The neurobiology of dyslexia

Clinical Neuroscience Research

Volumn 1, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 291-299

  Shaywitz, Bennett A ^a   Shaywitz, Sally E ^a   Pugh, Kenneth R ^a,b   Fulbright, Robert K ^a   Einar Mencl, W ^a,b   Todd Constable, R ^a   Skudlarski, Pawel ^a   Fletcher, Jack M ^c   Reid Lyon, G ^d   Gore, John C ^a,e  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b HASKINS LABORATORIES   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS   (United States)

^d EUNICE KENNEDY SHRIVER NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF CHILD HEALTH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT   (United States)

^e Yale University   (United States)

Author keywords

Dyslexia; Functional magnetic resonance imaging; Neurobiology; Phonology; Reading

Indexed keywords

EID: 18044402018     PISSN: 15662772     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1566-2772(01)00015-9     Document Type: Article

References (85)

1. Shaywitz S, Shaywitz B. Dyslexia. In: Swaiman K, Ashwal S, editors. Pediatrie neurology: principles and practice, 3rd ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1999, pp. 576-584.
2. Shaywitz S. Current concepts: dyslexia. N Engl J Med 1998;338(5):307-312.
3. Shaywitz B, Pugh KR, Jenner A, Fulbright RK, Fletcher JM, Gore JC, et al. The neurobiology of reading and reading disability (dyslexia). In: Kamil M, Mosenthal P, Pearson P, Barr R, et al., editors. Handbook of reading research, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000, pp. 229-249.
4. Shaywitz SE, Escobar MD, Shaywitz BA, Fletcher JM, Makuch R. Evidence that dyslexia may represent the lower tail of a normal distribution of reading ability. N Engl J Med 1992;326(3):145-150.
5. Gilger JW, Borecki IB, Smith SD, DeFries JC, Pennington BF. The etiology of extreme scores for complex phenotypes: an illustration using reading performance. In: Chase CH, Rosen GD, Sherman GF, editors. Developmental dyslexia. Neural, cognitive, and genetic mechanisms, Baltimore, MD: York Press, 1996, pp. 63-85.
6. Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities. Learning disabilities: A report to the U.S. Congress. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1987.
7. Shaywitz SE, Fletcher JM, Shaywitz BA. Issues in the definition and classification of attention deficit disorder. Top Lang Disord 1994;14(4):1-25.
8. Finucci JM, Childs B. Are there really more dyslexic boys than girls? In: Ansara A, Geschwind N, Albert M, Gartrell N, editors. Sex differences in dyslexia, Towson, MD: Orton Dyslexia Society, 1981, pp. 1-9.
9. Flynn J, Rahbar M. Prevalence of reading failure in boys compared with girls. Psychol Schools 1994;31:66-71.
10. Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA, Fletcher JM, Escobar MD. Prevalence of reading disability in boys and girls: results of the Connecticut Longitudinal Study. J Am Med Assoc 1990;264(8):998-1002.
11. Wadsworth SJ, DeFries JC, Stevenson J, Gilger JW, Pennington BF. Gender ratios among reading-disabled children and their siblings as a function of parental impairment. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1992;33(7):1229-1239.
12. Shaywitz BA, Holford TR, Holahan JM, et al. A Matthew effect for IQ but not for reading: results from a longitudinal study. Reading Res Q 1995;30(4):894-906.
13. Francis DJ, Shaywitz SE, Stuebing KK, Shaywitz BA, Fletcher JM. Developmental lag versus deficit models of reading disability: a longitudinal, individual growth curves analysis. J Educ Psychol 1996;88(1):3-17.
14. Scarborough HS. Continuity between childhood dyslexia and adult reading. Br J Psychol 1984;75:329-348.
15. Felton RH, Naylor CE, Wood FB. Neuropsychological profile of adult dyslexics. Brain Lang 1990;39:485-497.
16. Bruck M. Persistence of dyslexics' phonological awareness deficits. Dev Psychol 1992;28(5):874-886.
17. Pennington BF, Gilger JW. How is dyslexia transmitted? In: Chase CH, Rosen GD, Sherman GF, editors. Developmental dyslexia. Neural, cognitive, and genetic mechanisms, Baltimore, MD: York Press, 1996, pp. 41-61.
18. Scarborough HS. Very early language deficits in dyslexic children. Child Dev 1990;61:1728-1743.
19. Cardon LR, Smith SD, Fulker DW, Kimberling WJ, Pennington BF, DeFries JC. Quantitative trait locus for reading disability on chromosome 6. Science 1994;266:276-279.
20. Cardon LR, Smith SD, Fulker DW, Kimberling WJ, Pennington BF, DeFries JC. Quantitative trait locus for reading disability: correction. Science 1995;268:1553.
21. Grigorenko EL, Wood FB, Meyer MS, et al. Susceptibility loci for distinct components of developmental dyslexia on chromosomes 6 and 15. Am J Hum Genet 1997;60:27-39.
22. Fagerheim T, Raeymaekers P, Tonnessen F, Pedersen D, Tranebjaerg L, Lubs H. A new gene (DYX3) for dyslexia is located on chromosome 2. J Med Genet 1999;36:664-669.
23. Demb J, Boynton G, Heeger D. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of early visual pathways in dyslexia. J Neurosci 1998;18:6939-6951.
24. Eden GF, VanMeter JW, Rumsey JM, Maisog JM, Woods RP, Zeffiro TA. Abnormal processing of visual motion in dyslexia revealed by functional brain imaging. Nature 1996;382:66-69.
25. Stein J, Walsh V. To see but not to read; the magnocellular theory of dyslexia. Trends Neurosci 1997;20(4):147-152.
26. Talcott J, Witton C, McLean M, et al. Dynamic sensory sensitivity and children's word decoding skills. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000;97:2952-2957.
27. Tallal P. The science of literacy: From the laboratory to the classroom. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000;97:2402-2404.
28. Brady SA, Shankweiler DP, editors. Phonological processes in literacy: a tribute to Isabelle Y. Liberman Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1991.
29. Rieben L, Perfetti CA. Learning to read: basic research and its implications. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1991.
30. Fletcher JM, Shaywitz SE, Shankweiler DP, et al. Cognitive profiles of reading disability: comparisons of discrepancy and low achievement definitions. J Educ Psychol 1994;86(1):6-23.
31. Stanovich KE, Siegel LS. Phenotypic performance profile of children with reading disabilities: a regression-based test of the phonological-core variable-difference model. J Educ Psychol 1994;86(1):24-53.
32. Shankweiler D, Cram S, Katz L, et al. Cognitive profiles of reading-disabled children: comparison of language skills in phonology, morphology, and syntax. Psychol Sci 1995;6(3):149-156.
33. Liberman IY, Shankweiler D. Phonology and beginning to read: a tutorial. In: Rieben L, Perfetti CA, editors. Learning to read: basic research and its implications, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1991.
34. Shankweiler D, Liberman IY, Mark LS, Fowler CA, Fischer FW. The speech code and learning to read. J Exp Psychol Hum Learn Mem 1979;5(6):531-545.
35. Share DL. Phonological recoding and self-teaching: sine qua non of reading acquisition. Cognition 1995;55:151-218.
36. Shaywitz SE. Dyslexia. Sci Am 1996;275(5):98-104.
37. Torgesen JK. Phonological awareness: a critical factor in dyslexia. Orton Dyslexia Society, 1995.
38. Wagner R, Torgesen J. The nature of phonological processes and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychol Bull 1987;101:192-212.
39. Shaywitz SE, Fletcher JM, Holahan JM, et al. Persistence of dyslexia: The Connecticut Longitudinal Study at adolescence. Pediatrics 1999;104:1351-1359.
40. Morris RD, Stuebing KK, Fletcher JM, et al. Subtypes of reading disability: variability around a phonological core. J Educ Psychol 1998;90:347-373.
41. National Reading Panel. Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: an evidence based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction 2000.
42. Gough PB, Tunmer WE. Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remed Special Educ 1986;7:6-10.
43. Share DL, Stanovich KE. Cognitive processes in early reading development: accommodating individual differences into a model of acquisition. Issues in Education: Contributions from Educational Psychology 1995;1(1):1-57.
44. Galaburda AM, Sherman GF, Rosen GD, Aboitiz F, Geschwind N. Developmental dyslexia: four consecutive patients with cortical anomalies. Ann Neurol 1985;18(2):222-233.
45. Filipek P. Structural variations in measures in the developmental disorders. In: Thatcher R, Lyon G, Rumsey J, Krasnegor N, editors. Developmental neuroimaging: mapping the development of brain and behavior, San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1996, pp. 169-186.
46. Klingberg T, Hedehus M, Temple E, et al. Microstructure of temporoparietal white matter as a basis for reading ability: evidence from diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging. Neuron 2000;25:493-500.
47. Gross-Glenn K, Duara R, Barker WW, et al. Positron emission tomographic studies during serial word-reading by normal and dyslexic adults. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 1991;13(4):531-544.
48. Hagman JO, Wood F, Buchsbaum MS, Tallal P, Flowers L, Katz W. Cerebral brain metabolism in adult dyslexic subjects assessed with positron emission tomography during performance of an auditory task. Arch Neurol 1992;49:734-739.
49. Rumsey JM, Andreason P, Zametkin AJ, et al. Failure to activate the left temporoparietal cortex in dyslexia. Arch Neurol 1992;49:527-534.
50. Rumsey JM, Zametkin AJ, Andreason P, et al. Normal activation of frontotemporal language cortex in dyslexia, as measured with oxygen 15 positron emission tomography. Arch Neurol 1994;51:27-38.
51. Paulesu E, Frith U, Snowling M, et al. Is developmental dyslexia a disconnection syndrome? Evidence from PET scanning. Brain 1996;119:143-157.
52. Rumsey JM, Nace K, Donohue B, Wise D, Maisog JM, Andreason P. A positron emission tomographic study of impaired word recognition and phonological processing in dyslexic men. Arch Neurol 1997;54:562-573.
53. Anderson A, Gore J. The physical basis of neuroimaging techniques. In: Lewis M, Peterson B, editors. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America, Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 1997, pp. 213-264.
54. Friston KJ, Frith CD, Liddle PF, Frackowiak RSJ. Functional connectivity: the principal-component analysis of large (PET) data sets. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1993;13:5-14.
55. Petersen SE, Fiez JA. The processing of single words studied with positron emission tomography. Annu Rev Neurosci 1993;16:509-530.
56. Sergent J. Brain-imaging studies of cognitive function. Trends Neurosci 1994;17:221-227.
57. Lukatela G, Turvey MT. Visual lexical access is initially phonological: 2. Evidence from phonological priming by homophones and pseudohomophones. J Exp Psychol Gen 1994;123(4):331-353.
58. Van Orden GC, Pennington BF, Stone GO. Word identification in reading and the promise of subsymbolic psycholinguistics. Psychol Rev 1990;97(4):488-522.
59. Shaywitz B, Shaywitz S, Pugh K, et al. Sex differences in the functional organization of the brain for language. Nature 1995;373:607-609.
60. Halpern DF. Sex differences in cognitive abilities, 3rd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000.
61. Witelson SF, Kigar DL. Sylvian fissure morphology and asymmetry in men and women: Bilateral differences in relation to handedness in men. J Comp Neurol 1992;323:326-340.
62. Jaeger J, Lockwood A, Vanvalin R, Kemmerer D, Murphy B, Wack D. Sex differences in brain regions activated by grammatical and reading tasks. Neuroreport 1998;9:2803-2807.
63. Price C, Moore C, Frackowiak RSJ. The effect of varying stimulus rate and duration on brain activity during reading. Neuroimage 1996;3(1):40-52.
64. Woodcock RW, Johnson MB. Woodcock-Johnson psycho-educational battery - revised (WJ-R). Allen, TX: Developmental Learning Materials, 1989.
65. Demonet JF, Price C, Wise R, Frackowiak RSJ. A PET study of cognitive strategies in normal subjects during language tasks: Influence of phonetic ambiguity and sequence processing on phoneme monitoring. Brain 1994;117:671-682.
66. Henderson VW. Anatomy of posterior pathways in reading: a reassessment. Brain Lang 1986;29:119-133.
67. Petersen SE, Fox PT, Snyder AZ, Raichle ME. Activation of extra-striate and frontal cortical areas by visual words and word-like stimuli. Science 1990;249:1041-1044.
68. Pugh KR, Shaywitz BA, Shaywitz SE, et al. Cerebral organization of component processes in reading. Brain 1996;119:1221-1238.
69. Geschwind N. Biological foundations of reading. In: Duffy FH, Geschwind N, editors. Dyslexia: a neuroscientific approach to clinical evaluation, Boston, MA: Little Brown, 1985, pp. 195-211.
70. Salmelin R, Service E, Kiesila P, Uutela K, Salonen O. Impaired visual word processing in dyslexia revealed with magnetoencephalography. Ann Neurol 1996;40:157-162.
71. Benson DF. The neurology of thinking. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
72. Black SE, Behrmann M. Localization in alexia. In: Kertesz A, editor. Localization and neuroimaging in neuropsychology, New York: Academic Press, 1994, pp. 331-376.
73. Geschwind N. Disconnection syndromes in animals and man. Brain 1965;88:237-294.
74. Dejerine J. Sur un cas de cécité verbale avec agraphie, suivi d'autopsie. C R Soc Biol 1891;43:197-201.
75. Damasio AR, Damasio H. The anatomic basis of pure alexia. Neurology 1983;33:1573-1583.
76. Friedman RF, Ween JE, Albert ML. Alexia. In: Heilman KM, Valenstein E, editors. Clinical neuropsychology, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993, pp. 37-62.
77. Dejerine J. Contribution a l'étude anatomo-pathologique et clinique des differentes varietes de cécité verbale. Memoires Soc Biol 1892;4:61-90.
78. Cohen L, Dehaene S, Naccache L, et al. The visual word form area: spatial and temporal characterization of an initial stage of reading in normal subjects and posterior split-brain patients. Brain 2000;123:291-307.
79. Moore C, Price C. Three distinct ventral occipitotemporal regions for reading and object naming. Neuroimage 1999;10:181-192.
80. Tarkiainen A, Helenius P, Hansen P, Cornelissen P, Salmelin R. Dynamics of letter string perception in the human occipitotemporal cortex. Brain 1999;122:2119-2132.
81. Fiez JA, Peterson SE. Neuroimaging studies of word reading. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95(3)(9):14-21.
82. Frackowiak R, Friston K, Frith C, Dolan R, Mazziotta A. Human brain function. New York: Academic Press, 1997.
83. Pugh KR, Shaywitz BA, Shaywitz SE, et al. Predicting reading performance from neuroimaging profiles: the cerebral basis of phonological effects in printed word identification. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 1997;23(2):299-318.
84. Brunswick N, McCrory E, Price CJ, Frith CD, Frith U. Explicit and implicit processing of words and pseudowords by adult developmental dyslexics: a search for Wernicke's Wortschatz. Brain 1999;122:1901-1917.
85. Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA, Pugh KR, et al. Functional disruption in the organization of the brain for reading in dyslexia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95:2636-2641.