The electroconvulsive therapy controversy: Evidence and ethics

Neuropsychology Review

Volumn 13, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 199-219

  Reisner, Andrew D ^a  

^a Cambridge Psychiatric Hospital   (United States)

Author keywords

Brain damage; Efficacy; Electroconvulsive therapy; Informed consent

Indexed keywords

AMITRIPTYLINE; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; DESIPRAMINE; DOXEPIN; IMIPRAMINE; MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITOR; PHENELZINE; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT;

BRAIN INJURY; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DEPRESSION; DRUG EFFICACY; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY; HAMILTON SCALE; HUMAN; INFORMED CONSENT; INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT; MANIA; MEDICAL ETHICS; MEMORY DISORDER; MORTALITY; NEUROIMAGING; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; NONHUMAN; OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER; PSYCHOTHERAPY; REVIEW; SAFETY; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SEIZURE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VERBAL MEMORY; ETHICS; MAJOR DEPRESSION;

BRAIN INJURIES; COGNITION DISORDERS; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER, MAJOR; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; ETHICS, CLINICAL; HUMANS; MEMORY DISORDERS; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 1842485014     PISSN: 10407308     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/B:NERV.0000009484.76564.58     Document Type: Review

References (133)

1. Abrams, R. (1979). The ECT controversy: Some observations and a suggestion. Psychiatr. Opin. 16(3): 11-15.
2. Abrams, R. (1997). Mortality rate with ECT. Convuls. Ther. 13(3): 125-127.
3. Akiskal, H. S. (1995). Mood disorders. In: H. I., Kaplan, and B. J. Sadock, (eds.), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry/VI, 6th edn., Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, Vol. 1., pp. 1067-1189.
4. Alpay, M., and Park, L. (2000). Laboratory tests and diagnostic procedures. In: Stern, T. A., and Herman, J. B. (eds.), Psychiatry Update and Board Preparation, McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 251-265.
5. American Psychiatric Association (1990). The Practice of Electroconvulsive Therapy: Recommendations for Treatment, Training, and Privileging, A task force report of the American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC.
6. American Psychiatric Association (2001). The Practice of Electroconvulsive Therapy: Recommendations for Treatment, Training, and Privileging, 2nd edn., A task force report of the American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC.
7. Andreasen, N. C., Ehrhardt, J. C., Swayze, V. W., Alliger, R. J., Yuh, W. T. C., Cohen, G., et al. (1990). Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in schizophrenia: The pathophysiologic significance of structural abnormalities. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 47: 35-44.
8. Andren, H. E. (1976). Treatment or mistreatment in psychiatry: Observations on Electroconvulsive Therapy. Dis. Nerv. Syst. 37(11): 605-609.
9. Avery, D., and Winokur, G. (1976). Mortality in depressed patients treated with electroconvulsive therapy. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 33: 1029-1037.
10. Bergsholm, P., Larsen, J. L., Rosendahl, K., and Holsten, F. (1989). Electroconvulsive therapy and cerebral computed tomography: A prospective study. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 80: 566-572.
11. Black, D. W., Winokur, G., Mohandass, E., Woolson, R. F., and Nasrallah, A. (1989). Does treatment influence mortality in depressives? A follow-up of 1076 patients with major affective disorders. Ann. Clin. Psychiatry 1(3): 166-173.
12. Blumenthal, I. J. (1955). Spontaneous seizures and related electroencephalographic findings following shock therapy. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 122: 581-588.
13. Brandon, S., Cowley, P., McDonald, C., Neville, P., Palmer, R., and Wellstood-Eason, S. (1984). Electroconvulsive Therapy: Results in depressive illness from the Leicestershire trial. BMJ 288, 22-25.
14. Breeding, J. (2000). Electroshock and informed consent. J. Hum. Psychol. 40(1): 65-79.
15. Breggin, P. (1984). Electroshock therapy and brain damage: The acute organic brain syndrome as treatment. Behav. Brain Sci. 7(1): 24-25.
16. Breggin, P. (1991). Toxic Psychiatry St. Martins Press, New York.
17. Bremner, D. J., Randall, P., Scott, T. M., Bronen, R. A., Seibyl, J. P., Southwick, S. M., et al. (1995). MRI-based measurement of hippocampal volume in patients with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 152(7): 973-981.
18. Brown, W. J., Mitchell, H. G., Jr., Babb, T. L., and Crandall, P. H. (1980). Structural and physiologic studies in experimentally induced epilepsy. Exp. Neurol. 69: 43-562.
19. Galloway, S. P., Dolan, R. J., Jacoby, R. J., and Levy, R. ( 1981). ECT and cerebral atrophy: A computed tomographic study. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 64(5): 442-145.
20. Cameron, D. G. (1994). ECT: Sham statistics, the myth of convulsive therapy, and the case for consumer misinformation. J. Mind Behav. 15(1/2): 177-198.
21. Cavazos, J. E., Golarai, G., and Sutula, T. P. (1991). Mossy fiber synaptic reorganization induced by kindling: Time course of development, progression, and permanence. J. Neurosci. 11(9): 2795-2803.
22. Chamberlin, E., and Tsai, G. E. (1998). A glutamatergic model of ECT-induced memory dysfunction. Harv. Rev. Psychiatry 5(6): 307-317.
23. Chen, A. C.-H., Shin, K.-H., Duman, R. S., and Sanacora, G. (2001). ECS-induced mossy fiber sprouting and BDNF expression are attenuated by ketamine pretreatment. J. ECT 17: 27-32.
24. Coffey, C. E., Figiel, G. S., Djang, W. T., Saunders, W. B., and Weiner, R. D. (1989). White matter hyperintensity on magnetic resonance imaging: Clinical and neuroanatomical correlates in the depressed elderly. J. Neuropsychiatry 1(2): 135-144.
25. Coffey, C. E., Weiner, R. D., Djang, W. T., Figiel, G. S., Soady, S. A. R., Patterson, L. J., et al. (1991). Brain anatomic effects of electroconvulsive therapy: A prospective magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 48: 1013-1021.
26. Coffey, C. E., Wilkinson, W. E., Weiner, R. D., Ioanis, A. P., Djang, W. T., Webb, M. C., et al. (1993). Quantitative cerebral anatomy in depression: A controlled magnetic imaging study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 50: 7-16.
27. Cotman, C. W., Banker, G., Zornetzer, S. F., and McGaugh, J. L. (1971). Electroshock effects on brain protein synthesis. Science 173(995): 454-156.
28. Cotman, C. W., Monaghan, D. T., and Ganong, A. H. (1988). Excitatory amino acid neurotransmission: NMDA receptors and Hebb-type synaptic placticity. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 11: 61-80.
29. Dam, A.M., and Dam, M. (1986). Quantitative neuropathology in electrically induced generalized convulsions. Convuls. Ther. 2(2): 77-89.
30. Devanand, D. P., Dwork, A. J., Hutchinson, E. R., Bolwig, T. J., and Sackeim, H.A. (1994). Does ECT alter brain structure? Am. J. Psychiatry 151(7): 957-970.
31. Devinsky, O., and Duchowny, M. S. (1983). Seizures after convulsive therapy: A retrospective case survey. Neurology 33(7): 921-925.
32. Dolan, R. J., Calloway, S. P., Thacker, P. F., and Mann, A. H. (1986). The cerebral cortical appearance in depressed subjects. Psycholog. Med. 16: 775-779.
33. Duman, R. S., and Vaidya, V. A. (1998). Molecular and cellular actions of chronic electroconvulsive seizures. J. ECT 14(5): 181-193.
34. Exner, J. E., and Murillo, L. G. (1973). Effectiveness of regressive ECT with process Schizophrenia. Dis. Nerv. Syst. 34(1): 44-48.
35. Fink, M. (1977). Myths of "Shock Therapy." Am. J. Psychiatry 134(9): 991-996.
36. Fink, M. (1978). Efficacy and safety of induced seizures (EST) in man. Compr. Psychiatry 19(1): 1-18.
37. Fink, M. (1984). ECT-Verdict: Not guilty. Behav. Brain Sci. 7(1): 26-27.
38. Fink, M. (2003). Electroconvulsive therapy update: Recognizing and treating psychotic depression. J. Clin. Psychiatry 64(3): 232-234.
39. Frank, L. R. (1986). The policies and practices of American psychiatry are oppressive. Hosp. Community Psychiatry 37(5): 497-501.
40. Frank, L. R. (1990). Electroshock, death, brain damage, memory loss, and brainwashing. J. Mind Behav. 11(3): 489(243)-512(266).
41. Freeman, C. P. L., Basson, J. V., and Crighton, A. (1978). Double-blind controlled trial of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and simulated ECT in depressive illness. Lancet 1(8067): 738-740.
42. Friedberg, J. (1977). Shock treatment, brain damage and memory loss: A neurological perspective. Am. J. Psychiatry 134(9): 1010-1013.
43. Fromm-Auch, D. (1982). Comparison of unilateral and bilateral ECT: Evidence for selective memory impairment. Br. J. Psychiatry 141: 608-613.
44. Fuster, J. M. (1996). Frontal lobe syndrome. In: Fogel, B., Schiffer, R., and Rao, S. M. (eds.), Neuropsychiatry Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, pp. 407-413.
45. Gangadhar, B. N., Kapur, R. L., and Kalyanasundaram, S. (1982). Comparison of electroconvulsive therapy with imipramine in endogenous depression: A double blind study. Br. J. Psychiatry 141: 367-371.
46. George, M. S., Lisanby, S. H., and Sackeim, H. A. (1999). Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: Applications in neuropsychiatry. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 56: 300-311.
47. Greenblatt, M. (1977). Efficacy of ECT in affective and schizophrenic illness. Am. J. Psychiatry 134(9): 1001-1005.
48. Gregory, S., Shawcross, C. R., and Gill, D. (1985). The Nottingham ECT study: A double blind comparison of bilateral, unilateral and simulated ECT in depressive illness. Br. J. Psychol. 146: 520-524.
49. Hartelius, H. (1952). Cerebral changes following electrically induced convulsions. Acta Psychiatr. Neurolog. Scand. 77: 1-128.
50. Hayes, K. J. (1950). The current path in electric convulsion shock. A.M.A. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry 63 102-109.
51. Henry, M. E., Schmidt, M. E., Matochik, J. A., Stoddard, B. A., and Potter, W. Z. (2001). Effects of ECT on brain glucose: A pilot FDG PET study. J. ECT 17(1): 33-40.
52. Jackson, B. (1978). The effects of unilateral and bilateral ECT on verbal and visual spatial memory. J. Clin. Psychology. 34(1): 4-13.
53. Jeste, D. V., Galasko, D., Corey-Bloom, J, Walens, S., and Granholm, E. (1996). Neuropsychiatric aspects of the schizophrenias. In: Fogel, B., Schiffer, R., and Rao, S. M. (eds.), Neuropsychiatry Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, pp. 325-344.
54. Johnstone, E. C., Deakin, J. F. W., Lawler, P., Frith, C. D., Stevens, M., McPherson, K., et al. (1980). The Northwick Park electroconvulsive therapy trial. Lancet 2(8208/8209): 1317-1320.
55. Karliner, W. (1956). Epileptic states following Electroshock Therapy. J. Hillside Hosp. 5, 258-263.
56. Kido, D. K., and Sheline, Y. I. (1996). Neuroimaging for neuropsychiatry. In: Fogel, B. S., Schiffer, R., and Rao, S. M. (eds.) Neuropsychiatry Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, pp. 47-63.
57. Kiraly, S. J., Ancill, R. J, Juralowicz, P., and Kroeker, G. (1999). Hypercortisolemia and post-ECT confusion [Letter to the editor]. Can. J. Psychiatry 44(1): 92-93.
58. Kramer, B. A. (1985). Use of ECT in California, 1977-1983. Am. J. Psychiatry 142(10): 1190-1192.
59. Kroessler, D., and Fogel, B. S. (1993). Electroconvulsive therapy for major depression in the oldest old. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 1(1): 30-37.
60. Krueger, R. B., and Sackeim, H. B. (1995). Electroconvulsive therapy and schizophrenia. In: Hirsch, S. R., and Weinberger, D. (eds.), Schizophrenia Blackwell Sciences, Oxford, pp. 503-545.
61. Lambourn, J., and Gill, D. (1978). A controlled comparison of simulated and real ECT. Br. J. Psychiatry 133: 514-519.
62. Lerer, B., and Stanley, M. (1984). ECT-induced memory impairment - A cholinergic mechanism? Behav. Brain Sci. 7(1): 29-30.
63. Lisanby, S. H., Luber, B., Sackeim, H. A., Finck, A. D., and Schroeder, C. (2001). Deliberate seizure induction with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in nonhuman primates [Letter to the editor]. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 58: 199-200.
64. Lisanby, S. H., Maddox, J. H., Prudic, J., Devanand, D. P., and Sackeim, H. A. (2000). The effects of electroconvulsive therapy on memory of autobiographical and public events. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 57: 581-590.
65. Lisanby, S. H., Schlaepfer, T. E., Fisch, H.-U., and Sackeim, H. A. (2001b). Magnetic seizure therapy of major depression [Letter to the editor]. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 58: 303-304.
66. Lorimer, F. M., Segal, M. M., and Stein, S. W. (1949). Path of current distribution in brain during electro-convulsive therapy. EEG Clin. Neurophysiol. 1: 343-348.
67. Madow, L. (1956). Brain changes in electroshock therapy. Am. J. Psychiatry 113: 337-347.
68. Mander, A. J., Whitfield, A., Kean, D. M., Smith, M. A., Douglas, R. H. B., and Kendell, R. E. (1987). Cerebral and brain stem changes after ECT revealed by nuclear magnetic resonance imaging. Bri. J. Psychiatry 151: 69-71.
69. Manole, E., Voiculescu, V., Anghelescu, N., Nistorescu, A., and Ulmeanu, A. (1986). Brain damage following repeated electroshocks in cats and rats: Effect of artificial respiration and vitamin E. Neurolog. Psychiatry 24(1): 59-64.
70. Marcheselli, V. L., and Bazan, W. G. (1996). Sustained induction of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase-2 by seizures in hippocampus: Inhibition by platelet activating factor antagonist. J. Biolog. Chem. 271(40): 24794-24799.
71. McKegney, F. P., and Panzetta, A. F. (1963). An unusual fatal outcome of electroconvulsive therapy. Am. J. Psychiatry 120: 398-400.
72. Medical Research Counsel Psychiatric Committee (1965). Clinical trial of the treatment of depressive illness. BMJ 1: 881-886.
73. Meldrum, B. S. (1983). Metabolic factors during prolonged seizures and their relation to nerve cell death. In: Delgado-Escueta, A. V., Wasterlain, C. G., Treiman, D. M., and Porter, R. J. (eds.), Advances in Neurology. Vol. 34: Status Epilepticus, Raven Press, New York, pp. 261-275.
74. Meldrum, B. S. (1986). Neuropathological consequences of chemically and electrically induced seizures. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 462, 186-193.
75. Meldrum, B. S., and Brierley, J. B. (1973). Prolonged epileptic seizures in primates: Ischemic cell change and its relationship to ictal physiological events. Arch. Neurol. 28(1): 10-17.
76. Meldrum, B. S., Horton, R. W., and Brierley (1974). Epileptic brain damage in adolescent Baboons following seizures induced by allylglycine. Brain 97: 407-418.
77. Meldrum, B. S., and Nilsson, B. (1976). Cerebral blood flow and metabolic rate early and late in prolonged epileptic seizures induced in rats by bicuculline. Brain 99: 523-542.
78. Meldrum, B. S., Vigouroux, R. A., France, M., Brierley, J. B., and Carshalton, E. (1973). Systemic factors and epileptic brain damage. Arch. Neurol. 29, 82-87.
79. Menini, C., Meldrum, B. S., Riche, D., Silva-Comte, C., and Stutzmann, J. M. ( 1980). Sustained limbic seizures induced by intraamygdaloid kainic acid in the baboon: Symptomatology and neuropathological consequences. Ann. Neurol. 8(5): 501-509.
80. Mills, M. J., Pearsall, D. T., Yesavage, J. A., and Salzman, C. (1984). Electroconvulsive therapy in Massachusetts. Am. J. Psychiatry 141: 534-538.
81. Milstein, V., Small, J. G., Small, I. F., and Green, G. E. (1986). Does electroconvulsive therapy prevent suicide? Convuls. Ther. 2(1): 3-6.
82. National Institutes of Health (1985). Electroconvulsive therapy: Consensus statement online. June 10-12. 5(11): 1-23. Retrieved August 31, 2000 from http://consensus.nih.gov/cons/051-statement.htm.
83. Neylan, T. C., Canick, J. D., Hall, S. E., Reus, V. I., Sapolsky, R. M., and Wolkowitz, O. M. (2001). Cortisol levels predict cognitive impairment induced by electroconvulsive therapy. Biolog. Psychiatry 50: 331-336.
84. Pande, A. C., Grunhaus, L. J., Aisen, A. M., and Haskett, R. F. (1990). A preliminary magnetic resonance imaging study of ECT-treated depressed patients. Biolog. Psychiatry 27: 102-104.
85. Penny, J. B. (1996). Neurochemical neuroanatomy. In: Fogel, B., Schiffer, R., and Rao, S. M. (eds.), Neuropsychiatry Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, pp. 145-171.
86. Philibert, R. A., Richards, L., Lynch, C. F., and Winokur, G. (1995). Effect of ECT on mortality and clinical outcome in geriatric unipolar depression. J. Clin. Psychiatry 56(9): 390-394.
87. Provenzano vs. Florida Department of Corrections, Florida State Prison, and State of Florida, No. 95.937 (Fla. Supreme Court, August 3, 1999). Retrieved June 18, 2003, from http://www.dc.state.fl.us/ oth/deathrow/drorder.html.
88. Prudic, J., Haskett, R. F., Mulsant, B., Malone, K. M., Pettinati, H. M., Stephens, S., et al. (1996). Resistance to antidepressant medications and short-term clinical response to ECT. Am. J. Psychiatry 153(8): 985-992.
89. Prudic, J., Peyser, S., and Sackeim, H. A. (2000). Subjective memory complaints: A review of patient self-assessment after electroconvulsive therapy. J. ECT 16(2): 121-132.
90. Prudic, J., and Sackeim, H. A. (1999). Electroconvulsive therapy and suicide risk. J. Clin. Psychiatry 60: 104-110.
91. Rajkowska, G., Miguel-Hidalgo, J. J., Wei, J., Dilley, G., Pittman, S. D., Meltzer, H. Y., et al. (1999). Morphometric evidence for neuronal and glial prefrontal cell pathology in major depression. Biol. Psychiatry 45: 1095-1098.
92. Riese, W. (1948). Report of two new cases of sudden death after electric shock treatment with histopathological findings in the central nervous system. J. Neuropathy Exp. Neurol. 7: 98-100.
93. Rosenberg, J., and Pettinati, H. M. (1984). Differential memory complaints after bilateral and unilateral ECT. Am. J. Psychiatry 141(9): 1071-1074.
94. Rush, S., and Driscoll, D. A. (1968). Current distribution in the brain from surface electrodes. Anesth. Analg.: Curr. Res. 47(6): 717-723.
95. Sackeim, H. A. (1992). The cognitive effects of electroconvulsive therapy. In: Thal, L. J., Moos, W. H., and Gamzu, E. R. (eds.), Cognitive Disorders, Pathophysiology and Treatment Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 183-228.
96. Sackeim, H. A., Freeman, J., McElhiney, M., Coleman, E., Prudic, J., and Devanand, D. B. (1992). Effects of major depression on estimates of intelligence. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol 14(2): 268-288.
97. Sackeim, H. A., Portnoy, S., Neeley, P., Steif, B. L., Decina, P., and Malitz, S. (1986). Cognitive consequences of low-dosage electroconvulsive therapy. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 462: 326-340.
98. Sackeim, H. A., Prudic, J., Devanand, D. P., Nobler, M. S., Lisanby, S. H., Peyser, S. P., et al. (2000). A prospective, randomized, double-blind comparison of bilateral and right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy at different stimulus intensities. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 57: 425-434.
99. Sanacora, G., Mason, G. F., Rothman, D. L., Hyder, F., Ciarcia, J. J., Ostroff, R. B., et al. (2003). Increased cortical GABA concentrations in depressed patients receiving ECT. Am. J. Psychiatry 160(3): 577-579.
100. Sands, D., McCary, R. C., Bigler, E. D., Becker, H. A., and Waller, P. R. (1987). Understanding ECT. J. Psychosoc. Nurs. 25(8): 27-30.
101. Sapolsky, R. M. (1996). Why stress is bad for your brain. Science 273, 749-750.
102. Scott, A. I. F., Douglas, R. H. B., Whitfield, A., and Kendell, R. E. (1990). Time course of cerebral magnetic resonance changes after electroconvulsive therapy. Br. J. Psychiatry 156: 551-553.
103. Scovern, A. W., and Kilmann, P. R. (1980). Status of electroconvulsive therapy: Review of the outcome literature. Psycholog. Bull. 87(2): 260-303.
104. Sheline, Y. I., Wang, P. W., Gado, M. H., Csernansky, J. G., and Vannier, M. W. (1996). Hippocampal atrophy in recurrent major depression. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 93: 3908-3913.
105. Shiwach, R. S., Reid, W. H., and Carmody, T. J. (2001). An analysis of reported deaths following electroconvulsive therapy in Texas, 1993-1998. Psychiatr. Serv. 52(8): 1095-1097.
106. Small, J. G., Kellams, J. J., Milstein, V., and Small, I. F. (1980). Complications with Electroconvulsive treatment combined with lithium. Biolog. Psychiatry 15: 103-112.
107. Small, J. G., Milstein, V., Sharpley, P. H., Klapper, M., and Small, I. F. (1984). Electroencephalographic findings in relation to diagnostic constructs in psychiatry. Biolog. Psychiatry 19(4): 471-487.
108. Small, J. G., Milstein, V., Small, I, and Sharpley, P. H. (1981). Does ECT Produce Kindling? Biolog. Psychiatry 16(8): 773-778.
109. Small, J. G., and Small, I. F. (1981). Electroconvulsive therapy update. Psychopharmacol. Bull. 17(4), 29-42.
110. Small, I. F., Small, J. G., Milstein, V., and Moore, J. F. (1972). Neuropsychological observations with psychosis and somatic treatments. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 155(1): 6-13.
111. Smitt, J. W., and Wegener, C. F. (1944). On electric convulsive therapy: With particular regard to a parietal application of electrodes, controlled by intracerebral voltage measurements. Acta Psychiatr. Neurolog. Scand. 19: 529-549.
112. Sobin, C., Sackeim, H. A., Prudic, J., Devanand, D. P., Moody, B. J., and McElhiney, M. C. (1995). Predictors of retrograde amnesia following ECT. Am. J. Psychiatry 152(7): 995-1001.
113. Squire, L. R. (1975). A stable impairment in remote memory following ECT. Neuropsychologia 13, 51-58.
114. Squire, L. R. (1986). Memory functions as affected by electroconvulsive therapy. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 462: 307-314.
115. Squire, L. R., and Chase, P. M. (1975). Memory functions six to nine months after electroconvulsive therapy. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 32: 1557-1564.
116. Squire, L. R., and Shimamura, A. (1986). Characterizing amnestic patients for neurobehavioral study. Behav. Neurosci. 100(6): 866-877.
117. Squire, L. R., and Slater, P. C. (1983). Electroconvulsive therapy and complaints of memory dysfunction: A prospective three-year follow-up study. Br. J. Psychiatry 142: 1-8.
118. Stewart, C., Jeffery, K., and Reid, I. (1994). LTP-like synaptic efficacy changes following electroconvulsive stimulation. NeuroReport 5: 1041-1044.
119. Stewart, C., and Reid, I. (1993). Electroconvulsive stimulation and synaptic plasticity in the rat. Brain Res. 620: 139-141.
120. Sutula, T., Koch, J., Golarai, G., Watanabe, Y., and McNamara, J. O. (1996). NMDA receptor dependence of kindling and mossy fiber sprouting: Evidence that the NMDA receptor regulates patterning of hippocampal circuits in the adult brain. J. Neurosci. 16(22): 7398-7406.
121. Taylor, J. R., Tompkins, R., Demers, R., and Anderson, D. (1982). Electroconvulsive therapy and memory dysfunction: Is there evidence for prolonged defects? Biolog. Psychiatry 17(10): 1169-1193.
122. Taylor, M. A., and Abrams, R. (1985). Short-term cognitive effects of unilateral and bilateral ECT. Br. J. Psychiatry 146: 308-311.
123. Templer, D. I. (1984). ECT and brain damage: How much risk is acceptable? Behav. Brain Sci. 7: 39.
124. Templer, D. I., Ruff, C. F., and Armstrong, G. (1973). Cognitive functioning and degree of psychosis in schizophrenics given many electroconvulsive therapy treatments. Br. J. Psychiatry 23: 441-443.
125. Templer, D. I., and Veleber, D. M. (1982). Can ECT permanently harm the brain? Clin. Neuropsychol. 4: 62-66.
126. Turek, I. S., and Hanlon, T. E. (1977). The effectiveness and safety of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 164(6): 419-431.
127. Vaidya, V. A., Siuciak, J. A., Du, F., and Duman, F. (1998). Hippocampal mossy fiber sprouting induced by chronic electroconvulsive seizures. Neuroscience 89(1): 157-166.
128. Vogel, G. (2000). New brain cells prompt new theory of depression. Science 290: 258-259.
129. Weinberger, D. R., Torrey, E. F., Neophytides, A. N., and Wyatt, R. J. (1979). Structural abnormalities in the cerebral cortex of chronic schizophrenic patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 36: 935-939.
130. Weiner, R. D. (1984a). Does electroconvulsive therapy cause brain damage? Behav. Brain Sci. 7(1): 1-53.
131. Weiner, R. D. (1984b). ECT: Facts, affects, and ambiguities. Behav. Brain Sci. 7(1): 42-47.
132. West, E. D. (1981). Electric convulsion therapy in depression: A double blind controlled trial. BMJ 282(6261): 355-357.
133. Youssef, H. A., and Youssef, F. A. (1999). Time to abandon electroconvulsion as a treatment in modern psychiatry. Adv. Ther. 16(1): 25-38.