Chemokines and their receptors as therapeutic targets: The role of the SDF-1/CXCR4 axis

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Volumn 10, Issue 11, 2004, Pages 1245-1259

  Juarez, Julius ^a   Bendall, Linda ^a   Bradstock, Ken ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

^b WESTMEAD HOSPITAL   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

1,1' [1,4 PHENYLENEBIS(METHYLENE)]BIS(1,4,8,11 TETRAAZACYCLOTETRADECANE); ALPHA ACETYLNONA DEXTRO ARGININE AMIDE; ALPHA N ACETYLNONA DEXTRO ARGININE AMIDE; ANAPHYLATOXIN; CHEMOKINE; CHEMOKINE RECEPTOR; CHEMOKINE RECEPTOR CXCR4; FINGOLIMOD; FUCOIDIN; GAMMA INTERFERON; GRANULOCYTE COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR; HISTONE DEACETYLASE INHIBITOR; INTERLEUKIN 10; LIGAND; POLYAMINE DERIVATIVE; POLYPHEMUSIN DERIVATIVE; PROTEIN INHIBITOR; STROMAL CELL DERIVED FACTOR 1; T 140; TC 14012; TRIBUTYRIN; TRICHOSANTHIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VORINOSTAT;

ANGIOGENESIS; ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; ANTINEOPLASTIC ACTIVITY; ANTIVIRAL ACTIVITY; CANCER; CANCER INHIBITION; CELL TRANSPORT; CLINICAL TRIAL; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG DESIGN; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG POTENTIATION; DRUG RECEPTOR BINDING; DRUG TARGETING; HEART DISEASE; HEMATOPOIESIS; HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOCOMPETENT CELL; METASTASIS INHIBITION; NERVE CELL DIFFERENTIATION; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN FUNCTION; PROTEIN PROTEIN INTERACTION; PROTEIN STRUCTURE; RECEPTOR DOWN REGULATION; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; STEM CELL MOBILIZATION;

ANIMALS; CHEMOKINES, CXC; CLINICAL TRIALS; DRUG DESIGN; HIV; HUMANS; NEOPLASMS; RECEPTORS, CXCR4; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EID: 1842483293     PISSN: 13816128     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1381612043452640     Document Type: Review

References (196)

1. Kim CH, Broxmeyer HE. Chemokines: Signal lamps for trafficking of T and B cells for development and effector function. J Leukoc Biol 1999; 65(1): 6-15.
2. Bajetto A, Bonavia R, Barbero S, Florio T, Schettini G. Chemokines and their receptors in the central nervous system. Front Neuroendocrinol 2001; 22(3): 147-84.
3. Horuk R. Chemokine receptors. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2001; 12(4): 313-35.
4. Tashiro K, Tada H, Heilker R, Shirozu M, Nakano T, Honjo T. Signal sequence trap: A cloning strategy for secreted proteins and type I membrane proteins. Science 1993; 261(5121): 600-3.
5. Nagasawa T, Kikutani H, Kishimoto T. Molecular cloning and structure of a pre-B-cell growth-stimulating factor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91(6): 2305-9.
6. Shirozu M, Nakano T, Inazawa J, Tashiro K, Tada H, Shinohara T, et al. Structure and chromosomal localization of the human stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF1) gene. Genomics 1995; 28(3): 495-500.
7. Bleul CC, Fuhlbrigge RC, Casasnovas JM, Aiuti A, Springer TA. A highly efficacious lymphocyte chemoattractant, stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1). J Exp Med 1996; 184(3): 1101-9.
8. Nagasawa T, Hirota S, Tachibana K, Takakura N, Nishikawa S, Kitamura Y, et al. Defects of B-cell lymphopoiesis and bone-marrow myelopoiesis in mice lacking the CXC chemokine PBSF/SDF-1. Nature 1996; 382(6592): 635-8.
9. Jazin EE, Soderstrom S, Ebendal T, Larhammar D. Embryonic expression of the mRNA for the rat homologue of the fusin/CXCR-4 HIV-1 co-receptor. J Neuroimmunol 1997; 79(2): 148-54.
10. Loetscher M, Geiser T, O'Reilly T, Zwahlen R, Baggiolini M, Moser B. Cloning of a human seven-transmembrane domain receptor, LESTR, that is highly expressed in leukocytes. J Biol Chem 1994; 269(1): 232-7.
11. Nagasawa T, Nakajima T, Tachibana K, Iizasa H, Bleul CC, Yoshic O, et al. Molecular cloning and characterization of a murine pre-B-cell growth-stimulating factor/stromal cell-derived factor 1 receptor, a murine homolog of the human immunodeficiency virus 1 entry coreceptor fusin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93(25): 14726-9.
12. Dealwis C, Fernandez EJ, Thompson DA, Simon RJ, Siani MA, Lolis E. Crystal structure of chemically synthesized [N33A] stromal cell-derived factor 1alpha, a potent ligand for the HIV-1 "fUsin" coreceptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998; 95(12): 6941-6.
13. Crump MP, Gong JH, Loetscher P, Rajarathnam K, Amara A, Arenzana-Seisdedos F, et al. Solution structure and basis for functional activity of stromal cell-derived factor-1; dissociation of CXCR4 activation from binding and inhibition of HIV-1. Embo J 1997; 16(23): 6996-7007.
14. Ohnishi Y, Senda T, Nandhagopal N, Sugimoto K, Shioda T, Nagal Y, et al. Crystal structure of recombinant native SDF-1alpha with additional mutagenesis studies: An attempt at a more comprehensive interpretation of accumulated structure-activity relationship data. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2000; 20(8): 691-700.
15. Holmes WD, Consler TG, Dallas WS, Rocque WJ, Willard DH. Solution studies of recombinant human stromal-eell-derived factor-1 Protein Expr Purif 2001; 21(3): 367-77.
16. Fernandez EJ, Lolis E. Structure, function, and inhibition of chemokines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2002; 42: 469-99.
17. Sadir R, Baleux F, Grosdidier A, Imberty A, Lortat-Jacob H. Characterization of the stromal cell-derived factor-1alpha-heparin complex. J Biol Chem 2001; 276(11): 8288-96.
18. Amara A, Lorthioir O, Valenzuela A, Magerus A, Theten M, Montes M, et al. Stromal cell-derived factor-1alpha associates with heparan sulfates through the first beta-strand of the chemokine. J Biol Chem 1999; 274(34): 23916-25.
19. Tanaka Y, Adams DH, Shaw S. Proteoglycans on endothelial cells present adhesion-inducing cytokines to leukocytes. Immunol Today 1993; 14(3): 111-5.
20. Hoogewerf AJ, Kuschert GS, Proudfoot AE, Borlat F, Clark-Lewis I, Power CA, et al. Glycosaminoglycans mediate cell surface oligomerization of chemokines. Biochemistry 1997; 36(44): 13570-8.
21. Netelenbos T, van den Born J, Kessler FL, Zweegman S, Merle PA, van Oostveen JW, et al. Proteoglycans on bone marrow endothelial cells bind and present SDF-1 towards hematopoietic progenitor cells. Leukemia 2003; 17(1): 175-84.
22. Sweeney EA, Lortat-Jacob H, Priestley GV, Nakamoto B, Papayannopoulou T. Sulfated polysaccharides increase plasma levels of SDF-1 in monkeys and mice: Involvement in mobilization of stem/progenitor cells. Blood 2002; 99(1): 44-51.
23. Berson JF, Long D, Doranz BJ, Rucker J, Jirik FR, Doms RW. A seven-transmembrane domain receptor involved in fusion and entry of T-cell-tropic human immunodeficiency virus type 1 strains. J Virol 1996; 70(9): 6288-95.
24. Bleul CC, Wu L, Hoxie JA, Springer TA, Mackay CR. The HIV coreceptors CXCR4 and CCR5 are differentially expressed and regulated on human T lymphocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94(5): 1925-30.
25. Gupta SK, Lysko PG, Pillarisetti K, Ohlstein E, Stadel JM. Chemokine receptors in human endothelial cells. Functional expression of CXCR4 and its transcriptional regulation by inflammatory cytokines. J Biol Chem 1998; 273(7): 4282-7.
26. Hesselgesser J, Halks-Miller M, DelVecchio V, Peiper SC, Hoxie J, Kolson DL, et al. CD4-independent association between HIV-1 gp120 and CXCR4: Functional chemokine receptors are expressed in human neurons. Curr Biol 1997; 7(2): 112-21.
27. Bajetto A, Bonavia R, Barbero S, Piccioli P, Costa A, Florio T, et al. Glial and neuronal cells express functional chemokine receptor CXCR4 and its natural ligand stromal cell-derived factor 1. J Neurochem 1999; 73(6): 2348-57.
28. Ohtani Y, Minami M, Kawaguchi N, Nishiyori A, Yamamoto J, Takami S, et al. Expression of stromal cell-derived factor-1 and CXCR4 chemokine receptor mRNAs in cultured rat glial and neuronal cells. Neurosci Lett 1998; 249(2-3): 163-6.
29. Baribaud F, Edwards TG, Sharron M, Brelot A, Heveker N, Price K, et al. Antigenically distinct conformations of CXCR4. J Virol 2001; 75(19): 8957-67.
30. Lapham CK, Zaitseva MB, Lee S, Romanstseva T, Golding H. Fusion of monocytes and macrophages with HIV-1 correlates with biochemical properties of CXCR4 and CCR5. Nat Med 1999; 5(3): 303-8.
31. Zhou H, Tai HH. Characterization of recombinant human CXCR4 in insect cells: Role of extracellular domains and N-glycosylation in ligand binding. Arch Biochem Biophys 1999; 369(2): 267-76.
32. Farzan M, Babcock GJ, Vasilieva N, Wright PL, Kiprilov E, Mirzabekov T, et al. The role of post-translational modifications of the CXCR4 amino terminus in stromal-derived factor 1 alpha association and HIV-1 entry. J Biol Chem 2002; 277(33): 29484-9.
33. Marchese A, Benovic JL. Agonist-promoted ubiquitination of the G protein-coupled receptor CXCR4 mediates lysosomal sorting. J Biol Chem 2001; 276(49): 45509-12.
34. Lapham CK, Romantseva T, Petricoin E, King LR, Manischewitz J, Zaitseva MB, et al. CXCR4 heterogeneity in primary cells: Possible role of ubiquitination. J Leukoc Biol 2002; 72(6): 1206-14.
35. Brelot A, Heveker N, Montes M, Alizon M. Identification of residues of CXCR4 critical for human immunodeficiency virus coreceptor and chemokine receptor activities. J Biol Chem 2000; 275(31): 23736-44.
36. Babcock GJ, Farzan M, Sodroski J. Ligand-independent dimerization of CXCR4, a principal HIV-1 coreceptor. J Biol Chem 2003; 278(5): 3378-85.
37. Luo Z, Zhou N, Luo J, Hall JW, Huang Z. The role of positively charged residues in CXCR4 recognition probed with synthetic peptides. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1999; 263(3): 691-5.
38. Huang X, Shen J, Cui M, Shen L, Luo X, Ling K, et al. Molecular dynamics simulations on SDF-1alpha: Binding with CXCR4 receptor. Biophys J 2003; 84(1): 171-84.
39. Zhou N, Luo Z, Luo J, Liu D, Hall JW, Pomerantz RJ, et al. Structural and functional characterization of human CXCR4 as a chemokine receptor and HIV-1 co-receptor by mutagenesis and molecular modeling studies. J Biol Chem 2001; 276(46): 42826-33.
40. Doranz BJ, Orsini MJ, Turner JD, Hoffman TL, Berson JF, Hoxie JA, et al. Identification of CXCR4 domains that support coreceptor and chemokine receptor functions. J Virol 1999; 73(4): 2752-61.
41. Gerlach LO, Skerlj RT, Bridger GJ, Schwartz TW. Molecular interactions of cyclam and bicyclam non-peptide antagonists with the CXCR4 chemokine receptor. J Biol Chem 2001; 276(17): 14153-60.
42. Hatse S, Princen K, Gerlach LO, Bridger G, Henson G, De Clercq E, et al. Mutation of Asp(171) and Asp(262) of the chemokine receptor CXCR4 impairs its coreceptor function for human immunodeficiency virus-1 entry and abrogates the antagonistic activity ofAMD3100. Mol Pharmacol 2001; 60(1): 164-73.
43. Pierce KL, Premont RT, Lefkowitz RJ. Seven-transmembrane receptors. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2002; 3(9): 639-50.
44. Ling K, Wang P, Zhao J, Wu YL, Cheng ZJ, Wu GX, et al. Five-transmembrane domains appear sufficient for a G protein-coupled receptor: Functional five-transmembrane domain chemokine receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96(14): 7922-7.
45. Roland J, Murphy BJ, Ahr B, Robert-Hebmann V, Delauzun V, Nye KE, et al. Role of the intracellular domains of CXCR4 in SDF-1-mediated signaling. Blood 2003; 101(2): 399-406.
46. Haribabu B, Richardson RM, Fisher I, Sozzani S, Peiper SC, Horuk R, et al. Regulation of human chemokine receptors CXCR4. Role of phosphorylation in desensitization and internalization. J Biol Chem 1997; 272(45): 28726-31.
47. Cheng ZJ, Zhao J, Sun Y, Hu W, Wu YL, Cen B, et al. beta-arrestin differentially regulates the chemokine receptor CXCR4-mediated signaling and receptor internalization, and this implicates multiple interaction sites between beta-arrestin and CXCR4. J Biol Chem 2000; 275(4): 2479-85.
48. Signoret N, Oldridge J, Pelchen-Matthews A, Klasse PJ, Tran T, Brass LF, et al. Phorbol esters and SDF-1 induce rapid endocytosis and down modulation of the chemokine receptor CXCR4. J Cell Biol 1997; 139(3): 651-64.
49. Tarasova NI, Stauber RH, Michejda CJ. Spontaneous and ligand-induced trafficking of CXC-chemokine receptor 4. J Biol Chem 1998; 273(26): 15883-6.
50. Vila-Coro AJ, Rodriguez-Frade JM, Martin De Ana A, Moreno-Ortiz MC, Martinez AC, Mellado M. The chemokine SDF-1alpha triggers CXCR4 receptor dimerization and activates the JAK/STAT pathway. FASEB J 1999; 13(13): 1699-710.
51. Netelenbos T, Zuijderduijn S, Van Den Born J, Kessler FL, Zweegman S, Huijgens PC, et al. Proteoglycans guide SDF-1-induced migration of hematopoietic progenitor cells. J Leukoc Biol 2002; 72(2): 353-62.
52. Valenzuela-Fernandez A, Palanche T, Amara A, Magerus A, Altmeyer R, Delaunay T, et al. Optimal inhibition of X4 HIV isolates by the CXC chemokine stromal cell-derived factor 1 alpha requires interaction with cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans. J Biol Chem 2001; 276(28): 26550-8.
53. Moore MA. The role of chemoattraction in cancer metastases. Bioessays 2001; 23(8): 674-6.
54. Ma Q, Jones D, Borghesani PR, Segal RA, Nagasawa T, Kishimoto T, et al. Impaired B-lymphopoiesis, myelopoiesis, and derailed cerebellar neuron migration in CXCR4- and SDF-1-deficient mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998; 95(16): 9448-53.
55. Tachibana K, Hirota S, Iizasa H, Yoshida H, Kawabata K, Kataoka Y, et al. The chemokine receptor CXCR4 is essential for vascularization of the gastrointestinal tract. Nature 1998; 393(6685): 591-4.
56. Zou YR, Kottmann AH, Kuroda M, Taniuchi I, Littman DR. Function of the chemokine receptor CXCR4 in haematopoiesis and in cerebellar development. Nature 1998; 393(6685): 595-9.
57. McGrath KE, Koniski AD, Maltby KM, McGann JK, Palis J. Embryonic expression and function of the chemokine SDF-1 and its receptor, CXCR4. Dev Biol 1999; 213(2): 442-56.
58. Glodek AM, Honczarenko M, Le Y, Campbell JJ, Silberstein LE. Sustained activation of cell adhesion is a differentially regulated process in B lymphopoiesis. J Exp Med 2003; 197(4): 461-73.
59. Kawabata K, Ujikawa M, Egawa T, Kawamoto H, Tachibana K. Iizasa H, et al. A cell-autonomous requirement for CXCR4 in long-term lymphoid and myeloid reconstitution. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96(10): 5663-7.
60. Ma Q, Jones D, Springer TA. The chemokine receptor CXCR4 is required for the retention of B lineage and granulocytic precursors within the bone marrow microenvironment. Immunity 1999; 10(4): 463-71.
61. Onai N, Zhang Y, Yoneyama H, Kitamura T, Ishikawa S, Matsushima K. Impairment of lymphopoiesis and myelopoiesis in mice reconstituted with bone marrow-hematopoietic progenitor cells expressing SDF-1-intrakine. Blood 2000; 96(6): 2074-80.
62. Egawa T, Kawabata K, Kawamoto H, Amada K, Okamoto R, Fujii N, et al. The earliest stages of B cell development require a chemokine stromal cell-derived factor/pre-B cell growth-stimulating factor. Immunity 2001; 15(2): 323-34.
63. Lee Y, Gotoh A, Kwon HJ, You M, Kohli L, Mantel C, et al. Enhancement of intracellular signaling associated with hematopoietic progenitor cell survival in response to SDF-1/CXCL12 in synergy with other cytokines. Blood 2002; 99(12): 4307-17.
64. Broxmeyer HE, Cooper S, Kohli L, Hangoc G, Lee Y, Mantel C, et al. Transgenic expression of stromal cell-derived factor-1/CXC chemokine ligand 12 enhances myeloid progenitor cell survival/antiapoptosis in vitro in response to growth factor withdrawal and enhances myclopoiesis in vivo. J Immunol 2003; 170(1): 421-9.
65. Hernandez-Lopez C, Varas A, Sacedon R, Jimenez E, Munoz JJ, Zapata AG, et al. Stromal cell-derived factor 1/CXCR4 signaling is critical for early human T-cell development. Blood 2002; 99(2): 546-54.
66. Sallusto F, Lenig D, Mackay CR, Lanzavecchia A. Flexible programs of chemokine receptor expression on human polarized T helper 1 and 2 lymphocytes. J Exp Med 1998; 187(6): 875-91
67. Hargreaves DC, Hyman PL, Lu TT, Ngo VN, Bidgol A, Suzuki G, et al. A coordinated change in chemokine responsiveness guides plastria cell movements. J Exp Med 2001; 194(1): 45-56.
68. Nakayama T, Hieshima K, Izawa D, Tatsumi Y, Kanamaru A, Yoshie O. Cutting edge: Profile of chemokine receptor expression on human plasma cells accounts for their efficient recruitment to target tissues. J Immunol 2003; 170(3): 1136-40.
69. Casamayor-Palleja M, Mondiere P, Amara A, Bella C, Dieu-Nosjean MC, Caux C, et al. Expression of macrophage inflammatory protein-3alpha, stromal cell-derived factor-1, and B-cell-attracting chemokine-1 identifies the tonsil crypt as an attractive site for B cells. Blood 2001; 97(12): 3992-4.
70. Luther SA, Bidgol A, Hargreaves DC, Schmidt A, Xu Y, Paniyadi J, et al. Differing activities of homeostatic chemokines CCL19, CCL21, and CXCL12 in lymphocyte and dendritic cell recruitment and lymphoid neogenesis. J Immunol 2002; 169(1): 424-33.
71. Burger JA, Burger M, Kipps TJ. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia B cells express functional CXCR4 chemokine receptors that mediate spontaneous migration beneath bone marrow stromal cells. Blood 1999; 94(11): 3658-67.
72. Sawada S, Gowrishankar K, Kitamura R, Suzuki M, Suzuki G, Tahara S, et al. Disturbed CD4+ T cell homeostasis and in vitro HIV-1 susceptibility in transgenic mice expressing T cell line-tropic HIV-1 receptors. J Exp Med 1998; 187(9): 1439-49.
73. Zou W, Machelon V, Coulomb-L'Hermin A, Borvak J, Nome F, Isaeva T, et al. Stromal-derived factor-1 in human tumors recruits and alters the function of plasmacytoid precursor dendritic cells. Nat Med 2001; 7(12): 1339-46.
74. Campbell JJ, Hedrick J, Zlotnik A, Siani MA, Thompson DA, Butcher EC. Chemokines and the arrest of lymphocytes rolling under flow conditions. Science 1998; 279(5349): 381-4.
75. Ding Z, Xiong K, Issekutz TB. Regulation of chemokine-induced transendothelial migration of T lymphocytes by endothelial activation: differential effects on naive and memory T cells. J Leukoc Biol 2000; 67(6): 825-33.
76. Grabovsky V, Feigelson S, Chen C, Bleijs DA, Peled A, Cinamon G, et al. Subsecond induction of alpha4 integrin clustering by immobilized chemokines stimulates leukocyte tethering and rolling on endothelial vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 under flow conditions. J Exp Med 2000; 192(4): 495-506.
77. Kantele JM, Kurk S, Jutila MA. Effects of continuous exposure to stromal cell-derived factor-1 alpha on T cell rolling and tight adhesion to monolayers of activated endothelial cells. J Immunol 2000; 164(10): 5035-40.
78. Pablos JL, Amara A, Bouloc A, Santiago B, Caruz A, Galindo M, et al. Stromal-cell derived factor is expressed by dendritic cells and endothelium in human skin. Am J Pathol 1999; 155(5): 1577-86.
79. Nanki T, Hayashida K, El-Gabalawy HS, Suson S, Shi K, Girschick HJ, et al. Stromal cell-derived factor-1-CXC chemokine receptor 4 interactions play a central role in CD4+ T cell accumulation in rheumatoid arthritis synovium. J Immunol 2000; 165(11): 6590-8.
80. Nanki T, Lipsky PE. Stimulation of T-Cell activation by CXCL12/stromal cell derived factor-1 involves a G-protein mediated signaling pathway. Cell Immunol 2001; 214(2): 145-54.
81. Suzuki Y, Rahman M, Mitsuya H. Diverse transcriptional response of CD4(+) T cells to stromal cell-derived factor (SDF)-1: Cell survival promotion and priming effects of SDF-1 on CD4(+) T cells. J Immunol 2001; 167(6): 3064-73.
82. Mirshahi F, Pourtau J, Li H, Muraine M, Trochon V, Legrand E, et al. SDF-1 activity on microvascular endothelial cells: Consequences on angiogenesis in in vitro and in vivo models. Thromb Res 2000; 99(6): 587-94.
83. Salcedo R, Wasserman K, Young HA, Grimm MC, Howard OM, Anver MR. et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor and basic fibroblast growth factor induce expression of CXCR4 on human endothelial cells: In vivo neovascularization induced by stromal-derived factor-1alpha. Am J Pathol 1999; 154(4): 1125-35.
84. Salvucci O, Yao L, Villalba S, Sajewicz A, Pittaluga S, Tosato G. Regulation of endothelial cell branching morphogenesis by endogenous chemokine stromal-derived factor-1. Blood 2002; 99(8): 2703-11.
85. Yamaguchi J, Kusano KF, Masuo O, Kawamoto A, Silver M, Murasawa S, et al. Stromal cell-derived factor-1 effects on ex vivo expanded endothelial progenitor cell recruitment for ischemic neovascularization. Circulation 2003; 107(9): 1322-8.
86. Nagase H, Miyamasu M, Yamaguchi M, Fujisawa T, Ohta K, Yamamoto K, et al. Expression of CXCR4 in eosinophils: Functional analyses and cytokine-mediated regulation. J Immunol 2000: 164(11): 5935-43.
87. Jinquan T, Quan S, Jacobi HH, Madsen HO, Glue C, Skov PS, et al. CXC chemokine receptor 4 expression and stromal cell-derived factor-1alpha-induced chemotaxis in CD4+ T lymphocytes are regulated by interleukin-4 and interleukin-10. Immunology 2000; 99(3): 402-10.
88. Jourdan P, Abbal C, Noraz N, Hori T, Uchiyama T, Vendrell JP, et al. IL-4 induces functional cell-surface expression of CXCR4 on human T cells. J Immunol 1998; 160(9): 4153-7.
89. Valentin A, Lu W, Rosati M, Schneider R, Albert J, Karlsson A, et al. Dual effect of interleukin 4 on HIV-1 expression: Implications for viral phenotypic switch and disease progression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998; 95(15): 8886-91.
90. Galli G, Annunziato F, Mavilia C, Romagnani P, Cosmi L, Manetti R, et al. Enhanced HIV expression during Th2-oriented responses explained by the opposite regulatory effect of IL-4 and IFN-gamma of fusin/CXCR4. Eur J Immunol 1998; 28(10): 3280-90.
91. Wang J, Harada A, Matsushita S, Matsumi S, Zhang Y, Shioda T, et al. IL-4 and a glucocorticoid up-regulate CXCR4 expression on human CD4+ T lymphocytes and enhance HIV-1 replication. J Leukoc Biol 1998; 64(5): 642-9.
92. Jourdan P, Vendrell JP, Huguet ME, Segondy M, Bousquet J, Pene J, et al. Cytokines and cell surface molecules independently induce CXCR4 expression on CD4+ CCR7+ human memory T cells. J Immunol 2000; 165(2): 716-24.
93. Franitza S, Kollet O, Brill A, Vaday GG, Petit I, Lapidot T, et al. TGF-beta1 enhances SDF-1alpha-induced chemotaxis and homing of naive T cells by up-regulating CXCR4 expression and downstream cytoskeletal effector molecules. Eur J Immunol 2002; 32(1): 193-202.
94. Annunziato F, Cosmi L, Galli G, Beltrame C, Romagnani P, Manetti R, et al. Assessment of chemokine receptor expression by human Th1 and Th2 cells in vitro and in vivo. J Leukoc Biol 1999; 65(5): 691-9.
95. Nagase H, Miyamasu M, Yamaguchi M, Imanishi M, Tsuno NH, Matsushima K, et al. Cytokine-mediated regulation of CXCR4 expression in human neutrophils. J Leukoc Biol 2002; 71(4): 711-7.
96. Feil C, Augustin HG. Endothelial cells differentially express functional CXC-chemokine receptor-4 (CXCR-4/fusin) under the control of autocrine activity and exogenous cytokines. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1998; 247(1): 38-45.
97. Hecht I, Cahalon L, Hershkoviz R, Lahat A, Franitza S, Lider O. Heterologous desensitization of T cell functions by CCR5 and CXCR4 ligands: Inhibition of cellular signaling, adhesion and chemotaxis. Int Immunol 2003; 15(1): 29-38.
98. Wu JY, Feng L, Park HT, Havlioglu N, Wen L, Tang H, et al. The neuronal repellent Slit inhibits leukocyte chemotaxis induced by chemotactic factors. Nature 2001; 410(6831): 948-52.
99. Zallen JA, Yi BA, Bargmann CI. The conserved immunoglobulin superfamily member SAX-3/Robo directs multiple aspects of axon guidance in C. elegans. Cell 1998; 92(2): 217-27.
100. Hartmann K, Henz BM, Kruger-Krasagakes S, Kohl J, Burger R, Guhl S, et al. C3a and C5a stimulate chemotaxis of human mast cells. Blood 1997; 89(8): 2863-70.
101. Werfel T, Kirchhoff K, Wittmann M, Begemann G, Kapp A, Heidenreich F, et al. Activated human T lymphocytes express a functional C3a receptor. J Immunol 2000; 165(11): 6599-605.
102. Kopf M, Abel B, Gallimore A, Carroll M, Bachmann MF. Complement component C3 promotes T-cell priming and lung migration to control acute influenza virus infection. Nat Med 2002; 8(4): 373-8.
103. Jagels MA, Daffern PJ, Hugli TE. C3a and C5a enhance granulocyte adhesion to endothelial and epithelial cell monolayers: epithelial and endothelial priming is required for C3a-induced eosinophil adhesion. Immunopharmacology 2000; 46(3): 209-22.
104. Reca R, Mastellos D, Majka M, Marquez L, Ratajczak J, Franchini S, et al. Functional receptor for C3a anaphylatoxin is expressed by normal hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells, and C3a enhances their homing-related responses to SDF-1. Blood 2003; 101(10): 3784-93.
105. Kahne T, Lendeckel U, Wrenger S, Neubert K, Ansorge S, Reinhold D. Dipeptidyl peptidase IV: A cell surface peptidase involved in regulating T cell growth (review). Int J Mol Med 1999; 4(1): 3-15.
106. Huhn J, Ehrlich S, Fleischer B, von Bonin A. Molecular analysis of CD26-mediated signal transduction in T cells, Immunol Lett 2000; 72(2): 127-32.
107. Lambeir AM, Proost P, Durinx C, Bal G, Senten K, Augustyns K, et al. Kinetic investigation of chemokine truncation by CD26/dipeptidyl peptidase IV reveals a striking selectivity within the chemokine family. J Biol Chem 2001; 276(32): 29839-45.
108. Christopherson KW 2nd, Hangoc G, Broxmeyer HE. Cell surface peptidase CD26/dipeptidylpeptidase IV regulates CXCL12/stromal cell-derived factor-1 alpha-mediated chemotaxis of human cord blood CD34+ progenitor cells. J Immunol 2002; 169(12): 7000-8.
109. Valenzuela-Fernandez A, Planchenault T, Baleux F, Staropoli I, Le-Barillec K, Leduc D, et al. Leukocyte elastase negatively regulates Stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1)/CXCR4 binding and functions by amino-terminal processing of SDF-1 and CXCR4. J Biol Chem 2002; 277(18): 15677-89.
110. Boehmler AM, Kuci S, Seitz G, Kimura T, Wiesner T, Brinkmann V, et al. The PI3-Kinase Activator FTY720 Augments CXCR4 Chemokine Receptor Signaling In Vitro and Homing of CD34+/CD38 Progenitors in NOD/SCID Mice. In: American Society of Hematology Annual Meeting; 2002; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA: Blood; 2002.
111. Zhao J, Ben LH, Wu YL, Hu W, Ling K, Xin SM, et al. Anti-HIV agent trichosanthin enhances the capabilities of chemokines to stimulate chemotaxis and G protein activation, and this is mediated through interaction of trichosanthin and chemokine receptors. J Exp Med 1999; 190(1): 101-11.
112. Byers V, Levin A, Malvino A, Waites L, Robins R, Baldwin R. A phase II study of effect of addition of trichosanthin to zidovudine in patients with HIV disease and failing antiretroviral agents. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1994; 10: 413-420.
113. Byers V, Levin A, Waites L, Starrett B, Mayer R, Clegg J, et al. A phase I/II study of trichosanthin treatment of HIV disease. AIDS 1990; 4: 1189-1196.
114. Kahn J, Kaplan L, Gambertoglio J, Bredesen D, Arri C, Turin L, et al. The safety and pharmacokinetics of GLQ223 in subjects with AIDS and AIDS-related complex: A phase I study. AIDS 1990; 4: 1197-1204.
115. Mayer RA, Sergios PA, Coonan K, O'Brien L. Trichosanthin treatment of HIV-induced immune dysregulation. Eur J Clin Invest 1992; 22(2): 113-22.
116. Loetscher P, Gong JH, Dewald B, Baggiolini M, Clark-Lewis I. N-terminal peptides of stromal cell-derived factor-1 with CXC chemokine receptor 4 agonist and antagonist activities. J Biol Chem 1998; 273(35): 22279-83.
117. Heveker N, Montes M, Germeroth L, Amara A, Trautmann A, Alizon M, et al. Dissociation of the signalling and antiviral properties of SDF-1-derived small peptides. Curr Biol 1998; 26: 369-376.
118. O'Brien WA, Sumner-Smith M, Mao SH, Sadeghi S, Zhao JQ, Chen IS. Anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 activity of an oligocationic compound mediated via gp120 V3 interactions. J Virol 1996; 70(5): 2825-31.
119. Doranz BJ, Filion LG, Diaz-Mitoma F, Sitar DS, Sahai J, Baribaud F, et al. Safe use of the CXCR4 inhibitor ALX40-4C in humans. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2001; 17(6): 475-86.
120. Doranz BJ, Grovit-Ferbas K, Sharron MP, Mao SH, Goetz MB, Daar ES, et al. A small-molecule inhibitor directed against the chemokine receptor CXCR4 prevents its use as an HIV-1 coreceptor. J Exp Med 1997; 186(8): 1395-400.
121. Miyata T, Tokunaga F, Yoneya T, Yoshikawa K, Iwanaga S, Niwa M, et al. Antimicrobial peptides, isolated from horseshoe crab hemocytes, tachyplesin II, and polyphemusins I and II: Chemical structures and biological activity. J Biochem (Tokyo) 1989; 106(4): 663-8.
122. Morimoto M, Mori H, Otake T, Ueba N, Kunita N, Niwa M, et al. Inhibitory effect of tachyplesin I on the proliferation of human immunodeficiency virus in vitro. Chemotherapy 1991; 37(3): 206-11.
123. Tamamura H, Xu Y, Hattori T, Zhang X, Arakaki R, Kanbara K, et al. A low-molecular-weight inhibitor against the chemokine receptor CXCR4: A strong anti-HIV peptide T140. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1998; 253(3): 877-82.
124. Tamamura H, Omagari A, Oishi S, Kanamoto T, Yamamoto N, Peiper SC, et al. Pharmacophore identification of a specific CXCR4 inhibitor, T140, leads to development of effective anti-HIV agents with very high selectivity indexes. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2000; 10(23): 2633-7.
125. Tamamura H, Omagari A, Hiramatsu K, Gotoh K, Kanamoto T, Xu Y, et al. Development of specific CXCR4 inhibitors possessing high selectivity indexes as well as complete stability in serum based on an anti-HIV peptide T140. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2001; 11(14): 1897-902.
126. Murakami T, Nakajima T, Koyanagi Y, Tachibana K, Fujii N, Tamamura H, et al. A small molecule CXCR4 inhibitor that blocks T cell line-tropic HIV-1 infection. J Exp Med 1997; 186(8): 1389-93.
127. Arakaki R, Tamamura H, Premanathan M, Kanbara K, Ramanan S, Mochizuki K, et al. T134, a small-molecule CXCR4 inhibitor, has no cross-drug resistance with AMD3100, a CXCR4 antagonist with a different structure. J Virol 1999; 73(2): 1719-23.
128. Tamamura H, Imai M, Ishihara T, Masuda M, Funakoshi H, Oyake H, et al. Pharmacophore identification of a chemokine receptor (CXCR4) antagonist, T22 ([Tyr(5,12),Lys7]-polyphemusin II), which specifically blocks T cell-line-tropic HIV-1 infection. Bioorg Med Chem 1998; 6(7): 1033-41.
129. Tamamura H, Otaka A, Murakami T, Ishihara T, Ibuka T, Waki M, et al. Interaction of an anti-HIV peptide, T22, with gp120 and CD4. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1996; 219(2): 555-9.
130. Tamamura H, Arakaki R, Funakoshi H, Imai M, Otaka A, Ibuka T, et al. Effective lowly cytotoxic analogs of an HIV-cell fusion inhibitor, T22 ([Tyr5,12, Lys7]-polyphemusin II). Bioorg Med Chem 1998; 6(2): 231-8.
131. Tamamura H, Waki M, Imai M, Otaka A, Ibuka T, Waki K, et al. Downsizing of an HIV-cclI fusion inhibitor, T22 ([Tyr5,12, Lys7]-polyphemusin II), with the maintenance of anti-HIV activity and solution structure. Bioorg Med Chem 1998; 6(4): 473-9.
132. Tamamura H, Sugioka M, Odagaki Y, Omagari A, Kan Y, Oishi S, et al. Conformational study of a highly specific CXCR4 inhibitor, T140, disclosing the close proximity of its intrinsic pharmacophores associated with strong anti-HIV activity, Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2001; 11(3): 359-62.
133. Jordan NJ, Kolios G, Abbot SE, Sinai MA, Thompson DA, Petraki K, et al. Expression of functional CXCR4 chemokine receptors on human colonic epithelial cells. J Clin Invest 1999; 104(8): 1061-9.
134. De Clercq E. The bicyclam AMD3100 story. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2003; 2(7): 581-7.
135. Joao HC, De Vreese K, Pauwels R, De Clercq E, Henson GW, Bridger GJ. Quantitative structural activity relationship study of bis-tetraazacyclic compounds. A novel series of HIV-1 and HIV-2 inhibitors. J Med Chem 1995; 38(19): 3865-73.
136. De Clercq E, Yamamoto N, Pauwels R, Balzarini J, Witvrouw M, De Vreese K, et al. Highly potent and selective inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus by the bicyclam derivative JM3100. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994; 38(4): 668-74.
137. Hendrix CW, Flexner C, MacFarland RT, Giandomenico C, Fuchs EJ, Redpath E, et al. Pharmacokinetics and safety of AMD-3100, a novel antagonist of the CXCR-4 chemokine receptor, in human volunteers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000; 44(6): 1667-73.
138. Peled A, Petit I, Kollet O, Magid M, Ponomaryov T, Byk T, et al. Dependence of human stem cell engraftment and repopulation of NOD/SCID mice on CXCR4. Science 1999; 283(5403): 845-8.
139. Sato N, Sawada K, Takahashi T, Mogi Y, Asano S, Koike T, et al. A time course study for optimal harvest of peripheral blood progenitor cells by granulocyte colony-stimulating factor in healthy volunteers. Exp Hematol 1994; 22: 973-978.
140. To L, Haylock D, Simmons P, Juttner C. The biology and clinical uses of blood stem cells. Blood 1997; 89: 2233-2258.
141. To L, Haylock D, Kimber R, Juttner C. High levels of circulating haemopoietic stem cells in very early remission from acute non-lymphoblastic leukaemia and their collection and cryopreservation. Br J Haematol 1984; 58: 399-410.
142. Levesque JP, Hendy J, Takamatsu Y, Simmons PJ, Bendall LJ. Disruption of the CXCR4/CXCL12 chemotactic interaction during hematopoietic stem cell mobilization induced by GCSF or cyclophosphamide. J Clin Invest 2003; 111(2): 187-96.
143. Petit I, Szyper-Kravitz M, Nagler A, Lahav M, Peled A, Habler L, et al. G-CSF induces stem cell mobilization by decreasing bone marrow SDF-1 and up-regulating CXCR4. Nat Immunol 2002; 3(7): 697-94.
144. Hattori K, Heissig B, Tashiro K, Honjo T, Tateno M, Shieh JH, et al. Plasma elevation of stromal cell-derived factor-1 induces mobilization of mature and immature hematopoietic progenitor and stem cells. Blood 2001; 97(11): 3354-60.
145. Liles WC, Broxmeyer HE, Rodger E, Wood B, Hubel K, Cooper S, et al. Mobilization of hematopoietic progenitor cells in healthy volunteers by AMD3100, a CXCR4 antagonist. Blood 2003; 10: 10.
146. Liles WC, Rodger E, Broxmeyer HE, Srour EF, Dehner C, Badel K, et al. Mobilization and Collection of CD34+ Progenitor Cells from Normal Human Volunteers with AMD-3100, a CXCR4 Antagonist and G-CSF. In: American Society of Hematology Annual Meeting; 2002; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA: Blood; 2002.
147. Broxmeyer HE, Hangoc G, Cooper S, Li X, Bridger G, Clapp DW. AMD3100, an Antagonist of CXCR4 and Mobilizer of Myeloid Progenitor Cells, Is a Potent Mobilizer of Competitive Repopulating Long Term Marrow Self-Renewing Stem Cells in Mice. In: American Society of Hematology Annual Meeting; 2002; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA: Blood; 2002.
148. Muller A, Homey B, Soto H, Ge N, Catron D, Buchanan ME, et al. Involvement of chemokine receptors in breast cancer metastasis. Nature 2001; 410(6824): 50-6.
149. Sun YX, Wang J, Shelburne CE, Lopatin DE, Chinnaiyan AM, Rubin MA, et al. Expression of CXCR4 and CXCL12 (SDF-1) in human prostate cancers (PCa) in vivo. J Cell Biochem 2003; 89(3): 462-73.
150. Staller P, Sulitkova J, Lisztwan J, Moch H, Oakeley EJ, Krek W. Chemokine receptor CXCR4 downregulated by von Hippel-Lindau tumour suppressor pVHL. Nature 2003; 425(6955): 307-11.
151. Koshiba T, Hosotani R, Miyamoto Y, Ida J, Tsuji S, Nakajima S, et al. Expression of stromal cell-derived factor 1 and CXCR4 ligand receptor system in pancreatic cancer: A possible role for tumor progression. Clin Cancer Res 2000; 6(9): 3530-5.
152. Rempel SA, Dudas S, Ge S, Gutierrez JA. Identification and localization of the cytokine SDF1 and its receptor, CXC chemokine receptor 4, to regions of necrosis and angiogenesis in human glioblastoma. Clin Cancer Res 2000; 6(1): 102-11.
153. Kijima T, Maulik G, Ma PC, Tibaldi EV, Turner RE, Rollins B, et al. Regulation of cellular proliferation, cytoskeletal function, and signal transduction through CXCR4 and c-Kit in small cell lung cancer cells. Cancer Res 2002; 62(21): 6304-11.
154. Barretina J, Junca J, Llano A, Gutierrez A, Flores A, Blanco J, et al. CXCR4 and SDF-1 expression in B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia and stage of the disease. Ann Hematol 2003; 82: 500-505.
155. Helbig G, Christopherson K, Bhat-Nakshatri P, Kumar S, Kishimoto H, Miller K, et al. NF-kappaB promotes breast cancer cell migration and metastasis by inducing the expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR4. J Biol Chem 2003; 278: 21631-21638.
156. Taichman RS, Cooper C, Keller ET, Pienta KJ, Taichman NS, McCauley LK. Use of the stromal cell-derived factor-1/CXCR4 pathway in prostate cancer metastasis to bone. Cancer Res 2002; 62(6): 1832-7.
157. Bachelder RE, Wendt MA, Mercurio AM. Vascular endothelial growth factor promotes breast carcinoma invasion in an autocrine manner by regulating the chemokine receptor CXCR4. Cancer Res 2002; 62(24): 7203-6.
158. Scotton CJ, Wilson JL, Scott K, Stamp G, Wilbanks GD, Fricker S, et al. Multiple actions of the chemokine CXCL12 on epithelial tumor cells in human ovarian cancer. Cancer Res 2002; 62(20): 5930-8.
159. Phillips RJ, Burdick MD, Lutz M, Belperio JA, Keane MP, Strieter RM. The stromal derived factor-1/CXCL12-CXC chemokine receptor 4 biological axis in non-small cell lung cancer metastases. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 167(12): 1676-86.
160. Zeelenberg IS, Ruuls-Van Stalle L, Roos E. Retention of CXCR4 in the endoplasmic reticulum blocks dissemination of a T cell hybridoma. J Clin Invest 2001; 108(2): 269-77.
161. Murakami T, Maki W, Cardones AR, Fang H, Tun Kyi A, Nestle FO, et al. Expression of CXC chemokine receptor-4 enhances the pulmonary metastatic potential of murine B16 melanoma cells. Cancer Res 2002; 62(24): 7328-34.
162. Zeelenberg IS, Ruuls-Van Stalle L, Roos E. The chemokine receptor CXCR4 is required for outgrowth of colon carcinoma micrometastases. Cancer Res 2003; 63(13): 3833-9.
163. Burger JA, Tsukada N, Burger M, Zvaifler NJ, Dell'Aquila M, Kipps TJ. Blood-derived nurse-like cells protect chronic lymphocytic leukemia B cells from spontaneous apoptosis through stromal cell-derived factor-1. Blood 2000; 96(8): 2655-63.
164. Juarez J, Bradstock KF, Gottlieb DJ, Bendall LJ. Effects of inhibitors of the chemokine receptor CXCR4 on acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells in vitro. Leukemia 2003; 17(7): 1294-300.
165. Nishii K, Katayama N, Miwa H, Shikami M, Masuya M, Shiku H, et al. Survival of human leukaemic B-cell precursors is supported by stromal cells and cytokines: Association with the expression of bcl-2 protein. Br J Haematol 1999; 105(3): 701-10.
166. Bertolini F, Dell'Agnola C, Mancuso P, Rabascio C, Burlini A, Monestiroli S, et al. CXCR4 neutralization, a novel therapeutic approach for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Cancer Res 2002; 62(11): 3106-12.
167. Barbero S, Bonavia R, Bajetto A, Porcile C, Pirani P, Ravetti JL, et al. Stromal cell-derived factor 1alpha stimulates human glioblastoma cell growth through the activation of both extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 and Akt. Cancer Res 2003; 63(8): 1969-74.
168. Zhou Y, Larsen PH, Hao C, Yong VW. CXCR4 is a major chemokine receptor on glioma cells and mediates their survival. J Biol Chem 2002; 277(51): 49481-7.
169. Hall JM, Korach KS. Stromal cell-derived factor 1, a novel target of estrogen receptor action, mediates the mitogenic effects of estradiol in ovarian and breast cancer cells. Mol Endocrinol 2003; 17(5): 792-803.
170. Dunussi-Joannopoulos K, Zuberek K, Runyon K, Hawley RG, Wong A, Erickson J, et al. Efficacious immunomodulatory activity of the chemokine stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1): Local secretion of SDF-1 at the tumor site serves as T-cell chemoattractant and mediates T-cell-dependent antitumor responses. Blood 2002; 100(5): 1551-8.
171. Nomura T, Hasegawa H, Kohno M, Sasaki M, Fujita S. Enhancement of anti-tumor immunity by tumor cells transfected with the secondary lymphoid tissue chemokine EBI-1-ligand chemokine and stromal cell-derived factor-1alpha chemokine genes. Int J Cancer 2001; 91(5): 597-606.
172. Paul S, Mancuso P, Rabascio C, Gobbi A, Capillo M, Pruneri G, et al. In Vitro and Preclinical Activity of the Novel AMD3100 CXCR4 Antagonist in Lymphoma Models. In: American Society of Hematology Annual Meeting; 2002; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA: Blood; 2002.
173. Tamamura H, Hori A, Kanzaki N, Hiramatsu K, Mizumoto M, Nakashima H, et al. T140 analogs as CXCR4 antagonists identified as anti-metastatic agents in the treatment of breast cancer. FEBS Lett 2003; 550(1-3): 79-83.
174. Crazzolara R, Johrer K, Johnstone RW, Greil R, Kofler R, Meister B, et al. Histone deacetylase inhibitors potently repress CXCR4 chemokine receptor expression and function in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Br J Haematol 2002; 119(4): 965-9.
175. Marshall J, Rizvi N, Kauh J, Dahut W, Figuera M, Kang M, et al. A phase I trial of depsipeptide (FR901228) in patients with advanced cancer. J Exp Ther Oncol 2002; 2: 325-332.
176. Sandor V, Bakke S, Robey R, Kang M, Blagosklonny M, Bender J, et al. Phase I trial of the historic deacetylase inhibitor, depsipeptide (FR901228, NSC 630176), in patients with refractory neoplasms. Clin Cancer Res 2002; 8: 718-728.
177. Greene W, Peterlin B. Charting HIV's remarkable voyage through the cell: Basic science as a passport to future therapy. Nat Med 2002; 8: 673-680.
178. Alkhatib G, Combadiere C, Broder CC, Feng Y, Kennedy PE, Murphy PM, et al. CC CKR5: A RANTES, MIP-1alpha, MIP-1beta receptor as a fusion cofactor for macrophage-tropic HIV-1. Science 1996; 272(5270): 1955-8.
179. Berger EA, Doms RW, Fenyo EM, Korber BT, Littman DR, Moore JP, et al. A new classification for HIV-1. Nature 1998; 391(6664): 240.
180. Deng H, Liu R, Ellmeier W, Choe S, Unutmaz D, Burkhart M, et al. Identification of a major co-receptor for primary isolates of HIV-1. Nature 1996; 381(6584): 661-6.
181. Dragic T, Litwin V, Allaway GP, Martin SR, Huang Y, Nagashima KA, et al. HIV-1 entry into CD4+ cells is mediated by the chemokine receptor CC-CKR-5. Nature 1996; 381(6584): 667-73.
182. Feng Y, Broder CC, Kennedy PE, Berger EA. HIV-1 entry cofactor: Functional cDNA cloning of a seven-transmembrane, G protein-coupled receptor. Science 1996; 272(5263): 872-7.
183. Koot M, Keet IP, Vos AH, de Goede RE, Roos MT, Coutinho RA, et al. Prognostic value of HIV-1 syncytium-inducing phenotype for rate of CD4+ cell depletion and progression to AIDS. Ann Intern Med 1993; 118(9): 681-8.
184. Schuitemaker H, Koot M, Kootstra NA, Dercksen MW, de Goede RE, van Steenwijk RP, et al. Biological phenotype of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 clones at different stages of infection: progression of disease is associated with a shift from monocytotropic to T-cell-tropic virus population. J Virol 1992; 66(3): 1354-60.
185. Tersmette M, Gruters RA, de Wolf F, de Goede RE, Lange JM, Schellekens PT, et al. Evidence for a role of virulent human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) variants in the pathogenesis of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: Studies on sequential HIV isolates. J Virol 1989; 63(5): 2118-25.
186. Domingo E. Genetic variation and quasi-species. Curr Opin Genet Dev 1992; 2(1): 61-3.
187. Holland JJ, De La Torre JC, Steinhauer DA. RNA virus populations as quasispecies. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1992; 176: 1-20.
188. Meyerhans A, Cheynier R, Albert J, Seth M, Kwok S, Sninsky J, et al. Temporal fluctuations in HIV quasispecies in vivo are not reflected by sequential HIV isolations. Cell 1989; 58(5): 901-10.
189. Mansky L. HIV mutagenesis and the evolution of antiretroviral drug resistance. Drug Resist Updat 2002; 5: 219-223.
190. Saksena N, Haddad D. Viral reservoirs an impediment to HAART: new strategies to eliminate HIV-1. Curr Drug Targets Infect Disord 2003; 3: 179-206.
191. Schols D, Struyf S, Van Damme J, Este JA, Henson G, De Clercq E. Inhibition of T-tropic HIV strains by selective antagonization of the chemokine receptor CXCR4. J Exp Med 1997; 186(8): 1383-8.
192. Tamamura H, Otaka A, Murakami T, Ibuka T, Sakano K, Waki M, et al. An anti-HIV peptide, T22, forms a highly active complex with Zn(II). Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1996; 229(2): 648-52.
193. Armand-Ugon M, Quinones-Mateu M, Gutierez A, Barretina J, Blanco J, Schols D, et al. Reduced fitness of HIV-1 resistant to CXCR4 antagonists. Antiviral Ther 2003; 8: 1-8.
194. Alfano M, Poli G. Cytokine and chemokine based control of HIV infection and replication. Curr Pharm Design 2001; 7(11): 993-1013.
195. Rajarathnam K, Designing decoys for chemokine-chemokine receptor interaction. Curr Pharm Design 2002; 8(24): 2159-69.
196. Schein CH. The shape of the messenger: Using protein structure information to design novel cytokine-based therapeutics. Curr Pharm Design 2002; 8(24): 2113-29.