Tejana radical: Emma Tenayuca and the San Antonio labor movement during the great depression

Pacific Historical Review

Volumn 66, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 553-580

  Vargas, Zaragosa ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 1842467322     PISSN: 00308684     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3642237     Document Type: Review

References (160)

1. In this article I use Mexican, Tejano, and Mexican American as terms of self and group reference. In Texas in the 1930s the preferred term of self reference was Mexican or Tejano [Texas Mexican]. The term Mexican refers to both Mexican nationals and Tejanos. On the other hand, the terms Mexican and Mexican American emphasize group identity. Mexican American also emphasizes U.S. citizenship.
2. Cletus E. Daniel, Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870-1941 (Berkeley, 1981), 106, 108; Lizabeth Cohen, "Tradition and the Working Class, 1850-1950," International Labor and Working-Class History, XLII (1992), 86-87; "Mexican Radical Activities," March 18, 1936, in U.S. Military Intelligence Division Files, file 2657-G-657-186, Records of the War Department General and Special Staffs, Record Group 165, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as RG 165, NA). Several recently unpublished and published works address certain aspects of the experiences of Mexican workers in the 1930s. Among the articles, monographs, and dissertations, see Luis Leobardo Arroyo, "Industrial Unionism and the Los Angeles Furniture Industry, 1918-1954" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1979); Luis Leobardo Arroyo, "Chicano Participation in Organized Labor: The CIO in Los Angeles, 1938-1950: An Extended Research Note," Aztlán, VI (1975), 277-303. Recently published books include Sarah Deutsch, No Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on an Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the American Southwest, 1888-1940 (New York, 1987); Devra Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold: California Farm Workers, Cotton, and the New Deal (Berkeley, 1994); George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (New York, 1993).
3. Cletus E. Daniel, Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870-1941 (Berkeley, 1981), 106, 108; Lizabeth Cohen, "Tradition and the Working Class, 1850-1950," International Labor and Working-Class History, XLII (1992), 86-87; "Mexican Radical Activities," March 18, 1936, in U.S. Military Intelligence Division Files, file 2657-G-657-186, Records of the War Department General and Special Staffs, Record Group 165, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as RG 165, NA). Several recently unpublished and published works address certain aspects of the experiences of Mexican workers in the 1930s. Among the articles, monographs, and dissertations, see Luis Leobardo Arroyo, "Industrial Unionism and the Los Angeles Furniture Industry, 1918-1954" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1979); Luis Leobardo Arroyo, "Chicano Participation in Organized Labor: The CIO in Los Angeles, 1938-1950: An Extended Research Note," Aztlán, VI (1975), 277-303. Recently published books include Sarah Deutsch, No Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on an Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the American Southwest, 1888-1940 (New York, 1987); Devra Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold: California Farm Workers, Cotton, and the New Deal (Berkeley, 1994); George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (New York, 1993).
4. Cletus E. Daniel, Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870-1941 (Berkeley, 1981), 106, 108; Lizabeth Cohen, "Tradition and the Working Class, 1850-1950," International Labor and Working-Class History, XLII (1992), 86-87; "Mexican Radical Activities," March 18, 1936, in U.S. Military Intelligence Division Files, file 2657-G-657-186, Records of the War Department General and Special Staffs, Record Group 165, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as RG 165, NA). Several recently unpublished and published works address certain aspects of the experiences of Mexican workers in the 1930s. Among the articles, monographs, and dissertations, see Luis Leobardo Arroyo, "Industrial Unionism and the Los Angeles Furniture Industry, 1918-1954" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1979); Luis Leobardo Arroyo, "Chicano Participation in Organized Labor: The CIO in Los Angeles, 1938-1950: An Extended Research Note," Aztlán, VI (1975), 277-303. Recently published books include Sarah Deutsch, No Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on an Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the American Southwest, 1888-1940 (New York, 1987); Devra Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold: California Farm Workers, Cotton, and the New Deal (Berkeley, 1994); George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (New York, 1993).
5. Cletus E. Daniel, Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870-1941 (Berkeley, 1981), 106, 108; Lizabeth Cohen, "Tradition and the Working Class, 1850-1950," International Labor and Working-Class History, XLII (1992), 86-87; "Mexican Radical Activities," March 18, 1936, in U.S. Military Intelligence Division Files, file 2657-G-657-186, Records of the War Department General and Special Staffs, Record Group 165, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as RG 165, NA). Several recently unpublished and published works address certain aspects of the experiences of Mexican workers in the 1930s. Among the articles, monographs, and dissertations, see Luis Leobardo Arroyo, "Industrial Unionism and the Los Angeles Furniture Industry, 1918-1954" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1979); Luis Leobardo Arroyo, "Chicano Participation in Organized Labor: The CIO in Los Angeles, 1938-1950: An Extended Research Note," Aztlán, VI (1975), 277-303. Recently published books include Sarah Deutsch, No Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on an Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the American Southwest, 1888-1940 (New York, 1987); Devra Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold: California Farm Workers, Cotton, and the New Deal (Berkeley, 1994); George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (New York, 1993).
6. Cletus E. Daniel, Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870-1941 (Berkeley, 1981), 106, 108; Lizabeth Cohen, "Tradition and the Working Class, 1850-1950," International Labor and Working-Class History, XLII (1992), 86-87; "Mexican Radical Activities," March 18, 1936, in U.S. Military Intelligence Division Files, file 2657-G-657-186, Records of the War Department General and Special Staffs, Record Group 165, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as RG 165, NA). Several recently unpublished and published works address certain aspects of the experiences of Mexican workers in the 1930s. Among the articles, monographs, and dissertations, see Luis Leobardo Arroyo, "Industrial Unionism and the Los Angeles Furniture Industry, 1918-1954" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1979); Luis Leobardo Arroyo, "Chicano Participation in Organized Labor: The CIO in Los Angeles, 1938-1950: An Extended Research Note," Aztlán, VI (1975), 277-303. Recently published books include Sarah Deutsch, No Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on an Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the American Southwest, 1888-1940 (New York, 1987); Devra Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold: California Farm Workers, Cotton, and the New Deal (Berkeley, 1994); George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (New York, 1993).
7. Cletus E. Daniel, Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870-1941 (Berkeley, 1981), 106, 108; Lizabeth Cohen, "Tradition and the Working Class, 1850-1950," International Labor and Working-Class History, XLII (1992), 86-87; "Mexican Radical Activities," March 18, 1936, in U.S. Military Intelligence Division Files, file 2657-G-657-186, Records of the War Department General and Special Staffs, Record Group 165, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as RG 165, NA). Several recently unpublished and published works address certain aspects of the experiences of Mexican workers in the 1930s. Among the articles, monographs, and dissertations, see Luis Leobardo Arroyo, "Industrial Unionism and the Los Angeles Furniture Industry, 1918-1954" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1979); Luis Leobardo Arroyo, "Chicano Participation in Organized Labor: The CIO in Los Angeles, 1938-1950: An Extended Research Note," Aztlán, VI (1975), 277-303. Recently published books include Sarah Deutsch, No Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on an Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the American Southwest, 1888-1940 (New York, 1987); Devra Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold: California Farm Workers, Cotton, and the New Deal (Berkeley, 1994); George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (New York, 1993).
8. Cletus E. Daniel, Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870-1941 (Berkeley, 1981), 106, 108; Lizabeth Cohen, "Tradition and the Working Class, 1850-1950," International Labor and Working-Class History, XLII (1992), 86-87; "Mexican Radical Activities," March 18, 1936, in U.S. Military Intelligence Division Files, file 2657-G-657-186, Records of the War Department General and Special Staffs, Record Group 165, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as RG 165, NA). Several recently unpublished and published works address certain aspects of the experiences of Mexican workers in the 1930s. Among the articles, monographs, and dissertations, see Luis Leobardo Arroyo, "Industrial Unionism and the Los Angeles Furniture Industry, 1918-1954" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1979); Luis Leobardo Arroyo, "Chicano Participation in Organized Labor: The CIO in Los Angeles, 1938-1950: An Extended Research Note," Aztlán, VI (1975), 277-303. Recently published books include Sarah Deutsch, No Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on an Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the American Southwest, 1888-1940 (New York, 1987); Devra Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold: California Farm Workers, Cotton, and the New Deal (Berkeley, 1994); George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (New York, 1993).
9. James C. Foster, "Mexican Labor and the Southwest," in James C. Foster, ed., American Labor and the Southwest: The First One Hundred Years (Tucson, 1982), 160-161; Robert H. Zieger, The CIO, 1935-1955 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1995), 112-113; Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (Cambridge, Eng., 1990), 338-339; Zaragosa Vargas, Proletarians of the North: Mexican Industrial Workers in Detroit and the Midwest, 1917-1933 (Berkeley, 1993), 194-199.
10. James C. Foster, "Mexican Labor and the Southwest," in James C. Foster, ed., American Labor and the Southwest: The First One Hundred Years (Tucson, 1982), 160-161; Robert H. Zieger, The CIO, 1935-1955 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1995), 112-113; Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (Cambridge, Eng., 1990), 338-339; Zaragosa Vargas, Proletarians of the North: Mexican Industrial Workers in Detroit and the Midwest, 1917-1933 (Berkeley, 1993), 194-199.
11. James C. Foster, "Mexican Labor and the Southwest," in James C. Foster, ed., American Labor and the Southwest: The First One Hundred Years (Tucson, 1982), 160-161; Robert H. Zieger, The CIO, 1935-1955 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1995), 112-113; Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (Cambridge, Eng., 1990), 338-339; Zaragosa Vargas, Proletarians of the North: Mexican Industrial Workers in Detroit and the Midwest, 1917-1933 (Berkeley, 1993), 194-199.
12. James C. Foster, "Mexican Labor and the Southwest," in James C. Foster, ed., American Labor and the Southwest: The First One Hundred Years (Tucson, 1982), 160-161; Robert H. Zieger, The CIO, 1935-1955 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1995), 112-113; Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (Cambridge, Eng., 1990), 338-339; Zaragosa Vargas, Proletarians of the North: Mexican Industrial Workers in Detroit and the Midwest, 1917-1933 (Berkeley, 1993), 194-199.
13. Daniel, Bitter Harvest, 278; Douglas Monroy, "Anarquismo y Communismo: Mexican Radicalism and the Communist Party in Los Angeles During the 1930s," Labor History, XXIV (1983), 52-53. For information on the CIO's response to racial minority rank and file, see the special issue "Race and the CIO" in International Labor and Working-Class History, XLIV (1993).
14. Daniel, Bitter Harvest, 278; Douglas Monroy, "Anarquismo y Communismo: Mexican Radicalism and the Communist Party in Los Angeles During the 1930s," Labor History, XXIV (1983), 52-53. For information on the CIO's response to racial minority rank and file, see the special issue "Race and the CIO" in International Labor and Working-Class History, XLIV (1993).
15. Daniel, Bitter Harvest, 278; Douglas Monroy, "Anarquismo y Communismo: Mexican Radicalism and the Communist Party in Los Angeles During the 1930s," Labor History, XXIV (1983), 52-53. For information on the CIO's response to racial minority rank and file, see the special issue "Race and the CIO" in International Labor and Working-Class History, XLIV (1993).
16. Sarah Deutsch, "Gender, Labor History, and Chicano/a Ethnic Identity," Frontiers, XIV (1994), 1-2. Recent studies of 1930s women include Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering & Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1991) and Dolores E. Janiewski, Sisterhood Denied: Race, Gender, and Class in a New South Community (Philadelphia, 1985). Women historians are continuing to document the contributions of Anglo and multiracial women to the history of the American West and of the southwestern region. For other representative examples of the recent scholarship, see Susan Johnson, "A memory sweet to soldiers': The Significance of Gender in the History of the 'American West,'" Western Historical Quarterly, XXIV (1993), 495-517; Antonia I. Castañeda, "Women of Color and the Rewriting of History," Pacific Historical Review, LXI (1992), 501-533.
17. Sarah Deutsch, "Gender, Labor History, and Chicano/a Ethnic Identity," Frontiers, XIV (1994), 1-2. Recent studies of 1930s women include Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering & Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1991) and Dolores E. Janiewski, Sisterhood Denied: Race, Gender, and Class in a New South Community (Philadelphia, 1985). Women historians are continuing to document the contributions of Anglo and multiracial women to the history of the American West and of the southwestern region. For other representative examples of the recent scholarship, see Susan Johnson, "A memory sweet to soldiers': The Significance of Gender in the History of the 'American West,'" Western Historical Quarterly, XXIV (1993), 495-517; Antonia I. Castañeda, "Women of Color and the Rewriting of History," Pacific Historical Review, LXI (1992), 501-533.
18. Sarah Deutsch, "Gender, Labor History, and Chicano/a Ethnic Identity," Frontiers, XIV (1994), 1-2. Recent studies of 1930s women include Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering & Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1991) and Dolores E. Janiewski, Sisterhood Denied: Race, Gender, and Class in a New South Community (Philadelphia, 1985). Women historians are continuing to document the contributions of Anglo and multiracial women to the history of the American West and of the southwestern region. For other representative examples of the recent scholarship, see Susan Johnson, "A memory sweet to soldiers': The Significance of Gender in the History of the 'American West,'" Western Historical Quarterly, XXIV (1993), 495-517; Antonia I. Castañeda, "Women of Color and the Rewriting of History," Pacific Historical Review, LXI (1992), 501-533.
19. Sarah Deutsch, "Gender, Labor History, and Chicano/a Ethnic Identity," Frontiers, XIV (1994), 1-2. Recent studies of 1930s women include Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering & Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1991) and Dolores E. Janiewski, Sisterhood Denied: Race, Gender, and Class in a New South Community (Philadelphia, 1985). Women historians are continuing to document the contributions of Anglo and multiracial women to the history of the American West and of the southwestern region. For other representative examples of the recent scholarship, see Susan Johnson, "A memory sweet to soldiers': The Significance of Gender in the History of the 'American West,'" Western Historical Quarterly, XXIV (1993), 495-517; Antonia I. Castañeda, "Women of Color and the Rewriting of History," Pacific Historical Review, LXI (1992), 501-533.
20. Sarah Deutsch, "Gender, Labor History, and Chicano/a Ethnic Identity," Frontiers, XIV (1994), 1-2. Recent studies of 1930s women include Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering & Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1991) and Dolores E. Janiewski, Sisterhood Denied: Race, Gender, and Class in a New South Community (Philadelphia, 1985). Women historians are continuing to document the contributions of Anglo and multiracial women to the history of the American West and of the southwestern region. For other representative examples of the recent scholarship, see Susan Johnson, "A memory sweet to soldiers': The Significance of Gender in the History of the 'American West,'" Western Historical Quarterly, XXIV (1993), 495-517; Antonia I. Castañeda, "Women of Color and the Rewriting of History," Pacific Historical Review, LXI (1992), 501-533.
21. Green Peyton, San Antonio: City in the Sun (New York, 1946), 169; David Lewis Filewood, "Tejano Revolt: The Significance of the 1938 Pecan Shellers Strike" (M.A. thesis, University of Texas, Arlington, 1994), 23; Richard Croxdale, "The 1938 San Antonio Pecan Shellers' Strike," in Richard Croxdale and Melissa Hield, eds., Women in the Texas Workforce (Austin, Tex., 1979), 30; George and Latane Lambert Papers, collection 127, Labor History Archives, University of Texas at Arlington Library, p. 25; Harry Koger Papers, collection 66, ibid., p. 2. 7. Lambert Papers, 19.
22. Green Peyton, San Antonio: City in the Sun (New York, 1946), 169; David Lewis Filewood, "Tejano Revolt: The Significance of the 1938 Pecan Shellers Strike" (M.A. thesis, University of Texas, Arlington, 1994), 23; Richard Croxdale, "The 1938 San Antonio Pecan Shellers' Strike," in Richard Croxdale and Melissa Hield, eds., Women in the Texas Workforce (Austin, Tex., 1979), 30; George and Latane Lambert Papers, collection 127, Labor History Archives, University of Texas at Arlington Library, p. 25; Harry Koger Papers, collection 66, ibid., p. 2. 7. Lambert Papers, 19.
23. Green Peyton, San Antonio: City in the Sun (New York, 1946), 169; David Lewis Filewood, "Tejano Revolt: The Significance of the 1938 Pecan Shellers Strike" (M.A. thesis, University of Texas, Arlington, 1994), 23; Richard Croxdale, "The 1938 San Antonio Pecan Shellers' Strike," in Richard Croxdale and Melissa Hield, eds., Women in the Texas Workforce (Austin, Tex., 1979), 30; George and Latane Lambert Papers, collection 127, Labor History Archives, University of Texas at Arlington Library, p. 25; Harry Koger Papers, collection 66, ibid., p. 2. 7. Lambert Papers, 19.
24. Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 85.
25. Among the articles and books on the role of Mexican-American women in the labor movement, see, for example, Victor Nelson-Cisneros, "UCAPAWA Organizing Activities in Texas, 1930-1950," Aztlán, IX (1978), 7-84; Clementina Durón, "Mexican Women and Labor Conflict in Los Angeles: The ILGWU Dressmakers' Strike of 1933," Aztlán, XV (1982), 145-161; Vicki L. RUIZ, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, 1987); Mario T. García, Mexican Americans: Leadership, Ideology, and Identity, 1930-1960 (New Haven, Conn., 1989).
26. Among the articles and books on the role of Mexican-American women in the labor movement, see, for example, Victor Nelson-Cisneros, "UCAPAWA Organizing Activities in Texas, 1930-1950," Aztlán, IX (1978), 7-84; Clementina Durón, "Mexican Women and Labor Conflict in Los Angeles: The ILGWU Dressmakers' Strike of 1933," Aztlán, XV (1982), 145-161; Vicki L. RUIZ, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, 1987); Mario T. García, Mexican Americans: Leadership, Ideology, and Identity, 1930-1960 (New Haven, Conn., 1989).
27. Among the articles and books on the role of Mexican-American women in the labor movement, see, for example, Victor Nelson-Cisneros, "UCAPAWA Organizing Activities in Texas, 1930-1950," Aztlán, IX (1978), 7-84; Clementina Durón, "Mexican Women and Labor Conflict in Los Angeles: The ILGWU Dressmakers' Strike of 1933," Aztlán, XV (1982), 145-161; Vicki L. RUIZ, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, 1987); Mario T. García, Mexican Americans: Leadership, Ideology, and Identity, 1930-1960 (New Haven, Conn., 1989).
28. Among the articles and books on the role of Mexican-American women in the labor movement, see, for example, Victor Nelson-Cisneros, "UCAPAWA Organizing Activities in Texas, 1930-1950," Aztlán, IX (1978), 7-84; Clementina Durón, "Mexican Women and Labor Conflict in Los Angeles: The ILGWU Dressmakers' Strike of 1933," Aztlán, XV (1982), 145-161; Vicki L. RUIZ, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, 1987); Mario T. García, Mexican Americans: Leadership, Ideology, and Identity, 1930-1960 (New Haven, Conn., 1989).
29. David Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986 (Austin, Tex., 1987), 164-165, 189-190; Robert J. Thomas, Citizenship, Gender, and Work: The Social Organization of Industrial Agriculture (Berkeley, 1985), 148; Texas State Employment Service, Origins and Problems of Texas Migratory Farm Labor (Austin, Tex., Sept. 1940), 20, 42; Richard A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class: San Antonio, 1929-1941 (College Station, Tex., 1991), 58; Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold, 112, 114-115.
30. David Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986 (Austin, Tex., 1987), 164-165, 189-190; Robert J. Thomas, Citizenship, Gender, and Work: The Social Organization of Industrial Agriculture (Berkeley, 1985), 148; Texas State Employment Service, Origins and Problems of Texas Migratory Farm Labor (Austin, Tex., Sept. 1940), 20, 42; Richard A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class: San Antonio, 1929-1941 (College Station, Tex., 1991), 58; Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold, 112, 114-115.
31. David Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986 (Austin, Tex., 1987), 164-165, 189-190; Robert J. Thomas, Citizenship, Gender, and Work: The Social Organization of Industrial Agriculture (Berkeley, 1985), 148; Texas State Employment Service, Origins and Problems of Texas Migratory Farm Labor (Austin, Tex., Sept. 1940), 20, 42; Richard A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class: San Antonio, 1929-1941 (College Station, Tex., 1991), 58; Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold, 112, 114-115.
32. David Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986 (Austin, Tex., 1987), 164-165, 189-190; Robert J. Thomas, Citizenship, Gender, and Work: The Social Organization of Industrial Agriculture (Berkeley, 1985), 148; Texas State Employment Service, Origins and Problems of Texas Migratory Farm Labor (Austin, Tex., Sept. 1940), 20, 42; Richard A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class: San Antonio, 1929-1941 (College Station, Tex., 1991), 58; Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold, 112, 114-115.
33. David Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986 (Austin, Tex., 1987), 164-165, 189-190; Robert J. Thomas, Citizenship, Gender, and Work: The Social Organization of Industrial Agriculture (Berkeley, 1985), 148; Texas State Employment Service, Origins and Problems of Texas Migratory Farm Labor (Austin, Tex., Sept. 1940), 20, 42; Richard A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class: San Antonio, 1929-1941 (College Station, Tex., 1991), 58; Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold, 112, 114-115.
34. Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 265.
35. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, From Slavery to the Present (New York, 1985), 199; J. R. Steelman, Commissioner of Conciliation, San Antonio, Texas, to H. L. Kerwin, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., April 20, 1935, U.S. Mediation and Conciliation Service, Case File 182/326, Records of the U.S. Mediation and Conciliation Service, Record Group 280, National Archives (hereafter cited as RG 280, NA); Department of State, American Consul Romeyn Wormuth, Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, to Secretary of State, Washington, D.C., May 4, 1935, 811.5045/179, box 5112, Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59, National Archives (hereafter cited as RG 59, NA); Sharon Hartman Strom, "Challenging 'Women's Place': Feminism, the Left, and Industrial Unionism in the 1930s," Feminist Studies, IX (1980), 361-362; Mary Loretta Sullivan and Bertha Blair, Women in Texas Industries: Hours, Wages, Working Conditions, and Home Work [Department of Labor, Women's Bureau Bulletin No. 126] (Washington, D. C., 1936), 47-48, 57; Nancy E. Rose, Workfare or Fair Work: Women, Welfare, and Government Work Programs (New Brunswick, N. J., 1995), 48.
36. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, From Slavery to the Present (New York, 1985), 199; J. R. Steelman, Commissioner of Conciliation, San Antonio, Texas, to H. L. Kerwin, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., April 20, 1935, U.S. Mediation and Conciliation Service, Case File 182/326, Records of the U.S. Mediation and Conciliation Service, Record Group 280, National Archives (hereafter cited as RG 280, NA); Department of State, American Consul Romeyn Wormuth, Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, to Secretary of State, Washington, D.C., May 4, 1935, 811.5045/179, box 5112, Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59, National Archives (hereafter cited as RG 59, NA); Sharon Hartman Strom, "Challenging 'Women's Place': Feminism, the Left, and Industrial Unionism in the 1930s," Feminist Studies, IX (1980), 361-362; Mary Loretta Sullivan and Bertha Blair, Women in Texas Industries: Hours, Wages, Working Conditions, and Home Work [Department of Labor, Women's Bureau Bulletin No. 126] (Washington, D. C., 1936), 47-48, 57; Nancy E. Rose, Workfare or Fair Work: Women, Welfare, and Government Work Programs (New Brunswick, N. J., 1995), 48.
37. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, From Slavery to the Present (New York, 1985), 199; J. R. Steelman, Commissioner of Conciliation, San Antonio, Texas, to H. L. Kerwin, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., April 20, 1935, U.S. Mediation and Conciliation Service, Case File 182/326, Records of the U.S. Mediation and Conciliation Service, Record Group 280, National Archives (hereafter cited as RG 280, NA); Department of State, American Consul Romeyn Wormuth, Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, to Secretary of State, Washington, D.C., May 4, 1935, 811.5045/179, box 5112, Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59, National Archives (hereafter cited as RG 59, NA); Sharon Hartman Strom, "Challenging 'Women's Place': Feminism, the Left, and Industrial Unionism in the 1930s," Feminist Studies, IX (1980), 361-362; Mary Loretta Sullivan and Bertha Blair, Women in Texas Industries: Hours, Wages, Working Conditions, and Home Work [Department of Labor, Women's Bureau Bulletin No. 126] (Washington, D. C., 1936), 47-48, 57; Nancy E. Rose, Workfare or Fair Work: Women, Welfare, and Government Work Programs (New Brunswick, N. J., 1995), 48.
38. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, From Slavery to the Present (New York, 1985), 199; J. R. Steelman, Commissioner of Conciliation, San Antonio, Texas, to H. L. Kerwin, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., April 20, 1935, U.S. Mediation and Conciliation Service, Case File 182/326, Records of the U.S. Mediation and Conciliation Service, Record Group 280, National Archives (hereafter cited as RG 280, NA); Department of State, American Consul Romeyn Wormuth, Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, to Secretary of State, Washington, D.C., May 4, 1935, 811.5045/179, box 5112, Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59, National Archives (hereafter cited as RG 59, NA); Sharon Hartman Strom, "Challenging 'Women's Place': Feminism, the Left, and Industrial Unionism in the 1930s," Feminist Studies, IX (1980), 361-362; Mary Loretta Sullivan and Bertha Blair, Women in Texas Industries: Hours, Wages, Working Conditions, and Home Work [Department of Labor, Women's Bureau Bulletin No. 126] (Washington, D. C., 1936), 47-48, 57; Nancy E. Rose, Workfare or Fair Work: Women, Welfare, and Government Work Programs (New Brunswick, N. J., 1995), 48.
39. Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 27.
40. Julia Kirk Blackwelder, Women of the Depression: Caste and Culture in San Antonio, 1929-1939 (College Station, Tex., 1984), 103-104; Roberto Calderón and Emilio Zamora, Chicana Voices: Intersections of Race, Class, and Gender (Austin, Tex., 1986), 33; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 60.
41. Julia Kirk Blackwelder, Women of the Depression: Caste and Culture in San Antonio, 1929-1939 (College Station, Tex., 1984), 103-104; Roberto Calderón and Emilio Zamora, Chicana Voices: Intersections of Race, Class, and Gender (Austin, Tex., 1986), 33; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 60.
42. Julia Kirk Blackwelder, Women of the Depression: Caste and Culture in San Antonio, 1929-1939 (College Station, Tex., 1984), 103-104; Roberto Calderón and Emilio Zamora, Chicana Voices: Intersections of Race, Class, and Gender (Austin, Tex., 1986), 33; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 60.
43. Raúl Ramos, "Así Fue: La Huelga de los Nueceros de San Antonio, Texas, Febrero 1939" (unpublished senior thesis, Princeton University, 1989), 9; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 144-145; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 41-42; Irene Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism, 1919-1974," Western Historical Quarterly, XXVI (1995), 318; WPA Central Files, Texas 1935-1936, box 2618, folder 641, 199/1189, no. 3168-5A, Records of the Works Progress Administration, Record Group 69, National Archives (hereafter cited as RG 69, NA).
44. Raúl Ramos, "Así Fue: La Huelga de los Nueceros de San Antonio, Texas, Febrero 1939" (unpublished senior thesis, Princeton University, 1989), 9; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 144-145; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 41-42; Irene Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism, 1919-1974," Western Historical Quarterly, XXVI (1995), 318; WPA Central Files, Texas 1935-1936, box 2618, folder 641, 199/1189, no. 3168-5A, Records of the Works Progress Administration, Record Group 69, National Archives (hereafter cited as RG 69, NA).
45. Raúl Ramos, "Así Fue: La Huelga de los Nueceros de San Antonio, Texas, Febrero 1939" (unpublished senior thesis, Princeton University, 1989), 9; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 144-145; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 41-42; Irene Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism, 1919-1974," Western Historical Quarterly, XXVI (1995), 318; WPA Central Files, Texas 1935-1936, box 2618, folder 641, 199/1189, no. 3168-5A, Records of the Works Progress Administration, Record Group 69, National Archives (hereafter cited as RG 69, NA).
46. Raúl Ramos, "Así Fue: La Huelga de los Nueceros de San Antonio, Texas, Febrero 1939" (unpublished senior thesis, Princeton University, 1989), 9; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 144-145; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 41-42; Irene Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism, 1919-1974," Western Historical Quarterly, XXVI (1995), 318; WPA Central Files, Texas 1935-1936, box 2618, folder 641, 199/1189, no. 3168-5A, Records of the Works Progress Administration, Record Group 69, National Archives (hereafter cited as RG 69, NA).
47. Peyton, San Antonio, 147; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 29, 32-33, 37-39; Ramos, "Asi Fue," 6; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 145; George O. Coalson, The Development of the Migratory Farm Labor System in Texas, 1900-1954 (San Francisco, 1977), 58; San Antonio Light, Sept. 17, 1938; Jane Warner Rogers, "WPA Professional and Service Projects in Texas (M.A. thesis, University of Texas, Austin, 1976), 52-53; Deutsch, No Separate Refuge, 187-196; Harvey Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism: The Depression Decade (New York, 1984), 50-56; author's interview with Emma Tenayuca, May 4, 1990. For works on the Unemployed Councils, see Daniel Leab, "'United We Eat': The Creation and Organization of the Unemployed Councils," Labor History, VIII (1967), 300-315, and Roy Rosenzweig, "Organizing the Unemployed: The Early Years of the Great Depression, 1929-33," Radical America, X (1976), 37-60.
48. Peyton, San Antonio, 147; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 29, 32-33, 37-39; Ramos, "Asi Fue," 6; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 145; George O. Coalson, The Development of the Migratory Farm Labor System in Texas, 1900-1954 (San Francisco, 1977), 58; San Antonio Light, Sept. 17, 1938; Jane Warner Rogers, "WPA Professional and Service Projects in Texas (M.A. thesis, University of Texas, Austin, 1976), 52-53; Deutsch, No Separate Refuge, 187-196; Harvey Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism: The Depression Decade (New York, 1984), 50-56; author's interview with Emma Tenayuca, May 4, 1990. For works on the Unemployed Councils, see Daniel Leab, "'United We Eat': The Creation and Organization of the Unemployed Councils," Labor History, VIII (1967), 300-315, and Roy Rosenzweig, "Organizing the Unemployed: The Early Years of the Great Depression, 1929-33," Radical America, X (1976), 37-60.
49. Peyton, San Antonio, 147; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 29, 32-33, 37-39; Ramos, "Asi Fue," 6; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 145; George O. Coalson, The Development of the Migratory Farm Labor System in Texas, 1900-1954 (San Francisco, 1977), 58; San Antonio Light, Sept. 17, 1938; Jane Warner Rogers, "WPA Professional and Service Projects in Texas (M.A. thesis, University of Texas, Austin, 1976), 52-53; Deutsch, No Separate Refuge, 187-196; Harvey Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism: The Depression Decade (New York, 1984), 50-56; author's interview with Emma Tenayuca, May 4, 1990. For works on the Unemployed Councils, see Daniel Leab, "'United We Eat': The Creation and Organization of the Unemployed Councils," Labor History, VIII (1967), 300-315, and Roy Rosenzweig, "Organizing the Unemployed: The Early Years of the Great Depression, 1929-33," Radical America, X (1976), 37-60.
50. Peyton, San Antonio, 147; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 29, 32-33, 37-39; Ramos, "Asi Fue," 6; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 145; George O. Coalson, The Development of the Migratory Farm Labor System in Texas, 1900-1954 (San Francisco, 1977), 58; San Antonio Light, Sept. 17, 1938; Jane Warner Rogers, "WPA Professional and Service Projects in Texas (M.A. thesis, University of Texas, Austin, 1976), 52-53; Deutsch, No Separate Refuge, 187-196; Harvey Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism: The Depression Decade (New York, 1984), 50-56; author's interview with Emma Tenayuca, May 4, 1990. For works on the Unemployed Councils, see Daniel Leab, "'United We Eat': The Creation and Organization of the Unemployed Councils," Labor History, VIII (1967), 300-315, and Roy Rosenzweig, "Organizing the Unemployed: The Early Years of the Great Depression, 1929-33," Radical America, X (1976), 37-60.
51. Peyton, San Antonio, 147; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 29, 32-33, 37-39; Ramos, "Asi Fue," 6; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 145; George O. Coalson, The Development of the Migratory Farm Labor System in Texas, 1900-1954 (San Francisco, 1977), 58; San Antonio Light, Sept. 17, 1938; Jane Warner Rogers, "WPA Professional and Service Projects in Texas (M.A. thesis, University of Texas, Austin, 1976), 52-53; Deutsch, No Separate Refuge, 187-196; Harvey Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism: The Depression Decade (New York, 1984), 50-56; author's interview with Emma Tenayuca, May 4, 1990. For works on the Unemployed Councils, see Daniel Leab, "'United We Eat': The Creation and Organization of the Unemployed Councils," Labor History, VIII (1967), 300-315, and Roy Rosenzweig, "Organizing the Unemployed: The Early Years of the Great Depression, 1929-33," Radical America, X (1976), 37-60.
52. Peyton, San Antonio, 147; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 29, 32-33, 37-39; Ramos, "Asi Fue," 6; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 145; George O. Coalson, The Development of the Migratory Farm Labor System in Texas, 1900-1954 (San Francisco, 1977), 58; San Antonio Light, Sept. 17, 1938; Jane Warner Rogers, "WPA Professional and Service Projects in Texas (M.A. thesis, University of Texas, Austin, 1976), 52-53; Deutsch, No Separate Refuge, 187-196; Harvey Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism: The Depression Decade (New York, 1984), 50-56; author's interview with Emma Tenayuca, May 4, 1990. For works on the Unemployed Councils, see Daniel Leab, "'United We Eat': The Creation and Organization of the Unemployed Councils," Labor History, VIII (1967), 300-315, and Roy Rosenzweig, "Organizing the Unemployed: The Early Years of the Great Depression, 1929-33," Radical America, X (1976), 37-60.
53. Peyton, San Antonio, 147; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 29, 32-33, 37-39; Ramos, "Asi Fue," 6; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 145; George O. Coalson, The Development of the Migratory Farm Labor System in Texas, 1900-1954 (San Francisco, 1977), 58; San Antonio Light, Sept. 17, 1938; Jane Warner Rogers, "WPA Professional and Service Projects in Texas (M.A. thesis, University of Texas, Austin, 1976), 52-53; Deutsch, No Separate Refuge, 187-196; Harvey Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism: The Depression Decade (New York, 1984), 50-56; author's interview with Emma Tenayuca, May 4, 1990. For works on the Unemployed Councils, see Daniel Leab, "'United We Eat': The Creation and Organization of the Unemployed Councils," Labor History, VIII (1967), 300-315, and Roy Rosenzweig, "Organizing the Unemployed: The Early Years of the Great Depression, 1929-33," Radical America, X (1976), 37-60.
54. Peyton, San Antonio, 147; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 29, 32-33, 37-39; Ramos, "Asi Fue," 6; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 145; George O. Coalson, The Development of the Migratory Farm Labor System in Texas, 1900-1954 (San Francisco, 1977), 58; San Antonio Light, Sept. 17, 1938; Jane Warner Rogers, "WPA Professional and Service Projects in Texas (M.A. thesis, University of Texas, Austin, 1976), 52-53; Deutsch, No Separate Refuge, 187-196; Harvey Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism: The Depression Decade (New York, 1984), 50-56; author's interview with Emma Tenayuca, May 4, 1990. For works on the Unemployed Councils, see Daniel Leab, "'United We Eat': The Creation and Organization of the Unemployed Councils," Labor History, VIII (1967), 300-315, and Roy Rosenzweig, "Organizing the Unemployed: The Early Years of the Great Depression, 1929-33," Radical America, X (1976), 37-60.
55. Peyton, San Antonio, 147; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 29, 32-33, 37-39; Ramos, "Asi Fue," 6; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 145; George O. Coalson, The Development of the Migratory Farm Labor System in Texas, 1900-1954 (San Francisco, 1977), 58; San Antonio Light, Sept. 17, 1938; Jane Warner Rogers, "WPA Professional and Service Projects in Texas (M.A. thesis, University of Texas, Austin, 1976), 52-53; Deutsch, No Separate Refuge, 187-196; Harvey Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism: The Depression Decade (New York, 1984), 50-56; author's interview with Emma Tenayuca, May 4, 1990. For works on the Unemployed Councils, see Daniel Leab, "'United We Eat': The Creation and Organization of the Unemployed Councils," Labor History, VIII (1967), 300-315, and Roy Rosenzweig, "Organizing the Unemployed: The Early Years of the Great Depression, 1929-33," Radical America, X (1976), 37-60.
56. Peyton, San Antonio, 147; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 29, 32-33, 37-39; Ramos, "Asi Fue," 6; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 145; George O. Coalson, The Development of the Migratory Farm Labor System in Texas, 1900-1954 (San Francisco, 1977), 58; San Antonio Light, Sept. 17, 1938; Jane Warner Rogers, "WPA Professional and Service Projects in Texas (M.A. thesis, University of Texas, Austin, 1976), 52-53; Deutsch, No Separate Refuge, 187-196; Harvey Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism: The Depression Decade (New York, 1984), 50-56; author's interview with Emma Tenayuca, May 4, 1990. For works on the Unemployed Councils, see Daniel Leab, "'United We Eat': The Creation and Organization of the Unemployed Councils," Labor History, VIII (1967), 300-315, and Roy Rosenzweig, "Organizing the Unemployed: The Early Years of the Great Depression, 1929-33," Radical America, X (1976), 37-60.
57. Peyton, San Antonio, 147; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 29, 32-33, 37-39; Ramos, "Asi Fue," 6; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 145; George O. Coalson, The Development of the Migratory Farm Labor System in Texas, 1900-1954 (San Francisco, 1977), 58; San Antonio Light, Sept. 17, 1938; Jane Warner Rogers, "WPA Professional and Service Projects in Texas (M.A. thesis, University of Texas, Austin, 1976), 52-53; Deutsch, No Separate Refuge, 187-196; Harvey Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism: The Depression Decade (New York, 1984), 50-56; author's interview with Emma Tenayuca, May 4, 1990. For works on the Unemployed Councils, see Daniel Leab, "'United We Eat': The Creation and Organization of the Unemployed Councils," Labor History, VIII (1967), 300-315, and Roy Rosenzweig, "Organizing the Unemployed: The Early Years of the Great Depression, 1929-33," Radical America, X (1976), 37-60.
58. People's Press, Jan. 23, 1937; author's telephone interview with Tenayuca, Feb. 20, 1990; Fraser M. Ottanelli, The Communist Party of the United States: From the Depression to World War II (New Brunswick, N, J., 1991), 35-36.
59. People's Press, Jan. 23, 1937; author's telephone interview with Tenayuca, Feb. 20, 1990; Fraser M. Ottanelli, The Communist Party of the United States: From the Depression to World War II (New Brunswick, N, J., 1991), 35-36.
60. Author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990; Franklin Folsom, Impatient Armies of the Poor: The Story of Collective Action of the Unemployed, 1808-1942 (Niwot, Colo., 1991), 421-422; "La Pasionaria de Texas," Time, XXXI (Feb. 28, 1938), 17; Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism, 273; Monroy, "Anarquismo y Comunismo," 55; D. H. Dinwoodie, "Deportation: The Immigration Service and the Chicano Labor Movement in the 1930s," New Mexico Historical Review, LII (1977), 193-194; Gilbert Mers, Working the Waterfront: The Ups and Downs of a Rebel Longshoreman (Austin, Tex., 1988), 122.
61. Author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990; Franklin Folsom, Impatient Armies of the Poor: The Story of Collective Action of the Unemployed, 1808-1942 (Niwot, Colo., 1991), 421-422; "La Pasionaria de Texas," Time, XXXI (Feb. 28, 1938), 17; Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism, 273; Monroy, "Anarquismo y Comunismo," 55; D. H. Dinwoodie, "Deportation: The Immigration Service and the Chicano Labor Movement in the 1930s," New Mexico Historical Review, LII (1977), 193-194; Gilbert Mers, Working the Waterfront: The Ups and Downs of a Rebel Longshoreman (Austin, Tex., 1988), 122.
62. Author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990; Franklin Folsom, Impatient Armies of the Poor: The Story of Collective Action of the Unemployed, 1808-1942 (Niwot, Colo., 1991), 421-422; "La Pasionaria de Texas," Time, XXXI (Feb. 28, 1938), 17; Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism, 273; Monroy, "Anarquismo y Comunismo," 55; D. H. Dinwoodie, "Deportation: The Immigration Service and the Chicano Labor Movement in the 1930s," New Mexico Historical Review, LII (1977), 193-194; Gilbert Mers, Working the Waterfront: The Ups and Downs of a Rebel Longshoreman (Austin, Tex., 1988), 122.
63. Author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990; Franklin Folsom, Impatient Armies of the Poor: The Story of Collective Action of the Unemployed, 1808-1942 (Niwot, Colo., 1991), 421-422; "La Pasionaria de Texas," Time, XXXI (Feb. 28, 1938), 17; Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism, 273; Monroy, "Anarquismo y Comunismo," 55; D. H. Dinwoodie, "Deportation: The Immigration Service and the Chicano Labor Movement in the 1930s," New Mexico Historical Review, LII (1977), 193-194; Gilbert Mers, Working the Waterfront: The Ups and Downs of a Rebel Longshoreman (Austin, Tex., 1988), 122.
64. Author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990; Franklin Folsom, Impatient Armies of the Poor: The Story of Collective Action of the Unemployed, 1808-1942 (Niwot, Colo., 1991), 421-422; "La Pasionaria de Texas," Time, XXXI (Feb. 28, 1938), 17; Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism, 273; Monroy, "Anarquismo y Comunismo," 55; D. H. Dinwoodie, "Deportation: The Immigration Service and the Chicano Labor Movement in the 1930s," New Mexico Historical Review, LII (1977), 193-194; Gilbert Mers, Working the Waterfront: The Ups and Downs of a Rebel Longshoreman (Austin, Tex., 1988), 122.
65. Author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990; Franklin Folsom, Impatient Armies of the Poor: The Story of Collective Action of the Unemployed, 1808-1942 (Niwot, Colo., 1991), 421-422; "La Pasionaria de Texas," Time, XXXI (Feb. 28, 1938), 17; Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism, 273; Monroy, "Anarquismo y Comunismo," 55; D. H. Dinwoodie, "Deportation: The Immigration Service and the Chicano Labor Movement in the 1930s," New Mexico Historical Review, LII (1977), 193-194; Gilbert Mers, Working the Waterfront: The Ups and Downs of a Rebel Longshoreman (Austin, Tex., 1988), 122.
66. Author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990; People's Press, March 6, 1937; Abraham Hoffman, Unwanted Mexican Americans in the Great Depression: Repatriation Pressures, 1929-1939 (Tucson, 1974), 120.
67. Author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990; People's Press, March 6, 1937; Abraham Hoffman, Unwanted Mexican Americans in the Great Depression: Repatriation Pressures, 1929-1939 (Tucson, 1974), 120.
68. Folsom, Impatient Armies of the Poor, 422-423; San Antonio Light, June 30, 1937; Calderón and Zamora, Chicana Voices, 33; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 4, 1990; Richard H. Pells, Radical Visions and American Dreams: Culture and Thought in the Depression Years (New York, 1973), 259.
69. Folsom, Impatient Armies of the Poor, 422-423; San Antonio Light, June 30, 1937; Calderón and Zamora, Chicana Voices, 33; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 4, 1990; Richard H. Pells, Radical Visions and American Dreams: Culture and Thought in the Depression Years (New York, 1973), 259.
70. Folsom, Impatient Armies of the Poor, 422-423; San Antonio Light, June 30, 1937; Calderón and Zamora, Chicana Voices, 33; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 4, 1990; Richard H. Pells, Radical Visions and American Dreams: Culture and Thought in the Depression Years (New York, 1973), 259.
71. Folsom, Impatient Armies of the Poor, 422-423; San Antonio Light, June 30, 1937; Calderón and Zamora, Chicana Voices, 33; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 4, 1990; Richard H. Pells, Radical Visions and American Dreams: Culture and Thought in the Depression Years (New York, 1973), 259.
72. People's Press, July 10, 1937; Robin D. G. Kelley, Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists During the Great Depression (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990), 191-192.
73. People's Press, July 10, 1937; Robin D. G. Kelley, Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists During the Great Depression (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990), 191-192.
74. Don Carleton, Red Scare!: Right-Wing Hysteria, Fifties Fanaticism, and Their Legacy in Texas (Austin, Tex., 1985), 27-28; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 85; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 319; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 5, 1990; Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism, 273; Mers, Working the Waterfront, 122, 124.
75. Don Carleton, Red Scare!: Right-Wing Hysteria, Fifties Fanaticism, and Their Legacy in Texas (Austin, Tex., 1985), 27-28; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 85; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 319; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 5, 1990; Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism, 273; Mers, Working the Waterfront, 122, 124.
76. Don Carleton, Red Scare!: Right-Wing Hysteria, Fifties Fanaticism, and Their Legacy in Texas (Austin, Tex., 1985), 27-28; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 85; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 319; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 5, 1990; Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism, 273; Mers, Working the Waterfront, 122, 124.
77. Don Carleton, Red Scare!: Right-Wing Hysteria, Fifties Fanaticism, and Their Legacy in Texas (Austin, Tex., 1985), 27-28; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 85; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 319; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 5, 1990; Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism, 273; Mers, Working the Waterfront, 122, 124.
78. Don Carleton, Red Scare!: Right-Wing Hysteria, Fifties Fanaticism, and Their Legacy in Texas (Austin, Tex., 1985), 27-28; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 85; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 319; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 5, 1990; Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism, 273; Mers, Working the Waterfront, 122, 124.
79. Ramos, "Así Fue," 26; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 72; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 318; People's Press, July 10, 24, 1937; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 5, 1990.
80. Ramos, "Así Fue," 26; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 72; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 318; People's Press, July 10, 24, 1937; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 5, 1990.
81. Ramos, "Así Fue," 26; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 72; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 318; People's Press, July 10, 24, 1937; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 5, 1990.
82. Ramos, "Así Fue," 26; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 72; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 318; People's Press, July 10, 24, 1937; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 5, 1990.
83. Ramos, "Así Fue," 13-14, 20-22; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 317; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 55, 60-62; Current, May 22, 1986; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141, 148-149; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 46-50, 58; Sullivan and Blair, Women in Texas Industries, 78; Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in California: A History of Mexican Americans in California (San Francisco, 1984), 59. People of Mexican background comprised about 52.2 percent of San Antonio's relief rolls; half of these (22.8 percent or 16,324 individuals) were Mexican nationals and the remainder (about 29.4 percent or 21,032 individuals) were Mexican Americans. Lyndon Gayle Knippa, "San Antonio II: The Early New Deal," in W. W. Newcomb, ed., Texas Cities and the Great Depression (Austin, Tex., 1973), 87.
84. Ramos, "Así Fue," 13-14, 20-22; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 317; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 55, 60-62; Current, May 22, 1986; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141, 148-149; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 46-50, 58; Sullivan and Blair, Women in Texas Industries, 78; Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in California: A History of Mexican Americans in California (San Francisco, 1984), 59. People of Mexican background comprised about 52.2 percent of San Antonio's relief rolls; half of these (22.8 percent or 16,324 individuals) were Mexican nationals and the remainder (about 29.4 percent or 21,032 individuals) were Mexican Americans. Lyndon Gayle Knippa, "San Antonio II: The Early New Deal," in W. W. Newcomb, ed., Texas Cities and the Great Depression (Austin, Tex., 1973), 87.
85. Ramos, "Así Fue," 13-14, 20-22; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 317; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 55, 60-62; Current, May 22, 1986; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141, 148-149; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 46-50, 58; Sullivan and Blair, Women in Texas Industries, 78; Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in California: A History of Mexican Americans in California (San Francisco, 1984), 59. People of Mexican background comprised about 52.2 percent of San Antonio's relief rolls; half of these (22.8 percent or 16,324 individuals) were Mexican nationals and the remainder (about 29.4 percent or 21,032 individuals) were Mexican Americans. Lyndon Gayle Knippa, "San Antonio II: The Early New Deal," in W. W. Newcomb, ed., Texas Cities and the Great Depression (Austin, Tex., 1973), 87.
86. Ramos, "Así Fue," 13-14, 20-22; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 317; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 55, 60-62; Current, May 22, 1986; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141, 148-149; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 46-50, 58; Sullivan and Blair, Women in Texas Industries, 78; Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in California: A History of Mexican Americans in California (San Francisco, 1984), 59. People of Mexican background comprised about 52.2 percent of San Antonio's relief rolls; half of these (22.8 percent or 16,324 individuals) were Mexican nationals and the remainder (about 29.4 percent or 21,032 individuals) were Mexican Americans. Lyndon Gayle Knippa, "San Antonio II: The Early New Deal," in W. W. Newcomb, ed., Texas Cities and the Great Depression (Austin, Tex., 1973), 87.
87. Ramos, "Así Fue," 13-14, 20-22; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 317; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 55, 60-62; Current, May 22, 1986; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141, 148-149; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 46-50, 58; Sullivan and Blair, Women in Texas Industries, 78; Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in California: A History of Mexican Americans in California (San Francisco, 1984), 59. People of Mexican background comprised about 52.2 percent of San Antonio's relief rolls; half of these (22.8 percent or 16,324 individuals) were Mexican nationals and the remainder (about 29.4 percent or 21,032 individuals) were Mexican Americans. Lyndon Gayle Knippa, "San Antonio II: The Early New Deal," in W. W. Newcomb, ed., Texas Cities and the Great Depression (Austin, Tex., 1973), 87.
88. Ramos, "Así Fue," 13-14, 20-22; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 317; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 55, 60-62; Current, May 22, 1986; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141, 148-149; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 46-50, 58; Sullivan and Blair, Women in Texas Industries, 78; Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in California: A History of Mexican Americans in
89. Ramos, "Así Fue," 13-14, 20-22; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 317; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 55, 60-62; Current, May 22, 1986; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141, 148-149; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 46-50, 58; Sullivan and Blair, Women in Texas Industries, 78; Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in California: A History of Mexican Americans in California (San Francisco, 1984), 59. People of Mexican background comprised about 52.2 percent of San Antonio's relief rolls; half of these (22.8 percent or 16,324 individuals) were Mexican nationals and the remainder (about 29.4 percent or 21,032 individuals) were Mexican Americans. Lyndon Gayle Knippa, "San Antonio II: The Early New Deal," in W. W. Newcomb, ed., Texas Cities and the Great Depression (Austin, Tex., 1973), 87.
90. Ramos, "Así Fue," 13-14, 20-22; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 317; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 55, 60-62; Current, May 22, 1986; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141, 148-149; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 46-50, 58; Sullivan and Blair, Women in Texas Industries, 78; Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in California: A History of Mexican Americans in California (San Francisco, 1984), 59. People of Mexican background comprised about 52.2 percent of San Antonio's relief rolls; half of these (22.8 percent or 16,324 individuals) were Mexican nationals and the remainder (about 29.4 percent or 21,032 individuals) were Mexican Americans. Lyndon Gayle Knippa, "San Antonio II: The Early New Deal," in W. W. Newcomb, ed., Texas Cities and the Great Depression (Austin, Tex., 1973), 87.
91. Ramos, "Así Fue," 13-14, 20-22; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 317; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 55, 60-62; Current, May 22, 1986; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141, 148-149; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 46-50, 58; Sullivan and Blair, Women in Texas Industries, 78; Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in California: A History of Mexican Americans in California (San Francisco, 1984), 59. People of Mexican background comprised about 52.2 percent of San Antonio's relief rolls; half of these (22.8 percent or 16,324 individuals) were Mexican nationals and the remainder (about 29.4 percent or 21,032 individuals) were Mexican Americans. Lyndon Gayle Knippa, "San Antonio II: The Early New Deal," in W. W. Newcomb, ed., Texas Cities and the Great Depression (Austin, Tex., 1973), 87.
92. Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 70, 72-73; The Green Rising, Reel 13, Clyde Johnson Papers, Special Collections, University of California, Los Angeles, 14; People's Press, Aug. 14, 1937.
93. Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 70, 72-73; The Green Rising, Reel 13, Clyde Johnson Papers, Special Collections, University of California, Los Angeles, 14; People's Press, Aug. 14, 1937.
94. Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 70, 72-73; The Green Rising, Reel 13, Clyde Johnson Papers, Special Collections, University of California, Los Angeles, 14; People's Press, Aug. 14, 1937.
95. Ramos, "Así Fue," 23, 26; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141, 148-149; Current, May 22, 1986; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 79-80; Lambert Papers, pp. 19, 29; U.S. Mediation and Conciliation Service, Report of District 3, UCAPAWA Year Book 1938, 22, Case File 195/114, RG 280, NA; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 62.
96. Ramos, "Así Fue," 23, 26; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141, 148-149; Current, May 22, 1986; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 79-80; Lambert Papers, pp. 19, 29; U.S. Mediation and Conciliation Service, Report of District 3, UCAPAWA Year Book 1938, 22, Case File 195/114, RG 280, NA; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 62.
97. Ramos, "Así Fue," 23, 26; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141, 148-149; Current, May 22, 1986; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 79-80; Lambert Papers, pp. 19, 29; U.S. Mediation and Conciliation Service, Report of District 3, UCAPAWA Year Book 1938, 22, Case File 195/114, RG 280, NA; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 62.
98. Ramos, "Así Fue," 23, 26; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141, 148-149; Current, May 22, 1986; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 79-80; Lambert Papers, pp. 19, 29; U.S. Mediation and Conciliation Service, Report of District 3, UCAPAWA Year Book 1938, 22, Case File 195/114, RG 280, NA; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 62.
99. Ramos, "Así Fue," 23, 26; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141, 148-149; Current, May 22, 1986; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 79-80; Lambert Papers, pp. 19, 29; U.S. Mediation and Conciliation Service, Report of District 3, UCAPAWA Year Book 1938, 22, Case File 195/114, RG 280, NA; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 62.
100. Ramos, "Así Fue," 23, 26; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141, 148-149; Current, May 22, 1986; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 79-80; Lambert Papers, pp. 19, 29; U.S. Mediation and Conciliation Service, Report of District 3, UCAPAWA Year Book 1938, 22, Case File 195/114, RG 280, NA; R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 62.
101. Author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990; Ramos, "Así Fue," 26.
102. Gigi Peterson, "Compañeros Across the Border: The Mexican Labor-Left and its U.S. Connections, 1936-1940" (unpublished seminar paper, Department of History, University of Washington, Spring 1992), 18-19.
103. Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 244; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 86-88.
104. Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 244; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 86-88.
105. The call for Catholic clergy to join an anticommunist crusade against international communism was the result of a 1937 papal encyclical Divini Redemptoris. Gary Gerstle, Working Class-Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York, 1989), 250.
106. Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141; Peyton, City in the Sun, 170; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 85-86.
107. Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141; Peyton, City in the Sun, 170; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 85-86.
108. Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141; Peyton, City in the Sun, 170; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 85-86.
109. Author's interview with Tenayuca, May 4, 1990; R. A. Garcia, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 169-173.
110. Ramos, Así Fue," 57-58.
111. Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 76-77; Ramos, "Así Fue," 33; U.S. Mediation and Conciliation Service, Report of District 3, UCAPAWA Year Book 1938, 22.
112. Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 76-77; Ramos, "Así Fue," 33; U.S. Mediation and Conciliation Service, Report of District 3, UCAPAWA Year Book 1938, 22.
113. Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 76-77; Ramos, "Así Fue," 33; U.S. Mediation and Conciliation Service, Report of District 3, UCAPAWA Year Book 1938, 22.
114. The CTM delegates also got an agreement from Texas organized labor to counter anti-Cárdenas propaganda in the United States. Peterson, "Compañeros Across the Border," 20; WPA Central Files, Texas 1935-1936, box 2618, folder 641, 199/1189, no. 3168-5A, RG 69, NA; Houston Labor Journal, Jan. 27, 1939.
115. The CTM delegates also got an agreement from Texas organized labor to counter anti-Cárdenas propaganda in the United States. Peterson, "Compañeros Across the Border," 20; WPA Central Files, Texas 1935-1936, box 2618, folder 641, 199/1189, no. 3168-5A, RG 69, NA; Houston Labor Journal, Jan. 27, 1939.
116. R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican Amricean Middle Class, 63; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141-149; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 82-83; Strom, "Challenging 'Women's Place,'" 368-369; Ramos, "Asi Fue," 25; Elizabeth Faue, "Paths of Unionization: Community, Bureaucracy, and Gender in the Minneapolis Labor Movement of the 1930s," in Ava Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, N. Y., 1991), 296-301.
117. R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican Amricean Middle Class, 63; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141-149; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 82-83; Strom, "Challenging 'Women's Place,'" 368-369; Ramos, "Asi Fue," 25; Elizabeth Faue, "Paths of Unionization: Community, Bureaucracy, and Gender in the Minneapolis Labor Movement of the 1930s," in Ava Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, N. Y., 1991), 296-301.
118. R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican Amricean Middle Class, 63; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141-149; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 82-83; Strom, "Challenging 'Women's Place,'" 368-369; Ramos, "Asi Fue," 25; Elizabeth Faue, "Paths of Unionization: Community, Bureaucracy, and Gender in the Minneapolis Labor Movement of the 1930s," in Ava Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, N. Y., 1991), 296-301.
119. R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican Amricean Middle Class, 63; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141-149; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 82-83; Strom, "Challenging 'Women's Place,'" 368-369; Ramos, "Asi Fue," 25; Elizabeth Faue, "Paths of Unionization: Community, Bureaucracy, and Gender in the Minneapolis Labor Movement of the 1930s," in Ava Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, N. Y., 1991), 296-301.
120. R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican Amricean Middle Class, 63; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141-149; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 82-83; Strom, "Challenging 'Women's Place,'" 368-369; Ramos, "Asi Fue," 25; Elizabeth Faue, "Paths of Unionization: Community, Bureaucracy, and Gender in the Minneapolis Labor Movement of the 1930s," in Ava Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, N. Y., 1991), 296-301.
121. R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican Amricean Middle Class, 63; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141-149; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 82-83; Strom, "Challenging 'Women's Place,'" 368-369; Ramos, "Asi Fue," 25; Elizabeth Faue, "Paths of Unionization: Community, Bureaucracy, and Gender in the Minneapolis Labor Movement of the 1930s," in Ava Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, N. Y., 1991), 296-301.
122. Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 106; Lambert Papers, 18-19.
123. Lambert Papers, 18-19; Ramos, "Así Fue," 33; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990.
124. Koger Papers, 6; author's interviews with Tenayuca, May 3, 5, 1990.
125. Ramos, "Así Fue," 73; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 90-93; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 4, 1990.
126. Ramos, "Así Fue," 73; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 90-93; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 4, 1990.
127. Ramos, "Así Fue,́ 73-74; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 93-96; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 318; Koger Papers, 2; Lambert Papers, 23-24, 28-29; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 4, 1990. On the infrapolitics of subordinate groups, see James C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven, Conn., 1990).
128. Ramos, "Así Fue,́ 73-74; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 93-96; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 318; Koger Papers, 2; Lambert Papers, 23-24, 28-29; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 4, 1990. On the infrapolitics of subordinate groups, see James C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven, Conn., 1990).
129. Ramos, "Así Fue,́ 73-74; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 93-96; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 318; Koger Papers, 2; Lambert Papers, 23-24, 28-29; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 4, 1990. On the infrapolitics of subordinate groups, see James C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven, Conn., 1990).
130. Ramos, "Así Fue,́ 73-74; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 93-96; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 318; Koger Papers, 2; Lambert Papers, 23-24, 28-29; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 4, 1990. On the infrapolitics of subordinate groups, see James C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven, Conn., 1990).
131. Ramos, "Así Fue,́ 73-74; Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 141; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 93-96; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 318; Koger Papers, 2; Lambert Papers, 23-24, 28-29; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 4, 1990. On the infrapolitics of subordinate groups, see James C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven, Conn., 1990).
132. R. A. García, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class, 63.
133. Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 142; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 114-115.
134. Blackwelder, Women of the Depression, 142; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 114-115.
135. Ramos, "Asi Fue," 85-86; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 120.
136. Ramos, "Asi Fue," 85-86; Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 120.
137. For an excellent elaboration of this theme, see David G. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley, 1995).
138. Monroy, "Anarquismo y Comunismo," 52; Suzanne Forrest, The Preservation of the Village: New Mexico's Hispanics and the New Deal (Albuquerque, 1989), 154-155; Mark Naison, Communists in Harlem During the Depression (New York, 1983), 256-257.
139. Monroy, "Anarquismo y Comunismo," 52; Suzanne Forrest, The Preservation of the Village: New Mexico's Hispanics and the New Deal (Albuquerque, 1989), 154-155; Mark Naison, Communists in Harlem During the Depression (New York, 1983), 256-257.
140. Monroy, "Anarquismo y Comunismo," 52; Suzanne Forrest, The Preservation of the Village: New Mexico's Hispanics and the New Deal (Albuquerque, 1989), 154-155; Mark Naison, Communists in Harlem During the Depression (New York, 1983), 256-257.
141. Carleton, Red Scare!, 29.
142. Emma Tenayuca and Homer Brooks, "The Mexican Question in the Southwest," The Communist, XVIII (March 1939), 257-268; Monroy, "Anarquismo y Comunismo," 42-44; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990; Calderón and Zamora, Chicana Voices, 34-35; M. T. García, Mexican Americans, 153-154. For an overview of the literature on the issue of Chicanos and the national question, see Antonio Rios Bustamante, Mexicans in the United States and the National Question: Current Polemics and Organizational Positions (Santa Barbara, Calif., 1978).
143. Emma Tenayuca and Homer Brooks, "The Mexican Question in the Southwest," The Communist, XVIII (March 1939), 257-268; Monroy, "Anarquismo y Comunismo," 42-44; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990; Calderón and Zamora, Chicana Voices, 34-35; M. T. García, Mexican Americans, 153-154. For an overview of the literature on the issue of Chicanos and the national question, see Antonio Rios Bustamante, Mexicans in the United States and the National Question: Current Polemics and Organizational Positions (Santa Barbara, Calif., 1978).
144. Emma Tenayuca and Homer Brooks, "The Mexican Question in the Southwest," The Communist, XVIII (March 1939), 257-268; Monroy, "Anarquismo y Comunismo," 42-44; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990; Calderón and Zamora, Chicana Voices, 34-35; M. T. García, Mexican Americans, 153-154. For an overview of the literature on the issue of Chicanos and the national question, see Antonio Rios Bustamante, Mexicans in the United States and the National Question: Current Polemics and Organizational Positions (Santa Barbara, Calif., 1978).
145. Emma Tenayuca and Homer Brooks, "The Mexican Question in the Southwest," The Communist, XVIII (March 1939), 257-268; Monroy, "Anarquismo y Comunismo," 42-44; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990; Calderón and Zamora, Chicana Voices, 34-35; M. T. García, Mexican Americans, 153-154. For an overview of the literature on the issue of Chicanos and the national question, see Antonio Rios Bustamante, Mexicans in the United States and the National Question: Current Polemics and Organizational Positions (Santa Barbara, Calif., 1978).
146. Emma Tenayuca and Homer Brooks, "The Mexican Question in the Southwest," The Communist, XVIII (March 1939), 257-268; Monroy, "Anarquismo y Comunismo," 42-44; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990; Calderón and Zamora, Chicana Voices, 34-35; M. T. García, Mexican Americans, 153-154. For an overview of the literature on the issue of Chicanos and the national question, see Antonio Rios Bustamante, Mexicans in the United States and the National Question: Current Polemics and Organizational Positions (Santa Barbara, Calif., 1978).
147. M. T. García, Mexican Americans, 154.
148. Naison, Communists in Harlem During the Depression, 256-257; Richard B. Henderson, Maury Maverick: A Political Biography (Austin, Tex., 1970), 214-216; Koger Papers, 3; Lambert Papers, 21-22; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 321; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990.
149. Naison, Communists in Harlem During the Depression, 256-257; Richard B. Henderson, Maury Maverick: A Political Biography (Austin, Tex., 1970), 214-216; Koger Papers, 3; Lambert Papers, 21-22; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 321; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990.
150. Naison, Communists in Harlem During the Depression, 256-257; Richard B. Henderson, Maury Maverick: A Political Biography (Austin, Tex., 1970), 214-216; Koger Papers, 3; Lambert Papers, 21-22; Ledesma, "Texas Newspapers and Chicana Workers' Activism," 321; author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990.
151. Author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990. Dorothy Healey and Maurice Isserman, Dorothy Healey Remembers: A Life in the Communist Party (New York, 1990), 80-82; Ottanelli, The Communist Party of the United States, 183-185.
152. Author's interview with Tenayuca, May 3, 1990. Dorothy Healey and Maurice Isserman, Dorothy Healey Remembers: A Life in the Communist Party (New York, 1990), 80-82; Ottanelli, The Communist Party of the United States, 183-185.
153. Homer Brooks later died of a heart attack in Los Angeles. Author's interview with Tenayuca, May 4, 1990.
154. Ottanelli, The Communist Party of the United States, 182-183.
155. Deutsch, No Separate Refuge, 170; Deutsch, "Gender, Labor History, and Chicano/a Ethnic Identity," 16.
156. Deutsch, No Separate Refuge, 170; Deutsch, "Gender, Labor History, and Chicano/a Ethnic Identity," 16.
157. Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 102; People's Press, March 19, 1938.
158. Filewood, "Tejano Revolt," 102; People's Press, March 19, 1938.
159. Faue, Community of Suffering & Struggle, 71.
160. Rebuffed by the San Antonio community for her affiliation with radicalism, Tenayuca moved to San Francisco, California, where she enrolled at San Francisco State College (now San Francisco State University) and in a few years graduated magna cum laude. Fifteen years later, Tenayuca returned to San Antonio, enrolled in St. Mary's University, and received a Masters in education while following a career as an elementary school teacher. Emma Tenayuca still lives in San Antonio. In her eighties and in ill health, the excommunist and retired schoolteacher has not lost the boundless resistance to injustice that in the 1930s won her the nickname of "La Pasionaria." Interest in her importance to the Mexican-American labor movement resurfaced during the 1970s. Recalling the obstacles she faced while organizing San Antonio's Mexicans, Tenayuca passionately recollected the events that won her a respected place in Chicano history: "I had every damn right to be apprehensive. Was I in a state of panic or fear? No. I was pretty defiant. [I fought] against poverty, actually starvation, high infant death rates, disease and hunger and misery. I would do the same thing again." Author interview with Tenayuca, May 4, 1990.