The facial nerve in the presence of a head and neck neoplasm: Assessment and outcome after surgical management

Current Opinion in Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery

Volumn 12, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 133-141

  Guntinas Lichius, Orlando ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLOGNE   (Germany)

Author keywords

Facial palsy; Facial rehabilitation; Nerve suture; Reconstruction; Tumor

Indexed keywords

BOTULINUM TOXIN;

CLINICAL FEATURE; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; ELECTROMYOGRAPHY; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; FACE; FACE SURGERY; FACIAL EXPRESSION; FACIAL NERVE PARALYSIS; FACIAL NERVE SURGERY; FREE MUSCLE TRANSFER; HEAD AND NECK CANCER; HEAD AND NECK TUMOR; HUMAN; HYPOGLOSSAL NERVE; MUSCLE TRANSPLANTATION; MUSCLE TRANSPOSITION; NERVE ANASTOMOSIS; NERVE GRAFT; NERVE SUTURE; NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PHYSIOTHERAPY; POSTOPERATIVE CARE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REINNERVATION; REVIEW; SOCIAL DISABILITY; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; TEMPORALIS MUSCLE; TREATMENT INDICATION; TREATMENT PLANNING; UPPER EYELID; VERBAL COMMUNICATION;

ANASTOMOSIS, SURGICAL; ELECTROMYOGRAPHY; FACIAL NERVE; FACIAL PARALYSIS; HEAD AND NECK NEOPLASMS; HUMANS; HYPOGLOSSAL NERVE; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; NERVE REGENERATION; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 1842486103     PISSN: 10689508     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00020840-200404000-00014     Document Type: Review

References (80)

1. Schaitkin BM, May M, Klein SR: Office evaluation of the patient with facial palsy: differential diagnosis and prognosis. In The Facial Nerve, edn. 2. Edited by May M, Schaitkin BM. New York: Thieme; 2000:179-212.
2. O'Brien CJ, Adams JR: Surgical management of the facial nerve in presence of malignancy about the face. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2001, 9:90-94.
3. Spiro RH: Changing trends in the management of salivary tumors. Semin Surg Oncol 1995, 11:240-245.
4. Kim CS, Chang SO, Oh SH, et al.: Management of intratemporal facial nerve schwannoma. Otol Neurotol 2003, 24:312-316.
5. Lydiatt DD: Medical malpractice and facial nerve paralysis. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2003, 129:50-53.
6. Glasscock ME III, Kveton JF, Jackson CG, et al.: A systematic approach to the surgical management of acoustic neuroma. Laryngoscope 1986, 96:1088-1094.
7. Maw AR, Coakham HB, Ayoub O, et al.: Hearing preservation and facial nerve function in vestibular schwannoma surgery. Clin Otolaryngol 2003, 28:252-256.
8. Stennert E: I. Hypoglossal facial anastomosis: its significance for modern facial surgery. II. Combined approach in extratemporal facial nerve reconstruction. Clin Plast Surg 1979, 6:471-486.
9. May M, Sobol SM, Mester SJ: Hypoglossal-facial nerve interpositional-jump graft for facial reanimation without tongue atrophy. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1991, 104:818-825.
10. Tos T, Caye-Thomasen P, Stangerup SE, et al.: Need for facial reanimation after operations for vestibular schwannoma: patients perspective. Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg Hand Surg 2003, 37:75-80.
11. Thrush DC, Small M: How benign a symptom is facial numbness? Lancet 1970, ii:851-854.
12. Schaitkin BM, May M, Klein SR: Topognostic, otovestibular, and electrical testing: diagnosis and prognosis. In The Facial Nerve, edn. 2. Edited by May M, Schaitkin BM. New York: Thieme; 2000:213-230.
13. Jager L, Reiser M: CT and MR imaging of the normal and pathologic conditions of the facial nerve. Eur J Radiol 2001, 40:133-146.
14. Jungehuelsing M, Sittel C, Fischbach R, et al.: Limitations of magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of perineural tumor spread causing facial nerve paralysis. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2000, 126:506-510.
15. Ragbir M, Dunaway DJ, Chippindale AJ, et al.: Prediction of the position of the intraparotid portion of the facial nerve on MRI and CT. Br J Plast Surg 2002, 55:376-379.
16. Sartoretti-Schefer S, Kollias S, Valavanis A: Spatial relationship between vestibular schwannoma and facial nerve on three-dimensional T2-weighted fast spin-echo MR images. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2000, 21:810-816.
17. Kaylie DM, Wax MK, Weissman JL: Preoperative facial muscle imaging predicts final facial function after facial nerve grafting. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2003, 24:326-330. This interesting retrospective study shows that preoperative asymmetry of facial muscles on MRI may predict functional outcome after nerve grafting. More studies are needed to evaluate the method definitely.
18. Linstrom CJ: Objective facial motion analysis in patients with facial nerve dysfunction. Laryngoscope 2002, 112:1129-1147. This is an excellent review of the advantages and disadvantages of the different facial grading systems. The future powerful role of digital image analysis to analyze facial expression is presented well.
19. Kang TS, Vrabec JT, Giddings N, et al.: Facial nerve grading systems (1985-2002): beyond the House-Brackmann scale. Otol Neurotol 2002, 23:767-771.
20. Yen TL, Driscoll CL, Lalwani AK: Significance of House-Brackmann facial nerve grading global score in the setting of differential facial nerve function. Otol Neurotol 2003, 24:118-122.
21. Sittel C, Sittel A, Guntinas-Lichius O, et al.: Bell's palsy: a 10-year experience with antiphlogistic-rheologic infusion therapy. Am J Otol 2000, 21:425-432.
22. May M: Management of cranial nerves I through VII following skull base surgery. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1980, 88:560-575.
23. Dulguerov P, Wang D, Perneger TV, et al.: Videomimicography: the standards of normal revised. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2003, 129:960-965.
24. Giovanoli P, Tzou CH, Ploner M, et al.: Three-dimensional video-analysis of facial movements in healthy volunteers. Br J Plast Surg 2003, 56:644-652.
25. May M, Harvey JE, Marovitz WF, et al.: The prognostic accuracy of the maximal stimulation test compared with that of the nerve excitability test in Bell's palsy. Laryngoscope 1971, 81:931-938.
26. Esslen E: The acute facial palsies: investigations on the localization and pathogenesis of meato-labyrinthine facial palsies. Schriftenr Neurol 1977, 18:1-164.
27. Sittel C, Guntinas-Lichius O, Streppel M, et al.: Variability of repeated facial nerve electroneurography in healthy subjects. Laryngoscope 1998, 108:1177-1180.
28. Jungehulsing M, Guntinas-Lichius O, Stennert E: Rehabilitation in chronic facial paralysis. HNO 2001, 49:418-426.
29. Sittel C, Stennert E: Prognostic value of electromyography in acute peripheral facial nerve palsy. Otol Neurotol 2001, 22:100-104.
30. Stitik TP, Foye PM, Nadler SF: Electromyography in craniomaxillofacial trauma. J Craniomaxillofac Trauma 1999, 5:39-46.
31. Conley JJ, May M: Perspectives in facial reanimation. In The Facial Nerve, edn. 2. Edited by May M, Schaitkin BM. New York: Thieme; 2000:551-570.
32. Myckatyn TM, Mackinnon SE: The surgical management of facial nerve injury. Clin Plast Surg 2003, 30:307-318. This is the most recent review of facial nerve reanimation. The authors give some helpful practical advice like using a nerve stimulator to find the optimal hypoglossal nerve fibers to cut for the hypoglossal-facial jump anastomosis.
33. Bascom DA, Schaitkin BM, May M, et al.: Facial nerve repair: a retrospective review. Facial Plast Surg 2000, 16:309-313.
34. Falcioni M, Taibah A, Russo A, et al.: Facial nerve grafting. Otol Neurotol 2003, 24:486-489. The results of 69 patients with facial nerve graft are presented. Preferring the sural nerve as the donor nerve, the authors reach satisfactory reanimation in half the patients. Perhaps some patients would have profited better by a hypoglossal-facial jump anastomosis.
35. Streppel M, Angelov DN, Guntinas-Lichius O, et al.: Nerve-plasty interventions on the facial nerve in the elderly patient-morphological evaluation of disappointing functional results. Laryngorhinootologie 1998, 77:332-336.
36. Brown PD, Eshleman JS, Foote RL, et al.: An analysis of facial nerve function in irradiated and unirradiated facial nerve grafts. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2000, 48:737-743.
37. Spector JG: Mimetic surgery for the paralyzed face. Laryngoscope 1985, 95:1494-1522.
38. Bento RF, Miniti A: Anastomosis of the intratemporal facial nerve using fibrin tissue adhesive. Ear Nose Throat J 1993, 72:663.
39. Wang J, El Garem H, Bouccara D, et al.: Fibrin glue anastomosis of the facial nerve. A report of 97 cases. In New Horizons in Facial Nerve Research and Facial Expression. Edited by Yanagihara N, Murakami S. The Hague/The Netherlands: Kugler Publications; 1998:449-452.
40. Reddy PG, Arden RL, Mathog RH: Facial nerve rehabilitation after radical parotidectomy. Laryngoscope 1999, 109:894-899.
41. Conley J, Baker DC: Hypoglossal-facial nerve anastomosis for reinnervation of the paralyzed face. Plast Reconstr Surg 1979, 63:63-72.
42. Samii M, Matthies C: Indication, technique and results of facial nerve reconstruction. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1994, 130:125-139.
43. Streppel M, Popratiloff A, Angelov DN, et al.: Significance of trigeminal sensory input on regrowth of hypoglossal and facial motoneurons after hypoglossal facial anastomosis in rats. Acta Otolaryngol 1998, 118:790-796.
44. Rodel R, Laskawi R: Hypoglossal-facial nerve anastomosis: patients' self-assessment of facial function. Otorhinolaryngol Nova 1998, 8:312-317.
45. Stennert E: I. Hypoglossal facial anastomosis: its significance for modern facial surgery. II. Combined approach in extratemporal facial nerve reconstruction. Clin Plast Surg 1979, 6:471-486.
46. Kunihiro T, Higashino K, Kanzaki J: Classic hypoglossal-facial nerve anastomosis after acoustic neuroma resection. A review of 46 cases. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec 2003, 65:1-6. This paper shows the limits of the classic hypoglossal-facial nerve anastomosis and is one of the few papers studying patient satisfaction after facial reanimation.
47. Pitty LF, Tator CH: Hypoglossal-facial nerve anastomosis for facial nerve palsy following surgery for cerebellopontine angle tumors. J Neurosurg 1992, 77:724-731.
48. Manni JJ, Beurskens CH, van DV, et al.: Reanimation of the paralyzed face by indirect hypoglossal-facial nerve anastomosis. Am J Surg 2001, 182:268-273.
49. May M, Drucker C: Temporalis muscle for facial reanimation. A 13-year experience with 224 procedures. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1993, 119:378-382.
50. Cheney ML, McKenna MJ, Megerian CA, et al.: Early temporalis muscle transposition for the management of facial paralysis. Laryngoscope 1995, 105:993-1000.
51. Buchholtz BD, Mickel RA, Bredenkamp JK, et al.: Two-stage temporalis flap reconstruction for facial paralysis. J Laryngol Otol 1989, 103:672-674.
52. Baker DC, Conley J: Regional muscle transposition for rehabilitation of the paralyzed face. Clin Plast Surg 1979, 6:317-331.
53. Conley J, Baker DC, Selfe RW: Paralysis of the mandibular branch of the facial nerve. Plast Reconstr Surg 1982, 70:569-577.
54. Tan ST: Anterior belly of digastric muscle transfer: a useful technique in head and neck surgery. Head Neck 2002, 24:947-954. Head and neck surgeons often forget the depressor anguli oris function reanimating the paralyzed face. Digastric muscle transfer is easy and fast to perform, and improves the results.
55. May M: Regional reanimation: nose and mouth. In The Facial Nerve, edn. 2. Edited by May M, Schaitkin BM. New York: Thieme; 2000:775-795.
56. Jobe RP: A technique for lid loading in the management of the lagophthalmos of facial palsy. Plast Reconstr Surg 1974, 53:29-32.
57. May M: Prospective evaluation of eyelid function with gold weight implant and lower eyelid shortening for facial paralysis. Arch Facial Plast Surg 2002, 4:60-61.
58. Levine RE, Shapiro JP: Reanimation of the paralyzed eyelid with the enhanced palpebral spring or the gold weight: modern replacements for tarsorrhaphy. Facial Plast Surg 2000, 16:325-336.
59. Harrisberg BP, Singh RP, Croxson GR, et al.: Long-term outcome of gold eyelid weights in patients with facial nerve palsy. Otol Neurotol 2001, 22:397-400.
60. Berghaus A, Neumann K, Schrom T: The platinum chain: a new upper-lid implant for facial palsy. Arch Facial Plast Surg 2003, 5:166-170.
61. Scaramella LF: Anastomosis between the two facial nerves. Laryngoscope 1975, 85:1359-1366.
62. Frey M, Giovanoli P: The three-stage concept to optimize the results of microsurgical reanimation of the paralyzed face. Clin Plast Surg 2002, 29:461-482.
63. Harrison DH: The treatment of unilateral and bilateral facial palsy using free muscle transfers. Clin Plast Surg 2002, 29:539-549. The author is experienced in microvascular transfer of the pectoralis minor muscle for facial reanimation. Reading the paper it becomes obvious that free muscle transfer is only seldom indicated for head and neck cancer patients, only when the patient should be sent to a specialized center.
64. Buncke HJ, Buncke GM, Kind GM, et al.: Cross-facial and functional microvascular muscle transplantation for long-standing facial paralysis. Clin Plast Surg 2002, 29:551-566.
65. Laskawi R: Combination of hypoglossal-facial nerve anastomosis and botulinum-toxin injections to optimize mimic rehabilitation after removal of acoustic neurinomas. Plast Reconstr Surg 1997, 99:1006-1011.
66. Bikhazi NB, Maas CS: Refinement in the rehabilitation of the paralyzed face using botulinum toxin. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1997, 117:303-307.
67. Beurskens CH: Mime therapy: rehabilitation of facial expression. Doctoral thesis. Nijmegen: University of Nijmegen; 2003. This comprehensive thesis exposes the sparsity of our knowledge about the efficacy of physiotherapy for facial nerve rehabilitation. The development of Mime therapy is illustrated in detail. The results of two controlled trials showing a positive effect of Mime therapy are presented.
68. Ross B, Nedzelski JM, McLean JA: Efficacy of feedback training in long-standing facial nerve paresis. Laryngoscope 1991, 101:744-750.
69. Shiau J, Segal B, Danys I, et al.: Long-term effects of neuromuscular rehabilitation of chronic facial paralysis. J Otolaryngol 1995, 24:217-220.
70. Segal B, Hunter T, Danys I, et al.: Minimizing synkinesis during rehabilitation of the paralyzed face: preliminary assessment of a new small-movement therapy. J Otolaryngol 1995, 24:149-153.
71. Beurskens CH, Heymans PG: Positive effects of mime therapy on sequelae of facial paralysis: stiffness, lip mobility, and social and physical aspects of facial disability. Otol Neurotol 2003, 24:677-681.
72. Targan RS, Alon G, Kay SL: Effect of long-term electrical stimulation on motor recovery and improvement of clinical residuals in patients with unresolved facial nerve palsy. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2000, 122:246-252.
73. Diels HJ: Facial paralysis: is there a role for a therapist? Facial Plast Surg 2000, 16:361-364.
74. Thomas PK: Clinical aspects of PNS regeneration. Adv Neurol 1988, 47:9-29.
75. Streppel M, Azzolin N, Dohm S, et al.: Focal application of neutralizing antibodies to soluble neurotrophic factors reduces collateral axonal branching after peripheral nerve lesion. Eur J Neurosci 2002, 15:1327-1342.
76. Guntinas-Lichius O, Wewetzer K, Tomov TL, et al.: Transplantation of olfactory mucosa minimizes axonal branching and promotes the recovery of vibrissae motor performance after facial nerve repair in rats. J Neurosci 2002, 22:7121-7131. The functional results of facial nerve reconstruction are dramatically improved in an animal model by transplanting autogenic olfactory mucosa full of nerve growth-promoting cells on the suture side. This method offers promise in future facial reanimation.
77. Dahlin LB, Lundborg G: Use of tubes in peripheral nerve repair. Neurosurg Clin North Am 2001, 12:341-352.
78. Weber RA, Breidenbach WC, Brown RE, et al.: A randomized prospective study of polyglycolic acid conduits for digital nerve reconstruction in humans. Plast Reconstr Surg 2000, 106:1036-1045.
79. Nicolaidis SC, Williams HB: Muscle preservation using an implantable electrical system after nerve injury and repair. Microsurgery 2001, 21:241-247.
80. Zealear DL, Billante CR, Courey MS, et al.: Reanimation of the paralyzed human larynx with an implantable electrical stimulation device. Laryngoscope 2003, 113:1149-1156,