Carbonate crash and biogenic bloom in the late Miocene: Evidence from ODP Sites 1085, 1086, and 1087 in the Cape Basin, southeast Atlantic Ocean

Paleoceanography

Volumn 19, Issue 1, 2004, Pages

  Diester Haass, L ^a   Meyers, P A ^b   Bickert, T ^c  

^a SAARLAND UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF BREMEN   (Germany)

Author keywords

Benthic foraminifers; CaCO3< inf> MAR; Fish debris; Oxygen isotopes; Pyrite; TOC MAR

Indexed keywords

ALGAL BLOOM; BENTHIC FORAMINIFERA; BIOGENIC MATERIAL; PALEOCEANOGRAPHY; PALEOECOLOGY; PYRITE; SEDIMENTARY SEQUENCE;

ATLANTIC OCEAN; ATLANTIC OCEAN (SOUTHEAST); CAPE BASIN;

FORAMINIFERA; ZANCLEA;

EID: 18344406013     PISSN: 08838305     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/2003PA000933     Document Type: Article

References (101)

1. Aharon, P., S. L. Goldstein, C. W. Wheeler, and G. Jacobsen (1993), Sea-level events in the South Pacific linked with the Messinian salinity crisis, Geology, 21, 771-775.
2. Anderson, P. A., C. D. Charles, and W. H. Berger (2001). Walvis paradox confirmed for the early Quaternary at the southern end of the Namibia upwelling system, ODP Site 1085, Ocean Drill, Program, College Station, Tex., (Available at http://www-odp.tamu.edu/publications/175_SR/chap_21/chap_21.htm.)
3. Archer, D., and E. Maier-Reimer (1994), Effect of deep-sea sedimentary calcite preservation on atmospheric CO2 concentration, Nature, 367, 260-263.
4. Barker, P. F., et al. (1990), Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Initial Reports, vol. 113, 785 pp., Ocean Drill. Program, College Station, Tex.
5. Barron, J., et al. (1991), Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Initial Reports, vol. 119, 982 pp., Ocean Drill. Program, College Station, Tex.
6. Berger, W. H., and L. Diester-Haass (1988), Paleoproductivity: The benthic-planktonic ratio in foraminifera as a productivity index, Mar. Geol., 81, 15-25.
7. Berger, W. H., and G. Wefer (1996), Expeditions into the past: Paleoceanographic studies in the South Atlantic, in The South Atlantic: Present and Past Circulation, edited by G. Wefer et al., pp. 363-410, Springer-Verlag, New York.
8. Berger, W. H., R. M. Leckie, T. R. Janecek, R. Stax, and T. Takayama (1993), Neogene carbonate sedimentation on Ontong Java Plateau: Highlights and open questions, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 130, 711-744.
9. Berger, W. H., G. Wefer, C. Richter, C. B. Lange, J. Giraudeau, and O. Hermelin (1998), Shipboard Scientific Party. The Angola-Benguela upwelling system: Paleoceanographic synthesis of shipboard results from leg 175, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Initial Rep., 175, 505-530.
10. Berger, W. H., C. B. Lange, and G. Wefer (2002), Upwelling history of the Benguela-Namibia system: A synthesis of Leg 175 results, Ocean Drill, Program, College Station, Tex. (Available at http://www-odp.tamu.edu/publications/175_SR/synth/synth.htm.)
11. Berggren, W. A., D. V. Kent, and J. A. van Couvering (1985), Neogene geochronology and chronostratigraphy, in Geochronology and the Geologic Time scale, edited by N. J. Snelling, pp. 211-260, Geol. Soc., London.
12. Berggren, W. A., D. V. Kent, C. C. Swisher, and M.-P. Aubry (1995), A Revised Cenozoic Geochronology and Chronostratigraphy, Spec. Publ. 54, 212 pp., Soc. for Sediment. Geol., Tulsa, Okla.
13. Betzler, C., D. Kroon, and J. G. Reijmer (2000), Synchroneity of major late Neogene sea level fluctuations and paleoceanographically controlled changes as recorded by two carbonate platforms, Paleoceanography, 15, 722-730.
14. Billups, K. (2002), Late Miocene through early Pliocene deep water circulation and climate change viewed from the sub-Antarctic South Atlantic, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 185, 287-307.
15. Bolli, H. M., et al. (1978), Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, vol. 40, 1079 pp., U.S. Govt. Print. Off., Washington, D. C.
16. Cepek, M., W. Brückmann, W. W. Hay, E. Söding, V. Spiess, J. Thiede, R. Tiedemann, and G. Wefer (1999), Integrated chronostratigraphy for DSDP/ODP drillsites in the South Atlantic Ocean, Ocean Drill. Stratigr. Network. Bremen, Germany.
17. Christensen, B., J. L. Kalbas, M. Maslin, and R. W. Murray (2002), Paleoclimatic changes in southern Africa during the intensification of Northern Hemisphere glaciation: Evidence from ODP Leg 175 Site 1085, Mar. Geol., 180, 117-131.
18. Davies, T. A., W. W. Hay, J. R. Southam, and T. R. Murray (1977), Estimates of Cenozoic oceanic sedimentation rates, Science, 197, 53-55.
19. Dickens, G. R., and R. M. Owen (1999), The latest Miocene-early Pliocene biogenic bloom: A revised Indian Ocean perspective, Mar. Geol., 161, 75-91.
20. Dickmann, B., M. Faelker, and G. Kuhn (2003), Environmental history of the south-eastern South Atlantic since the middle Miocene: Evidence from the sedimentological records of ODP Sites 1088 and 1092, Sedimentology, 50, 1-19.
21. Diester-Haass, L., and R. Zahn (1996), The Eocene-Oligocene transition in the Southern Ocean: History of water masses, circulation, and biological productivity inferred from high resolution records of stable isotopes and benthic foraminiferal abundances (ODP Site 689), Geology, 26, 163-166.
22. Diester-Haass, L., and R. Zahn (2001), Paleoproductivity increase at the Eocene-Oligocene climatic transition and its role in the global carbon cycle: ODP/DSDP Sites 763 and 592, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimat. Palaeoecol., 172, 153-170.
23. Diester-Haass, L., P. A. Meyers, and P. Rothe (1990). Miocene history of the Benguela Current and Antarctic ice volumes: Evidence from rhythmic sedimentation and current growth across the Walvis Ridge (DSDP Sites 362 and 532), Paleoceanography, 5, 685-707.
24. Diester-Haass, L., P. A. Meyers, and P. Rothe (1992), The Benguela Current and associated upwelling on the southwest African margin: A synthesis of the Neogene-Quaternary sedimentary record at DSDP sites 362 and 532, in Upwelling Systems: Evolution Since the Early Miocene, edited by C. P. Summerhayes, W. L. Prell, and K.-C. Emeis, pp. 331-342, Geol. Soc., London.
25. Diester-Haass, L., P. A. Meyers, and L. Vidal (2002), The Late Miocene onset of high productivity in the Benguela upwelling area as part of a global pattern, Mar. Geol., 180, 87-103.
26. Emeis, K.-C., J. W. Morse, and L. L. Mays (1991), Organic carbon, reduced sulfur, and iron in Miocene to Holocene upwelling sediments from the Oman and Benguela upwelling systems, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 117, 517-527.
27. Exon, N. F., et al. (2001), Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Initial Reports, vol. 189, 98 pp., Ocean Drill. Program, College Station, Tex.
28. Farrell, J. W., I. Raffi, T. R. Janecek, D. W. Murray, M. Levitan, K. A. Dadey, K.-C. Emeis, M. Lyle, J.-A. Flores, and S. Hovan (1995). Late Neogene sedimentation patterns in the eastern equatorial Pacific, Proc. Ocean Drill Program Sci. Results, 138, 717-756.
29. Frank, M., N. Whiteley, S. Kasten, J. R. Hein, and K. O'Nions (2002), North Atlantic Deep Water export to the Southern Ocean over the past 14 Myr: Evidence from Nd and Pb isotopes in ferromanganese crusts, Paleoceanography, 17(2), 1022, doi:10.1029/2000PA000606.
30. Froelich, P. N., et al. (1991), Biogenic opal and carbonate accumulation rates in the subantarctic South Atlantic: The late Neogene of Meteor Rise Site 704, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 114, 515-550.
31. Gerhardt, S., and R. Henrich (2001), Shell preservation of Limacina inflata (pteropoda) in surface sediments from the central and South Atlantic Ocean: A new proxy to determine the aragonite saturation state of water masses, Deep Sea Res. Part I, 48, 2051-2071.
32. Giraudeau, J., P. A. Meyers, and B. A. Christensen (2002), Accumulation of organic and inorganic carbon in Pliocene-Pleistocene sediments along the SW African margin, Mar. Geol., 180, 49-69.
33. Grant, K. M., and G. R. Dickens (2002), Coupled productivity and carbon isotope records in the southwest Pacific Ocean during the late Miocene-early Pliocene biogenic bloom, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 187, 61-82.
34. Gupta, A. K., and E. Thomas (1999), Latest Miocene - Pleistocene productivity and deep-sea ventilation in the northwestern Indian Ocean (Deep Sea Drilling Project Site 219), Paleoceanography, 14, 62-73.
35. Haq, B. U., J. Hardenbol, and J. Hardenbol (1987), Chronology of fluctuating sea level since the Triassic, Science, 235, 1136-1167.
36. Hart, T. J., and R. T. Currie (1960), The Benguela Current., Discovery Rep, 31, 123-298.
37. Hay, W. W., and J. C. Brock (1992), Temporal variation in intensity of upwelling off southwest Africa, in Upwelling Systems: Evolution Since the early Miocene, edited by C. P. Summerhayes, W. L. Prell, and K.-C. Emeis, pp. 463-497, Geol. Soc., London.
38. Hay, W. W., et al. (1984), Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, vol. 75, 1303 pp., U.S. Govt. Print. Off., Washington, D. C.
39. Herguera, J. C. (2000), Last glacial paleoproductivity patterns in the eastern equatorial Pacific: Benthic foraminifera records, Mar. Micropaleontol, 40, 259-275.
40. Herguera, J. C., and W. A. Berger (1991), Paleoproductivity from benthic foraminifera abundance: Glacial to postglacial change in the west-equatorial Pacific, Geology, 19, 1173-1176.
41. Hermoyian, C. S., and R. M. Owen (2001), Late Miocene-early Pliocene biogenic bloom: Evidence from low-productivity regions of the Indian and Atlantic Oceans, Paleoceanography, 16, 95-100.
42. Hodell, D. A., R. H. Benson, D. V. Kent, A. Boersma, and K. Racic-El Bied (1994), Magnetostratigraphic, biostratigraphic, and stable isotope stratigraphy of an upper Miocene drill core from the Sale Briqueterie (northwestern Morocco): A high resolution chronology for the Messinian stage, Paleoceanography, 9, 835-855.
43. Hodell, D. A., R. Gersonde, and P. Blum (2002), Leg 177 synthesis: Insights into Southern Ocean paleoceanography on tectonic to millennial timescales, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 177, 1-54. (Available at http://www-odp.tamu.edu/publications/177_SR/VOLUME/ SYNTH/SR177SYN.PDF)
44. Hsü, K. J., and R. Wright (1985), History of calcite dissolution of the South Atlantic Ocean, in South Atlantic Paleoceanography, edited by K. J. Hsü and H. J. Weissert, pp. 149-187, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York.
45. Kennett, J. P. (1995), A review of polar climatic evolution during the Neogene, based on the marine sediment record, in Paleoclimate and Evolulion With Emphasis on Human Origins, edited by E. Vrba et al., pp, 49-64, Yale Univ. Press, New York.
46. King, T. A., W. G. Ellis, D. W. Murray, N. J. Shackleton, and S. Harris (1997), Miocene evolution of carbonate sedimentation at the Ceara Rise: A multivariate data/proxy approach, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 154, 349-365.
47. Krijgsman, W., F. J. Hilgen, I. Raffi, F. J. Sierro, and D. S. Wilson (1999), Chronology, causes and progression of the Messinian salinity crisis, Nature, 400, 652-655.
48. Lange, C. B., and W. H. Berger (1993), Diatom productivity and preservation in the western equatorial Pacific: The Quaternary record, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 130, 509-523.
49. Lange, C. B., W. H. Berger, H.-L. Lin, and G. Wefer (1999), The early Matuyama diatom maximum off SW Africa, Benguela Current System (ODP Leg 175), Mar. Geol., 161, 93-114.
50. Larsen, H. C., et al. (1994), Seven million years of glaciation in Greenland, Science, 264, 952-955.
51. Laskar, J., F. Joutel, and F. Boudin (1993), Orbital, precessional, and insulation quantities for the earth from - 20 Myr to + 10 Myr, Astron. Astrophys., 270, 522-533.
52. Lutjeharmas, J. R., and P. L. Stockton (1987), Kinematics of the upwelling of southern Africa, S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci., 5, 35-49.
53. Lyle, M. (2003), Neogene carbonate burial in the Pacific Ocean, Paleoceanography, 18(3), 1059, doi:10.1029/2002PA000777.
54. Lyle, M., K. A. Dadey, and J. W. Farrell (1995), The late Miocene (11-8 MA) eastern Pacific carbonate crash: Evidence for reorganisation of deep-water circulation by the closure of the Panama gateway, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 138, 821-838.
55. Marlow, J. R., C. B. Lange, G. Wefer, and A. Rosell-Mele (2000), Upwelling intensification as part of the Pliocene-Pleistocene climate transition, Science, 290, 2288-2291.
56. McRae, S. G. (1972), Glauconite, Earth Sci. Rec, 8, 397-440.
57. Meyers, P. A., and Leg 75 Scientific Party (1983), Organic geochemistry of Benguela Upwelling sediments recovered by DSDP/ IPOD Leg 75, in Coastal Upwelling: Its Sediment Record, Part B, edited by J. Thiede and E. Suess, pp. 453-466, Plenum, New York.
58. Molnar, P., P. England, and J. Martinod (1993), Mantle dynamics, uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, and the Indian Monsoon, Rev. Geophys., 31, 357-396.
59. Müller, G., and M. Gastner (1971), The "Karbonat-Bombe," a simple device for the determination of the carbonate content in sediments, soils and other materials, Neues Jahrb. Mineral. Monatsh., 10, 466-469.
60. Murray, D. W., and L. C. Peterson (1997), Biogenic carbonate production and preservation changes between 5 and 10 Ma from the Ceara Rise, western equatorial Atlantic, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 154, 375-388.
61. Nees, S. (1997), Late Quaternary palaeoceanography of the Tasman Sea: The benthic foraminiferal view, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimat. Palaeoecol., 131, 365-389.
62. Oboh-Ikuenobe, F. (2001), A palynological record of middle Miocene to lower Pliocene sedimentary rocks, ODP Hole 1085A (Cape Basin, southwestern Africa) (abstract), Eos Trans. AGU, 82(20), 228.
63. Ohkushi, K., E. Thomas, and H. Kawahata (2000), Abyssal benthic foraminifera from the northwestern Pacific (Shatsky Rise) during the last 298 kyr, Mar. Micropal., 38, 1-147.
64. Parker, F. L., and W. H. Berger (1971), Faunal and solution patterns of planktonic foraminifera in surface sediments of the South Pacific, Deep Sea Res. Part A, 18, 73-107.
65. Paturel, J. (2000), Evolution des flux terrigenes dans le basin du Cap au Miocene superieur-Pliocene inferieur. Roles du systeme courantologique de Benguela et du climat africain, Mem. DEA, 45 pp., Univ. de la Mediterranee, Aix-Marseille II.
66. Peterson, L. C., D. W. Murray, W. U. Ehrmann, and P. Hempel (1992), Cenozoic carbonate accumulation and compensation depth changes in the Indian Ocean, in Synthesis of Results From Scientific Drilling in the Indian Ocean, Geophys. Monogr. Ser. vol. 70, edited by R. A. Duncan et al., pp. 311-333, AGU, Washington, D. C.
67. Peterson, R. G., and L. Stramma (1991), Upper-level circulation in the South Atlantic Ocean, Progr. Oceanogr., 26, 1-73.
68. Pickford, M., and B. Senut (1999), Geology and Paleobiology of the Namib Desert. Southwestern Africa, mem. 18., 155 pp., Geol. Surv. Namibia, Windhoek.
69. Prell, W. L., and J. E. Kutzbach (1992), Sensitivity of the Indian monsoon to forcing parameters and implications for its evolution, Nature, 360, 646-650.
70. Ramsay, A. T. S., C. W. Smart, and J. C. Zachos (1998), A model of early to middle Miocene deep ocean circulation for the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, in Geological Evolution of Ocean Basins: Results From the Ocean Drilling Program, edited by A. Cramp et al., pp. 55-70, Geol. Soc., London.
71. Rea, D. K. (1992), Delivery of Himalayan sediment to the northern Indian Ocean and its relation to global climate, sea level, uplift, and seawater strontium, in Synthesis of Results From Scientific Drilling in the Indian Ocean, Geophys. Monogr. Ser, vol. 70, edited by R. A. Duncan et al., pp. 387-402, AGU, Washington, D. C.
72. Rea, D. K., I. A. Basov, L. A. Krissek, and Leg 145 Scientific Party (1995), Scientific results of drilling in the North Pacific transect, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 145, 577-596.
73. Robert, C., and H. Chamley (1987), Cenozoic evolution of continental humidity and paleoenvironment, deduced from the kaolinite content of oceanic sediments, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimat. Palaeoecol., 60, 171-187.
74. Robinson, R. S., and P. Meyers (2002), Biogeochemical changes within the Benguela Current upwelling system during the Matuyama Diatom Maximum: Nitrogen isotope evidence from Ocean Drilling Program Sites 1082 and 1084, Paleoceanography, 17(4), 1064, doi:10.1029/2001PA000659.
75. Rogers, J., and J. M. Bremner (1991), The Benguela ecosystem, part VII. Marine geological aspects, Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev., 29, 1-85.
76. Roth, J. M., A. Droxler, and K. Kameo (2000), The Caribbean carbonate crash at the middle to late Miocene transition: Linkage to the establishment of the modern global ocean conveyor. Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 165. (Available at http://www-odp.tamu.edu/ publications/165_SR/VOLUME/CHAPTERS/SR165_17.PDF)
77. Sancetta, C., L. Heusser, and M. A. Hall (1992), Late Pliocene climate in the southeast Atlantic: Preliminary results from a multi-disciplinary study of DSDP Site 532, Mar. Micropaleontol., 20, 50-75.
78. Schmiedl, G., and A. Mackensen (1997), Late Quaternary paleoproductivity and deep water circulation in the eastern South Atlantic Ocean: Evidence from benthic foraminifera, Paleogeogr. Paleoclimat. Paleoecol., 130, 43-80.
79. Schroeder, J. O., R. W. Murray, M. Leinen, R. C. Pflaum, and T. R. Janecek (1997), Barium in equatorial Pacific carbonate sediment: Terrigenous, oxide, and biogenic associations, Peleoceanography, 12, 125-146.
80. Shackleton, N. J., and S. Crowhurst (1997), Sediment fluxes based on an orbitally tuned time scale 5 to 14 MA, Site 926. Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 154, 69-82.
81. Shackleton, N. J., and J. P. Kennett (1975), Late Cenozoic oxygen and carbon isotopic changes at DSDP Site 284: Implications for glacial history of the Northern Hemisphere and Antarctica, Initial Rep. Deep Sea Drill. Project, 29, 801-807.
82. Shackleton, N. J., S. Crowburst, T. Hagelberg, N. G. Pisias, and D. A. Schneider (1995), A new late Neogene time scale: Application to Leg 138 sites, Proc. Ocean Driff Program Sci. Results, 138, 73-101.
83. Shannon, L. V., and G. Nelson (1996), The Benguela: Large scale features and processes and system variability, in The South Atlantic: Present and Past Circulation, edited by G. Wefer et al., pp. 163-210, Springer-Verlag, New York.
84. Shipboard Scientific Party (1995), Site 925, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Initial Rep., 154, 55-152.
85. Siedler, G., T. J. Müller, R. Onken, M. Arhan, H. Mercier, H. B. A. King, and P. M. Saunders (1996), The zonal WOCE sections in the South Atlantic, in The South Atlantic: Present and Past Circulation, edited by G. Wefer et al., pp. 83-104, Springer-Verlag, New York.
86. Siesser, W. G. (1978), Aridification of the Namib Desert: Evidence from oceanic cores, in Antarctic Glacial History and World Paleoenvironments, edited by G. J. van Zinderen-Bakker, pp. 105-112, A. A. Balkema, Brookfield, Vt.
87. Siesser, W. G. (1980), Late Miocene origin of the Benguela upwelling system off northern Namibia, Science, 208, 283-285.
88. Summerhayes, C. P., D. Kroon, A. Rosell-Melé, R. W. Jordan, H.-J. Schrader, R. Hearn, J. Vilanueva, J. O. Grimalt, and G. Eglington (1995), Variability in the Benguela Current upwelling system over the past 70,000 years, Progr. Oceanogr., 35, 207-251.
89. Twichell, S. C., P. A. Meyers, and L. Diester-Haass (2002), Significance of high C/N ratios in organic-carbon-rich Neogene sediments under the Benguela Current upwelling system, Org. Geochem., 33, 715-722.
90. Van Andel, T. H., G. R. Heath, and T. C. Moore Jr. (1975), Cenozoic History and Paleoceanography of the Central Equatorial Pacific Ocean: A Regional Synthesis of Deep Sea Drilling Project Data, mem. 143, 143 pp., Geol. Soc. of Am., Boulder, Colo.
91. van der Zwaan, G. J., I. A. P. Duijnstee, M. den Bulk, S. R. Ernst, N. T. Jannink, and T. J. Kouwenhoven (1999), Benthic foraminifers: Proxies or problems? A review of paleoecological concepts, Earth Sci. Rev., 46, 213-236.
92. Verardo, D. J., P. N. Froelich, and A. McIntyre (1990), Determination of organic carbon and nitrogen in marine sediments using the Carlo Erba NA 1500 analyzer, Deep Sea Res., 37, 157-165.
93. Vidal, L., T. Bickert, G. Wefer, and U. Röhl (2002), Late Miocene stable isotope stratigraphy of Site 1085: Relation to Messinian events, Mar. Geol., 180, 71-85.
94. Vincent, E., J. S. Killingley, W. H. Berger (1985), Miocene Oxygen and Carbon Isotope Stratigraphy of the Tropical Indian Ocean, mem. 163, edited by J. P. Kennett, pp. 103-120, Geol. Soc. of Am., Boulder, Colo.
95. Wefer, G., W. H. Berger, C. Richter, and Shipboard Party (1998a), Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Initial Reports, vol. 175, 1477 pp., Ocean Drill. Program, College Station, Tex.
96. Wefer, G., W. H. Berger, C. Richter, and Shipboard Party (1998b), Facies patterns and authigenic minerals of upwelling deposits off southwest Africa, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 175, 487-504.
97. Wise, S. W., et al. (1992), Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Initial Reports, vol. 120, 1155 pp., Ocean Drill. Program, College Station, Tex.
98. Woodruff, F., and S. M. Savin (1989), Miocene deep water oceanography, Paleoceanography, 4, 87-140.
99. Wright, J. D., K. G. Miller, and R. G. Fairbanks (1991), Evolution of modern deep-water circulation. Evidence from the late Miocene Southern Ocean, Paleoceanography, 6, 275-290.
100. Yasuda, H. (1997), Late Miocene-Holocene paleoceanography of the western equatorial Atlantic: Evidence from deep-sea benthic foraminifers, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 138, 395-431.
101. Zachos, J., M. Pagani, L. Sloan, E. Thomas, and K. Billups (2001), Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to present, Science, 292, 686-693.