Exclusion to Expulsion: Mexicans and Tuberculosis in Los Angeles, 1914-1940," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 77 (Winter 2003): 823-849.
57. Fairchild, Science at the Borders, chap 4. See also Shah, Contagious Divides, and Abel, "From Exclusion to Expulsion."
58. Fairchild, Science at the Borders, chap 4. See also Shah, Contagious Divides, and Abel, "From Exclusion to Expulsion."
59. Fairchild, Science at the Borders, chap 4. See also Shah, Contagious Divides, and Abel, "From Exclusion to Expulsion."
60. Robert A. Divine, American Immigration Policy, 1924-1952 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1957, 1972); Mae Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86 (June 1999), available at http://www.historycooperative. org/journals/jah/86.1//ngai.html, accessed January 16, 2004.
61. Robert A. Divine, American Immigration Policy, 1924-1952 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1957, 1972); Mae Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86 (June 1999), available at http://www.historycooperative. org/journals/jah/86.1//ngai.html, accessed January 16, 2004.
62. Abel, "From Exclusion to Expulsion"; Ngai, "The Architecture of Race."
63. Abel, "From Exclusion to Expulsion"; Ngai, "The Architecture of Race."
64. Daniels, "Two Cheers for Immigration," 26-27; Benicio Catapusan, "Filipino Immigrants and Public Relief in the United States," Sociology and Social Research 23 (1939): 546-554; Ronald Takaki, Strangers From a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (New York: Penguin Books, 1989).
65. Daniels, "Two Cheers for Immigration," 26-27; Benicio Catapusan, "Filipino Immigrants and Public Relief in the United States," Sociology and Social Research 23 (1939): 546-554; Ronald Takaki, Strangers From a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (New York: Penguin Books, 1989).
66. Daniels, "Two Cheers for Immigration," 26-27; Benicio Catapusan, "Filipino Immigrants and Public Relief in the United States," Sociology and Social Research 23 (1939): 546-554; Ronald Takaki, Strangers From a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (New York: Penguin Books, 1989).
67. Daniels, "Two Cheers for Immigration," 26-27, 30.
68. Peter Brimelow, Alien Nation: Common Sense About America's Immigration Disaster (New York: Random House, 1995); Roy Beck, The Case Against Immigration: The Moral, Economic, Social, and Environmental Reasons for Reducing US Immigration Back to Traditional Levels (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1996), 69-70.
69. Peter Brimelow, Alien Nation: Common Sense About America's Immigration Disaster (New York: Random House, 1995); Roy Beck, The Case Against Immigration: The Moral, Economic, Social, and Environmental Reasons for Reducing US Immigration Back to Traditional Levels (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1996), 69-70.
70. Divine, American Immigration Policy, 167.
71. Daniels, "Two Cheers for Immigration," 24-29; Kitty Calavita, "US Immigration Policymaking: Contradictions, Myths, and Backlash," in Regulation of Immigration: International Experiences, ed. Anita Bocker, Kees Groenendijk, Tetty Havinga, and Paul Minderhood (Amsterdam: Het Sphinhuis Publishers, 1998), 141.
72. Daniels, "Two Cheers for Immigration," 24-29; Kitty Calavita, "US Immigration Policymaking: Contradictions, Myths, and Backlash," in Regulation of Immigration: International Experiences, ed. Anita Bocker, Kees Groenendijk, Tetty Havinga, and Paul Minderhood (Amsterdam: Het Sphinhuis Publishers, 1998), 141.
73. See also Christopher Jencks, "Who Should Get In? Part II," New York Review of Books, 20 December 2001, available at www.nybooks.com/articles/ 14942, accessed April 18, 2002.
74. Daniels, "Two Cheers for Immigration," 29-35, 38; E.P. Hutchinson, Legislative History of American Immigration Policy 1798-1965 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 264-265.
75. Daniels, "Two Cheers for Immigration," 29-35, 38; E.P. Hutchinson, Legislative History of American Immigration Policy 1798-1965 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 264-265.
76. Divine, American Immigration Policy, 161, 164-176, 190; Hutchinson, Legislative History, 297-312.
77. Divine, American Immigration Policy, 161, 164-176, 190; Hutchinson, Legislative History, 297-312.
78. Diane Lindquist, "In Search of Amnesty; Call to Legalize Workers Gives Mexicans Hope," San Diego Union-Tribune, 29 May 2000, p. 1; Robin Gerber, "Labor's Welcome Change of Course on Immigration," Baltimore Sun, 29 February 2000, p. 23.
79. Diane Lindquist, "In Search of Amnesty; Call to Legalize Workers Gives Mexicans Hope," San Diego Union-Tribune, 29 May 2000, p. 1; Robin Gerber, "Labor's Welcome Change of Course on Immigration," Baltimore Sun, 29 February 2000, p. 23.
80. Nancy Foner, From Ellis Island to JFK: New York's Two Great Waves of Immigration (New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press and Russell Sage Foundation, 2000), 11, 249 (note 73); National Research Council, The New Americans: Economic, Demographic, and Fiscal Effects of Immigration (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997), 29. In the late 1990s, Congress authorized the Immigration and Naturalization Service to issue more temporary visas to highly skilled workers.
81. Nancy Foner, From Ellis Island to JFK: New York's Two Great Waves of Immigration (New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press and Russell Sage Foundation, 2000), 11, 249 (note 73); National Research Council, The New Americans: Economic, Demographic, and Fiscal Effects of Immigration (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997), 29. In the late 1990s, Congress authorized the Immigration and Naturalization Service to issue more temporary visas to highly skilled workers.
82. In 1997, Congress restored Supplemental Security Income eligibility to immigrants residing in the United States before welfare reform was passed; Balanced Budget Act of 1997, P.L. 105-33. In 1998 and 2000, food stamp benefits were restored to some immigrants, their children, the disabled, and the elderly; William E. Gibson, "Immigrants to US Discover Welcome Mat Is Out," Seattle Times, 5 September 1999, p. 9.
83. Exceptions to cash assistance included programs such as the National School Lunch Act, Head Start, and emergency medical assistance. The Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Block Grant (TANF) replaced Aid to Families With Dependent Children (AFDC). States may provide cash assistance under TANF, but they can provide vouchers or services in lieu of cash.
84. States could continue to withhold cash benefits from nonexempted immigrants even after this 5-year period; P.L. 104-193, Title 1, seclion 402(a)(1)(B)(ii) and Title IV, sections 401-403, 411-412.
85. States largely controlled the manner in which immigrants who arrived before 1996 were covered by meanstested programs. Immigrants, therefore, remained eligible for some benefits even within 5 years of arrival in states like California and in New York City.
86. Exceptions apply to programs such as emergency medical assistance. The practice of "deeming" originated in 1980 with Supplemental Security Income benefits. Deeming, as a means of limiting access to welfare, was extended to programs such as AFDC before being incorporated into Personal Responsibility Act in 1996. George J. Borjas, Heaven's Door: Immigration Policy and The American Economy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 119.
87. Immigrant Policy News 3 (August 1996): 1; Wendell Primus, "Immigration Provisions in the New Welfare Law," Focus 18 (Fall/ Winter 1996-1997): 14-18; R.Y. Kim, "Welfare Reform and 'Ineligibles': Issue of Constitutionality and Recent Court Rulings," Social Work 46 (2001): 315.
88. Immigrant Policy News 3 (August 1996): 1; Wendell Primus, "Immigration Provisions in the New Welfare Law," Focus 18 (Fall/ Winter 1996-1997): 14-18; R.Y. Kim, "Welfare Reform and 'Ineligibles': Issue of Constitutionality and Recent Court Rulings," Social Work 46 (2001): 315.
89. Immigrant Policy News 3 (August 1996): 1; Wendell Primus, "Immigration Provisions in the New Welfare Law," Focus 18 (Fall/ Winter 1996-1997): 14-18; R.Y. Kim, "Welfare Reform and 'Ineligibles': Issue of Constitutionality and Recent Court Rulings," Social Work 46 (2001): 315.
90. Marsha Lillie-Blanton and Julie Hudman, "Untangling the Web: Race/Ethnicity, Immigration, and the Nation's Health," American Journal of Public Health 91 (2001): 1736-1738. Texas almost immediately implemented the PRWORA cutbacks without additional state compensation.
91. Dave Lesher, "Deadlock on Prop. 187 Has Backers, Governor Fuming," Los Angeles Times, 8 November 1997, p. 1; Patrick J. McDonnell, "Judge's Final Order Kills Key Points of Prop. 187," Los Angeles Times, 19 March 1998, p. 3; Patrick J. McDonnell and Ken Ellingwood, "Immigration-the Big Issue of '94-Disappears From '98 Debate," Los Angeles Times, 23 October 1998, p. 3; Patrick J. McDonnell, "Davis Won't Appeal Prop. 187 Ruling, Ending Court Battles," Los Angeles Times, 29 July 1999, p. 1; Evelyn Nieves, "California Class Off Effort to Carry Out Immigrant Measure," New York Times, 30 July 1999, p. 1.
92. Dave Lesher, "Deadlock on Prop. 187 Has Backers, Governor Fuming," Los Angeles Times, 8 November 1997, p. 1; Patrick J. McDonnell, "Judge's Final Order Kills Key Points of Prop. 187," Los Angeles Times, 19 March 1998, p. 3; Patrick J. McDonnell and Ken Ellingwood, "Immigration-the Big Issue of '94-Disappears From '98 Debate," Los Angeles Times, 23 October 1998, p. 3; Patrick J. McDonnell, "Davis Won't Appeal Prop. 187 Ruling, Ending Court Battles," Los Angeles Times, 29 July 1999, p. 1; Evelyn Nieves, "California Class Off Effort to Carry Out Immigrant Measure," New York Times, 30 July 1999, p. 1.
93. Dave Lesher, "Deadlock on Prop. 187 Has Backers, Governor Fuming," Los Angeles Times, 8 November 1997, p. 1; Patrick J. McDonnell, "Judge's Final Order Kills Key Points of Prop. 187," Los Angeles Times, 19 March 1998, p. 3; Patrick J. McDonnell and Ken Ellingwood, "Immigration-the Big Issue of '94-Disappears From '98 Debate," Los Angeles Times, 23 October 1998, p. 3; Patrick J. McDonnell, "Davis Won't Appeal Prop. 187 Ruling, Ending Court Battles," Los Angeles Times, 29 July 1999, p. 1; Evelyn Nieves, "California Class Off Effort to Carry Out Immigrant Measure," New York Times, 30 July 1999, p. 1.
94. Dave Lesher, "Deadlock on Prop. 187 Has Backers, Governor Fuming," Los Angeles Times, 8 November 1997, p. 1; Patrick J. McDonnell, "Judge's Final Order Kills Key Points of Prop. 187," Los Angeles Times, 19 March 1998, p. 3; Patrick J. McDonnell and Ken Ellingwood, "Immigration-the Big Issue of '94-Disappears From '98 Debate," Los Angeles Times, 23 October 1998, p. 3; Patrick J. McDonnell, "Davis Won't Appeal Prop. 187 Ruling, Ending Court Battles," Los Angeles Times, 29 July 1999, p. 1; Evelyn Nieves, "California Class Off Effort to Carry Out Immigrant Measure," New York Times, 30 July 1999, p. 1.
95. Dave Lesher, "Deadlock on Prop. 187 Has Backers, Governor Fuming," Los Angeles Times, 8 November 1997, p. 1; Patrick J. McDonnell, "Judge's Final Order Kills Key Points of Prop. 187," Los Angeles Times, 19 March 1998, p. 3; Patrick J. McDonnell and Ken Ellingwood, "Immigration-the Big Issue of '94-Disappears From '98 Debate," Los Angeles Times, 23 October 1998, p. 3; Patrick J. McDonnell, "Davis Won't Appeal Prop. 187 Ruling, Ending Court Battles," Los Angeles Times, 29 July 1999, p. 1; Evelyn Nieves, "California Class Off Effort to Carry Out Immigrant Measure," New York Times, 30 July 1999, p. 1.
96. Greg McDonald, "Dole Scorns 'Liberals' Over School Issue," Houston Chronicle, 25 September 1996, p. 13; Marc Lacey, "Immigration Debate About to Resurface," Los Angeles Times, 26 May 1996, p. 18.
97. Greg McDonald, "Dole Scorns 'Liberals' Over School Issue," Houston Chronicle, 25 September 1996, p. 13; Marc Lacey, "Immigration Debate About to Resurface," Los Angeles Times, 26 May 1996, p. 18.
98. McDonnell and Ellingwood, "Immigration"; McDonnell, "Davis Won't Appeal"; Elaine S. Povich, "Courting Hispanics," Newsday, 21 April 2002, p. 4.
99. McDonnell and Ellingwood, "Immigration"; McDonnell, "Davis Won't Appeal"; Elaine S. Povich, "Courting Hispanics," Newsday, 21 April 2002, p. 4.
100. McDonnell and Ellingwood, "Immigration"; McDonnell, "Davis Won't Appeal"; Elaine S. Povich, "Courting Hispanics," Newsday, 21 April 2002, p. 4.
101. Michael Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York: Basic Books, 1996), xi.
102. Congressional Record, Personal Responsibility and Work Act of 1995 Conference Report, Vol, 141, No. 206 (21 December 1995): S19098, S19089.
103. Eric Schmitt, "GOP Seems Ready to Drop Political Fight," New York Times, 18 September 1996, p. 6.
104. Marc Lacey and Patrick J. McDonnell, "House Votes to OK Bans on Illegal Immigrant Schooling," Los Angeles Times, 21 March 1996, p. 1.
105. Ibid. See also Marc Lacey, "Immigration Debate About to Resurface," Los Angeles Times, 26 May 1996, p. 18.
106. Ibid. See also Marc Lacey, "Immigration Debate About to Resurface," Los Angeles Times, 26 May 1996, p. 18.
107. Schmitt, "GOP Seems Ready."
108. McDonald, "Dole Scorns 'Liberals' Over School Issue."
109. Marc Lacey, "Toned Down Bill on Immigration Passes in House," Los Angeles Times, 29 September 1996, p. 12; "Non-Yankees Go Home: That's the Message of the Punishing New Immigration and Welfare Reform Laws," Newsday, 2 October 1996, p. 36.
110. Marc Lacey, "Toned Down Bill on Immigration Passes in House," Los Angeles Times, 29 September 1996, p. 12; "Non-Yankees Go Home: That's the Message of the Punishing New Immigration and Welfare Reform Laws," Newsday, 2 October 1996, p. 36.
111. The final legislation denied refugees the right to counsel, raised the income requirements of people seeking to sponsor immigrants to 25% over the poverty level, and doubled the size of the Border Patrol; McDonald, "Dole Scorns 'Liberals' Over School Issue."
112. Lacey, "Toned Down Bill"; "Non-Yankees Go Home."
113. James Flanigan, "New Bill on Immigration is Borderline at Best," Los Angeles Times, 29 September 1996, p. 1.
114. Even illegal immigrants, though formally excluded, have a role and function within the US economy, from the laundry industry in Chicago to agriculture in the West and Southwest, Louis Uchitelle, "INS Is Looking the Other Way as Illegal Immigrants Fill Jobs," New York Times, 9 March 2000, p. 1; Mark Bixler, "Immigration Deal Could Bolster Unions; Many Illegals Who Want to Join Labor Organizations Fear Deportation," Atlanta Journal and Constitution, 2 September 2001, p. 2; Christopher Parks and Henry Tricks, "Illicit Angels of America's Economic Miracle," London Financial Times, 23 February 2000, p. 10; Michael Riley, "Increase in Immigration Arrests Leaves Town's Workforce Depleted," Denver Post, 14 April 2002, p. 18.
115. Even illegal immigrants, though formally excluded, have a role and function within the US economy, from the laundry industry in Chicago to agriculture in the West and Southwest, Louis Uchitelle, "INS Is Looking the Other Way as Illegal Immigrants Fill Jobs," New York Times, 9 March 2000, p. 1; Mark Bixler, "Immigration Deal Could Bolster Unions; Many Illegals Who Want to Join Labor Organizations Fear Deportation," Atlanta Journal and Constitution, 2 September 2001, p. 2; Christopher Parks and Henry Tricks, "Illicit Angels of America's Economic Miracle," London Financial Times, 23 February 2000, p. 10; Michael Riley, "Increase in Immigration Arrests Leaves Town's Workforce Depleted," Denver Post, 14 April 2002, p. 18.
116. Even illegal immigrants, though formally excluded, have a role and function within the US economy, from the laundry industry in Chicago to agriculture in the West and Southwest, Louis Uchitelle, "INS Is Looking the Other Way as Illegal Immigrants Fill Jobs," New York Times, 9 March 2000, p. 1; Mark Bixler, "Immigration Deal Could Bolster Unions; Many Illegals Who Want to Join Labor Organizations Fear Deportation," Atlanta Journal and Constitution, 2 September 2001, p. 2; Christopher Parks and Henry Tricks, "Illicit Angels of America's Economic Miracle," London Financial Times, 23 February 2000, p. 10; Michael Riley, "Increase in Immigration Arrests Leaves Town's Workforce Depleted," Denver Post, 14 April 2002, p. 18.
117. Even illegal immigrants, though formally excluded, have a role and function within the US economy, from the laundry industry in Chicago to agriculture in the West and Southwest, Louis Uchitelle, "INS Is Looking the Other Way as Illegal Immigrants Fill Jobs," New York Times, 9 March 2000, p. 1; Mark Bixler, "Immigration Deal Could Bolster Unions; Many Illegals Who Want to Join Labor Organizations Fear Deportation," Atlanta Journal and Constitution, 2 September 2001, p. 2; Christopher Parks and Henry Tricks, "Illicit Angels of America's Economic Miracle," London Financial Times, 23 February 2000, p. 10; Michael Riley, "Increase in Immigration Arrests Leaves Town's Workforce Depleted," Denver Post, 14 April 2002, p. 18.
118. Mae Ngai, "Legacies of Exclusion: Illegal Chinese Immigration During the Cold War Years," Journal of American Ethnic History 18 (Fall 1998): 3-35; Mae Ngai, "The Strange Career of the Illegal Alien: Immigration Restriction and Deportation Policy in the United States, 1921-1965," Law and History Review 21 (Spring 2003): 69-108; Natalia Molina. Contested Bodies and Cultures: The Politics of Public Health and Race Within Mexican, Japanese, and Chinese Communities in Los Angeles, 1879-1939 [PhD Dissertation] (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2000); Emily Abel, "From Exclusion to Expulsion."
119. Mae Ngai, "Legacies of Exclusion: Illegal Chinese Immigration During the Cold War Years," Journal of American Ethnic History 18 (Fall 1998): 3-35; Mae Ngai, "The Strange Career of the Illegal Alien: Immigration Restriction and Deportation Policy in the United States, 1921-1965," Law and History Review 21 (Spring 2003): 69-108; Natalia Molina. Contested Bodies and Cultures: The Politics of Public Health and Race Within Mexican, Japanese, and Chinese Communities in Los Angeles, 1879-1939 [PhD Dissertation] (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2000); Emily Abel, "From Exclusion to Expulsion."
120. Mae Ngai, "Legacies of Exclusion: Illegal Chinese Immigration During the Cold War Years," Journal of American Ethnic History 18 (Fall 1998): 3-35; Mae Ngai, "The Strange Career of the Illegal Alien: Immigration Restriction and Deportation Policy in the United States, 1921-1965," Law and History Review 21 (Spring 2003): 69-108; Natalia Molina. Contested Bodies and Cultures: The Politics of Public Health and Race Within Mexican, Japanese, and Chinese Communities in Los Angeles, 1879-1939 [PhD Dissertation] (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2000); Emily Abel, "From Exclusion to Expulsion."
121. Mae Ngai, "Legacies of Exclusion: Illegal Chinese Immigration During the Cold War Years," Journal of American Ethnic History 18 (Fall 1998): 3-35; Mae Ngai, "The Strange Career of the Illegal Alien: Immigration Restriction and Deportation Policy in the United States, 1921-1965," Law and History Review 21 (Spring 2003): 69-108; Natalia Molina. Contested Bodies and Cultures: The Politics of Public Health and Race Within Mexican, Japanese, and Chinese Communities in Los Angeles, 1879-1939 [PhD Dissertation] (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2000); Emily Abel, "From Exclusion to Expulsion."
122. Bill McAllister, "Immigration Law Unlikely to Soften; Mexican Workers' Status Can't Change for Safety Reasons, Tancredo Asserts," Denver Post, 26 September 2001, p. 1; Cindy Rodriguez, "In the Week of Attacks, Proposals to Toughen Laws Are Expected," Boston Globe, 19 September 2001, p. 26.
123. Bill McAllister, "Immigration Law Unlikely to Soften; Mexican Workers' Status Can't Change for Safety Reasons, Tancredo Asserts," Denver Post, 26 September 2001, p. 1; Cindy Rodriguez, "In the Week of Attacks, Proposals to Toughen Laws Are Expected," Boston Globe, 19 September 2001, p. 26.
124. Robert Pear, "Bill on Border Security and Immigration Passes in House," New York Times, 9 May 2002, p. 34; Diana Jean Schemo, "Officials to Speed Start of New Student Visa Tracking System," New York Times, 11 May 2002, p. 12. The effects of September 11th may be further exacerbated by commentaries such as Pat Buchanan's Death of the West: How Dying Populations and Immigrant Invasions Imperil Our Country and Civilization (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2002).
125. Robert Pear, "Bill on Border Security and Immigration Passes in House," New York Times, 9 May 2002, p. 34; Diana Jean Schemo, "Officials to Speed Start of New Student Visa Tracking System," New York Times, 11 May 2002, p. 12. The effects of September 11th may be further exacerbated by commentaries such as Pat Buchanan's Death of the West: How Dying Populations and Immigrant Invasions Imperil Our Country and Civilization (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2002).
126. Robert Pear, "Bill on Border Security and Immigration Passes in House," New York Times, 9 May 2002, p. 34; Diana Jean Schemo, "Officials to Speed Start of New Student Visa Tracking System," New York Times, 11 May 2002, p. 12. The effects of September 11th may be further exacerbated by commentaries such as Pat Buchanan's Death of the West: How Dying Populations and Immigrant Invasions Imperil Our Country and Civilization (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2002).
127. Patty Reinert, "Border Fix Won't Be Quick," Houston Chronicle, 27 March 2002, p. 3; Elisabeth Bumiller, "White House Announces Security Pact with Mexico," New York Times, 22 March 2002, p. 18; Carla Baranauckas, "Bush Signs Border-Security Measure," New York Times, 15 May 2002, p. 20.
128. Patty Reinert, "Border Fix Won't Be Quick," Houston Chronicle, 27 March 2002, p. 3; Elisabeth Bumiller, "White House Announces Security Pact with Mexico," New York Times, 22 March 2002, p. 18; Carla Baranauckas, "Bush Signs Border-Security Measure," New York Times, 15 May 2002, p. 20.
129. Patty Reinert, "Border Fix Won't Be Quick," Houston Chronicle, 27 March 2002, p. 3; Elisabeth Bumiller, "White House Announces Security Pact with Mexico," New York Times, 22 March 2002, p. 18; Carla Baranauckas, "Bush Signs Border-Security Measure," New York Times, 15 May 2002, p. 20.
130. Peter Brimelow, "Time for a Change? Enough! America Is Drowning in a Sea of Immigrants," Atlanta Journal and Constitution, 30 April 1995, p. 1G.
131. "Non-Yankees Go Home."
132. Robert Pear, "House Passes Immigrant Bill to Aid Mexico," New York Times, 13 March 2002, p. 1; Robert Pear, "Immigrant Bill," New York Times, 17 March 2002, p. 2; Mark Bixler, "House Votes to Ease Immigration Rule," Atlanta Journal and Constitution, 13 March 2002, p. 3A.
133. Robert Pear, "House Passes Immigrant Bill to Aid Mexico," New York Times, 13 March 2002, p. 1; Robert Pear, "Immigrant Bill," New York Times, 17 March 2002, p. 2; Mark Bixler, "House Votes to Ease Immigration Rule," Atlanta Journal and Constitution, 13 March 2002, p. 3A.
134. Robert Pear, "House Passes Immigrant Bill to Aid Mexico," New York Times, 13 March 2002, p. 1; Robert Pear, "Immigrant Bill," New York Times, 17 March 2002, p. 2; Mark Bixler, "House Votes to Ease Immigration Rule," Atlanta Journal and Constitution, 13 March 2002, p. 3A.
135. Associated Press, "Border Security Bill Sent to Bush," New York Times, 9 May 2002; Pear, "Bill on Border Security"; Pear, "House Passes Immigrant Bill."
136. Associated Press, "Border Security Bill Sent to Bush," New York Times, 9 May 2002; Pear, "Bill on Border Security"; Pear, "House Passes Immigrant Bill."
137. The bill is still in the Senate Judiciary Committee.
138. David Abraham, "American Jobs but not the American Dream," Neto New York Times, 9 January 2004, p. A19.
139. "AFL-CIO Calls for New Direction in US Immigration Policy to Protect Workers, Hold Employers Accountable for Exploitative Working Conditions," February 16, 2000, available at www.aflcio.org/mediacenter/prsptm/pr 02162000d.cfm, accessed January 16, 2004.
140. Michael McGovern, Labor Lyrics, and Other Poems (Youngstown, Ohio, 1899), 27-28, quoted in Montgomery, Fall of the House of Labor, 25.
141. Michael McGovern, Labor Lyrics, and Other Poems (Youngstown, Ohio, 1899), 27-28, quoted in Montgomery, Fall of the House of Labor, 25.
142. Edith Abbott, "The Wages of Unskilled Labor in the United States," Journal of Political Economy 13 (1905): 324.
143. In its 1886 ruling in the Wabash case, the Supreme Court recognized corporations as "persons" protected under the 14th Amendment to the Constitution. The ruling also prohibited states from regulating interstate commerce, giving sole regulatory authority to the federal government.
144. Steven Greenhouse, "In US Unions, Mexico Finds an Unlikely Ally on Immigration," New York Times, 19 July 2001, p. A1.
145. Eric Brazil, "Unions Widen Their World; Ex-Foes of Undocumented Workers Now See Them as Membership Targets," San Francisco Chronicle, 2 September 2001, p. W1.
146. Lindquist, "In Search of Amnesty."
147. It is not dear how labor will view foreign workers who are not either legal or illegal immigrants. Two federal programs from the early 1990s helped to expand the labor force without visibly expanding the immigrant population. The H1-B visa system was established in 1990 to permit businesses to sponsor highly skilled foreign workers if domestic workers were not available. H1-B visa holders are not technically immigrants, but most are likely to remain permanently. In a declining economy, these workers are increasingly viewed as "serfs" who take American jobs and drive down wages, and measures have been introduced to reduce drastically the number of H1-B visas the Immigration and Naturalization Service may issue. Alan B. Krueger, "Work Visas Are Allowing Washington to Sidestep Immigration Reform," New York Times, 25 May 2000, p. C2; Tom Condon, "Vulnerable Workers Become Victims of Corporate Greed," Hartford Courant, 13 October 2002, p. B1; Allan Masri, "No Shortage of Trained American Engineers," Los Angeles Times, 8 February 2003, p. 26; Diane E. Lewis, "Congress Asked to Review IT Field; Engineers Group Upset Over H1-B Visas, Job Losses," Boston Globe, 23 July 2002, p. D2; Pamela R. Winnick, "Visa Versa," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 3 May 2002, p. C10. Other individuals are allowed to work in the United States if granted "temporary protected status," or TPS. US Citizenship and Immigration Services, "What Is Temporary Protected Status," available at http://uscis.gov/ graphics/howdoi/tps.htm, accessed January 16, 2004.
148. It is not dear how labor will view foreign workers who are not either legal or illegal immigrants. Two federal programs from the early 1990s helped to expand the labor force without visibly expanding the immigrant population. The H1-B visa system was established in 1990 to permit businesses to sponsor highly skilled foreign workers if domestic workers were not available. H1-B visa holders are not technically immigrants, but most are likely to remain permanently. In a declining economy, these workers are increasingly viewed as "serfs" who take American jobs and drive down wages, and measures have been introduced to reduce drastically the number of H1-B visas the Immigration and Naturalization Service may issue. Alan B. Krueger, "Work Visas Are Allowing Washington to Sidestep Immigration Reform," New York Times, 25 May 2000, p. C2; Tom Condon, "Vulnerable Workers Become Victims of Corporate Greed," Hartford Courant, 13 October 2002, p. B1; Allan Masri, "No Shortage of Trained American Engineers," Los Angeles Times, 8 February 2003, p. 26; Diane E. Lewis, "Congress Asked to Review IT Field; Engineers Group Upset Over H1-B Visas, Job Losses," Boston Globe, 23 July 2002, p. D2; Pamela R. Winnick, "Visa Versa," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 3 May 2002, p. C10. Other individuals are allowed to work in the United States if granted "temporary protected status," or TPS. US Citizenship and Immigration Services, "What Is Temporary Protected Status," available at http://uscis.gov/ graphics/howdoi/tps.htm, accessed January 16, 2004.
149. It is not dear how labor will view foreign workers who are not either legal or illegal immigrants. Two federal programs from the early 1990s helped to expand the labor force without visibly expanding the immigrant population. The H1-B visa system was established in 1990 to permit businesses to sponsor highly skilled foreign workers if domestic workers were not available. H1-B visa holders are not technically immigrants, but most are likely to remain permanently. In a declining economy, these workers are increasingly viewed as "serfs" who take American jobs and drive down wages, and measures have been introduced to reduce drastically the number of H1-B visas the Immigration and Naturalization Service may issue. Alan B. Krueger, "Work Visas Are Allowing Washington to Sidestep Immigration Reform," New York Times, 25 May 2000, p. C2; Tom Condon, "Vulnerable Workers Become Victims of Corporate Greed," Hartford Courant, 13 October 2002, p. B1; Allan Masri, "No Shortage of Trained American Engineers," Los Angeles Times, 8 February 2003, p. 26; Diane E. Lewis, "Congress Asked to Review IT Field; Engineers Group Upset Over H1-B Visas, Job Losses," Boston Globe, 23 July 2002, p. D2; Pamela R. Winnick, "Visa Versa," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 3 May 2002, p. C10. Other individuals are allowed to work in the United States if granted "temporary protected status," or TPS. US Citizenship and Immigration Services, "What Is Temporary Protected Status," available at http://uscis.gov/ graphics/howdoi/tps.htm, accessed January 16, 2004.
150. It is not dear how labor will view foreign workers who are not either legal or illegal immigrants. Two federal programs from the early 1990s helped to expand the labor force without visibly expanding the immigrant population. The H1-B visa system was established in 1990 to permit businesses to sponsor highly skilled foreign workers if domestic workers were not available. H1-B visa holders are not technically immigrants, but most are likely to remain permanently. In a declining economy, these workers are increasingly viewed as "serfs" who take American jobs and drive down wages, and measures have been introduced to reduce drastically the number of H1-B visas the Immigration and Naturalization Service may issue. Alan B. Krueger, "Work Visas Are Allowing Washington to Sidestep Immigration Reform," New York Times, 25 May 2000, p. C2; Tom Condon, "Vulnerable Workers Become Victims of Corporate Greed," Hartford Courant, 13 October 2002, p. B1; Allan Masri, "No Shortage of Trained American Engineers," Los Angeles Times, 8 February 2003, p. 26; Diane E. Lewis, "Congress Asked to Review IT Field; Engineers Group Upset Over H1-B Visas, Job Losses," Boston Globe, 23 July 2002, p. D2; Pamela R. Winnick, "Visa Versa," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 3 May 2002, p. C10. Other individuals are allowed to work in the United States if granted "temporary protected status," or TPS. US Citizenship and Immigration Services, "What Is Temporary Protected Status," available at http://uscis.gov/ graphics/howdoi/tps.htm, accessed January 16, 2004.
151. It is not dear how labor will view foreign workers who are not either legal or illegal immigrants. Two federal programs from the early 1990s helped to expand the labor force without visibly expanding the immigrant population. The H1-B visa system was established in 1990 to permit businesses to sponsor highly skilled foreign workers if domestic workers were not available. H1-B visa holders are not technically immigrants, but most are likely to remain permanently. In a declining economy, these workers are increasingly viewed as "serfs" who take American jobs and drive down wages, and measures have been introduced to reduce drastically the number of H1-B visas the Immigration and Naturalization Service may issue. Alan B. Krueger, "Work Visas Are Allowing Washington to Sidestep Immigration Reform," New York Times, 25 May 2000, p. C2; Tom Condon, "Vulnerable Workers Become Victims of Corporate Greed," Hartford Courant, 13 October 2002, p. B1; Allan Masri, "No Shortage of Trained American Engineers," Los Angeles Times, 8 February 2003, p. 26; Diane E. Lewis, "Congress Asked to Review IT Field; Engineers Group Upset Over H1-B Visas, Job Losses," Boston Globe, 23 July 2002, p. D2; Pamela R. Winnick, "Visa Versa," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 3 May 2002, p. C10. Other individuals are allowed to work in the United States if granted "temporary protected status," or TPS. US Citizenship and Immigration Services, "What Is Temporary Protected Status," available at http://uscis.gov/ graphics/howdoi/tps.htm, accessed January 16, 2004.
152. It is not dear how labor will view foreign workers who are not either legal or illegal immigrants. Two federal programs from the early 1990s helped to expand the labor force without visibly expanding the immigrant population. The H1-B visa system was established in 1990 to permit businesses to sponsor highly skilled foreign workers if domestic workers were not available. H1-B visa holders are not technically immigrants, but most are likely to remain permanently. In a declining economy, these workers are increasingly viewed as "serfs" who take American jobs and drive down wages, and measures have been introduced to reduce drastically the number of H1-B visas the Immigration and Naturalization Service may issue. Alan B. Krueger, "Work Visas Are Allowing Washington to Sidestep Immigration Reform," New York Times, 25 May 2000, p. C2; Tom Condon, "Vulnerable Workers Become Victims of Corporate Greed," Hartford Courant, 13 October 2002, p. B1; Allan Masri, "No Shortage of Trained American Engineers," Los Angeles Times, 8 February 2003, p. 26; Diane E. Lewis, "Congress Asked to Review IT Field; Engineers Group Upset Over H1-B Visas, Job Losses," Boston Globe, 23 July 2002, p. D2; Pamela R. Winnick, "Visa Versa," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 3 May 2002, p. C10. Other individuals are allowed to work in the United States if granted "temporary protected status," or TPS. US Citizenship and Immigration Services, "What Is Temporary Protected Status," available at http://uscis.gov/ graphics/howdoi/tps.htm, accessed January 16, 2004.
153. Brazil, "Unions Widen Their World."
154. Lindquist, "In Search of Amnesty."
155. James B. Parks, "Recognizing Our Common Bonds," updated April 12, 2002, available at http://www. aflcio.org/aboutaflcio/magazine/ commonbonds.cfm, accessed January 14, 2004.
156. Borjas, Heaven's Door, xiv-xvi, 5, 8-16, 62-104.
157. Congressional Record, House of Representatives, May 16, 2002, p. H2515-H2590; Robert Pear, "GOP Dispute Delays Vote on Welfare Bill," New York Times, 16 May 2002, A20. A Democratic substitute bill as well as planned amendments that were overruled would have restored benefits to legal immigrants along with providing an additional $5 billion for child care, given the increased work requirements; Congressional Record, p. H2559. See also Robert Pear, "House Passes a Welfare Bill With Stricter Rules on Work," New York Times, 17 May 2002, A1, and Hillary Rodham Clinton. Letter to the Editor, New York Times, 16 May 2002, A24.
158. Congressional Record, House of Representatives, May 16, 2002, p. H2515-H2590; Robert Pear, "GOP Dispute Delays Vote on Welfare Bill," New York Times, 16 May 2002, A20. A Democratic substitute bill as well as planned amendments that were overruled would have restored benefits to legal immigrants along with providing an additional $5 billion for child care, given the increased work requirements; Congressional Record, p. H2559. See also Robert Pear, "House Passes a Welfare Bill With Stricter Rules on Work," New York Times, 17 May 2002, A1, and Hillary Rodham Clinton. Letter to the Editor, New York Times, 16 May 2002, A24.
159. Congressional Record, House of Representatives, May 16, 2002, p. H2515-H2590; Robert Pear, "GOP Dispute Delays Vote on Welfare Bill," New York Times, 16 May 2002, A20. A Democratic substitute bill as well as planned amendments that were overruled would have restored benefits to legal immigrants along with providing an additional $5 billion for child care, given the increased work requirements; Congressional Record, p. H2559. See also Robert Pear, "House Passes a Welfare Bill With Stricter Rules on Work," New York Times, 17 May 2002, A1, and Hillary Rodham Clinton. Letter to the Editor, New York Times, 16 May 2002, A24.
160. Congressional Record, House of Representatives, May 16, 2002, p. H2515-H2590; Robert Pear, "GOP Dispute Delays Vote on Welfare Bill," New York Times, 16 May 2002, A20. A Democratic substitute bill as well as planned amendments that were overruled would have restored benefits to legal immigrants along with providing an additional $5 billion for child care, given the increased work requirements; Congressional Record, p. H2559. See also Robert Pear, "House Passes a Welfare Bill With Stricter Rules on Work," New York Times, 17 May 2002, A1, and Hillary Rodham Clinton. Letter to the Editor, New York Times, 16 May 2002, A24.
161. Congressional Record, House of Representatives, May 16, 2002, p. H2515-H2590; Robert Pear, "GOP Dispute Delays Vote on Welfare Bill," New York Times, 16 May 2002, A20. A Democratic substitute bill as well as planned amendments that were overruled would have restored benefits to legal immigrants along with providing an additional $5 billion for child care, given the increased work requirements; Congressional Record, p. H2559. See also Robert Pear, "House Passes a Welfare Bill With Stricter Rules on Work," New York Times, 17 May 2002, A1, and Hillary Rodham Clinton. Letter to the Editor, New York Times, 16 May 2002, A24.
162. Daniel Altman, "Welfare Bill's Tougher Love May Backfire," New York Times, 19 May 2002, p. 4.
163. Robert Pear, "Federal Welfare Roll Shrinks, but Drop Is Smallest Since '94," New York Times, 21 May 2002, p. A12.
164. Congressional Record, May 16, 2002, p. H2515, and May 16, 2002, p. H2540 and H2545. The bill's detractors advanced a different vision of society and repeatedly argued that the bill failed to lift people out of poverty. They underscored that reducing the welfare rolls and combating poverty were hardly equivalent, thereby questioning the very terms of welfare reform's success. See, for example, the pointed remarks of Representative Lynn Woolsey, a Democrat from California and former welfare recipient, as well as those of Jose Serrano, a New York Democrat; Congressional Record, May 16, 2002, p. H2538. See also the editorial of Douglass McKinnon, former recipient of welfare and former press secretary to former senator Bob Dole, "The Welfare Washington Doesn't Know," New York Times, 21 May 2002, p. A21.
165. Ann McFeatters, "Success Stories Highlight New Welfare Push; Welfare-to-Work Law Hailed at White House," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 15 January 2003, p. A10; Editorial, "Unworkable Welfare," Boston Globe, 16 January 2003, p. A10.
166. Ann McFeatters, "Success Stories Highlight New Welfare Push; Welfare-to-Work Law Hailed at White House," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 15 January 2003, p. A10; Editorial, "Unworkable Welfare," Boston Globe, 16 January 2003, p. A10.
167. Senator Max Baucus, "What's the Next Phase of Welfare Reform?" Roll Call, 8 December 2003 (Policy Briefings Section).