"Africanization" in the Pacific: Blaming others for disorder in the periphery?

Comparative Studies in Society and History

Volumn 47, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 286-317

  Chappell, David ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACCULTURATION; COLONIAL LEGACY; CULTURAL HISTORY; POLITICAL DISCOURSE;

MELANESIA; NEW CALEDONIA; OCEANIC REGIONS; PACIFIC ISLANDS; PACIFIC OCEAN; WORLD;

EID: 17844369434     PISSN: 00104175     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0010417505000149     Document Type: Review

References (185)

1. François Doumenge, "La Melanésie: 'Trou Noir' du Pacifique?" Tahiti-Pacifique, Oct. 2002, 23.
2. Kwame Nkrumah, Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism. New York: International, 1966, xvii.
3. Bougainville island has been home to secession movements since 1962, but the open-pit Panguna copper mine, begun under Australian rule in the late 1960s, aroused such opposition from local landowners-who resented pollution, immigrant labor, and royalties worth less than 1 percent of the value of the ore extracted-that armed rebellion shut down the mine in 1988.
4. Pacific Islands Report, 4 Aug. 2003 [http://pidp.eastwestcenter.org/ pireport].
5. Radio Australia News, 2 June 2003.
6. Ben Reilly, "The Africanisation of the South Pacific," Australian Journal of International Affairs 54, 3 (2000): 262.
7. Doumenge, "La Melanésie," 15.
8. Christopher Herbert examines the complex genesis of the concept of bounded cultures, but he also shows how counter-approaches simultaneously destabilized such hegemonic imaginings, in Culture and Anomie: Ethnographic Imagination in the Nineteenth Century. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.
9. Henry Maine, Ancient Law. London: Murray, 1861.
10. Myriam Dornoy, Politics in New Caledonia. Sydney: Sydney University Press, 1984, 19.
11. Bronislaw Malinowski, Argonauts of the Western Pacific. New York: Dutton, 1961.
12. Georg Hegel, The Phenomenology of Spirit. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979.
13. See also, Martin Bernal, Black Athena. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1989.
14. I. Schapera, Government and Politics in Tribal Societies. London: Watts, 1956.
15. Lucy Mair, Primitive Government. New York: Penguin, 1964, 254.
16. Ibid., 255.
17. Ibid., 278.
18. Ibid., 255.
19. Mahmoud Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.
20. Ian Downs, The Australian Trusteeship, Papua New Guinea 1945-75. Canberra: Australian Government, 1980, 102.
21. I b i d.
22. Ibid., 105.
23. James Griffin, Hank Nelson, and Stewart Firth, Papua New Guinea: A Political History. Richmond, Victoria: Heinemann, 1979, 147.
24. Mair, Primitive Government, 252.
25. Downs, Australian Trusteeship, 105.
26. Arturo Escobar, Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995, 22.
27. Ibid., 60.
28. According to Eric Williams, in Capitalism and Slavery (New York: Putnam, 1966),
29. even that icon of the factory, James Watt's steam engine, was financed in large part by profits from the African slave trade, which Walter Rodney, in How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1982), blamed for African economic backwardness compared to Europe.
30. Edward Said, Orientalism. New York: Vintage, 1979, 3.
31. Robert Kaplan, "The Coming Anarchy: How Scarcity, Crime, Overpopulation, Tribalism, and Disease are Rapidly Destroying the Social Fabric of Our Planet," The Atlantic Monthly, Feb. 1994, 72.
32. "The Hopeless Continent," The Economist, 13 May 2000.
33. Robert Jackson, Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations and the Third World. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990, 202.
34. George Ayittey, Africa in Chaos. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998. African creative literature has tended to change tone since independence. Before and during decolonization, authors generally criticized foreign rule, but postcolonial writing often attacks repressive regimes.
35. See, for example, Ngugi wa Thiongo's Petals of Blood. New York: Dutton, 1978;
36. or Wole Soyinka's The Open Sore of a Continent. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
37. David Gordon and Howard Wolpe, "The Other Africa: An End to Afro-Pessimism," World Policy Journal 15, 1 (Spring 1998), 53.
38. "Reporting Africa," New African, July/Aug. 2000.
39. The Belgian Congo was perhaps the most extreme case, having only a handful of educated leaders in 1960 when it was given six-months notice to prepare for independence. Its valuable mineral resources became targets for multi-national mining companies, and the United States was also active in seeing that "anti-Communist" Joseph Mobutu came to power and created a notoriously corrupt dictatorship. He was finally overthrown in 1997 but was quickly replaced by warring factions backed by competing outside economic and national interests.
40. Ebere Onwudiwe, "Introduction," in Onwudiwe and Minabere Ibelema, eds., Afro-Optimism: Perspectives on Africa's Advances. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003, 11.
41. Ibid., 164-65.
42. Somalia is a classic case of Cold War meddling. At first, the United States supported Haile Selassie's monarchy in Ethiopia against Soviet-backed Somalia in the Ogaden war in 1969. But when Marxists overthrew Selassie in 1974, the Soviets switched sides, as did the United States. So many arms flowed into both countries that they broke apart, though Ethiopia is now further along the road to recovery than Somalia.
43. Fantu Cheru, African Renaissance: Roadmaps to the Challenge of Globalization. London: Zed Books, 2002, 45-53.
44. V. Y. Mudimbe, The Invention of Africa: Gnosis, Philosophy and the Order of Knowledge. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988.
45. Achille Mbembe, On the Postcolony. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001, 7.
46. For centuries there was also a slave trade in Southeast Asia that included Melanesian Papuans.
47. K. R. Howe, Where the Waves Fall, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1984.
48. Ranajit Guha, Dominance without Hegemony. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997.
49. Donald Denoon, "Black Mischief: The Trouble with African Analogies," Journal of Pacific History 34, 3 (1999), 281-89.
50. Polynesia and Micronesia are resource-poor volcanic islands, but most of Melanesia is composed of so-called "continental" islands that are linked under the sea to the Australian landmass and geologically richer in exportable minerals such as gold, nickel, copper, and bauxite.
51. Greg Fry, "Framing the Islands: Knowledge and Power in Changing Australian Images of the 'South Pacific," The Contemporary Pacific 9, 2 (Fall 1997), 324.
52. The White Australia policy after self-government in 1901 expressed a fear of inundation by the Asian "hordes" to the north, and the Japanese advance into Papua New Guinea during World War II moved that line of defense even closer (see Henry Frei, Japan's Southward Advance and Australia. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1991). The ANZUS alliance with New Zealand and the United States initially was aimed at postwar Japan but soon became an anti-Communist containment arrangement, so it was not surprising that Australia declared in 1987, after the first Fiji coup, that the southwest Pacific was a priority region of strategic interest.
53. Ibid., 307.
54. The first was Rodney Cole, ed., Pacific 2010: Challenging the Future Canberra: National Centre for Development Studies, 1993.
55. Ibid., 7.
56. In another volume, co-edited with Somsak Tambunlertchai (The Future of Asia-Pacific Economies: Pacific Islands at the Crossroads. Canberra: National Centre for Development Studies, 1993), Cole and others applauded the economic dynamism of East Asia, without examining the specific political, social, and geographical factors that underlay such "success stories" (including initially authoritarian regimes, much denser populations, and more advantageous location along world shipping routes). They urged Pacific leaders to integrate their economies into a wider regional framework by promoting more "services " such as tourism, despite the increasing predation of Asian logging firms and drift-net fishing fleets in the Pacific.
57. The Contemporary Pacific 7, 1 (Spring 1995), 188-200.
58. Denoon, "Black Mischief," 281.
59. Ben Reilly, "Islands of Neglect: Trouble in Paradise," Asian Wall Street Journal, 4 May 2001.
60. Reilly, "Africanisation," 265.
61. Stewart Firth, "A Reflection on South Pacific Regional Security, Mid-2000 to Mid-2001," Journal of Pacific History 36, 3 (2001), 277-83.
62. Ben Reilly, "A Reflection on South Pacific Regional Security: A Rejoinder," Journal of Pacific History 37, 3 (2002), 323-24.
63. Jon Fraenkel, "The Coming Anarchy in Oceania? A Critique of the 'Africanisation' of the South Pacific Thesis." University of the South Pacific, Department of Economics Working Paper No. 2003/2, Feb. 2003, 3.
64. Ibid., 5-6.
65. Ibid., 14.
66. Ibid., 36.
67. In 2002, the Australian government refused entry to Middle Eastern refugees and instead distributed them to island states such as Nauru and Papua New Guinea who were willing to accept subsidies to create processing camps. The opposition criticized such anti-immigrant politics (Pacific Islands Report, 31 July 2003 [http://pidp.eastwestcenter.org/ pireport]). In this context it is perhaps worth mentioning as well recent opposition to immigrants in France and the United States.
68. Teresia Teaiwa, "Caribbeanization, Balkanization, Africanization, Indigenization, Etcetera: Rethinking the Pacific in Global Context." Keynote Address, European Society of Oceanists meeting, Vienna, Austria, 4-6 July 2002, 7-8.
69. Doumenge, "La Melanésie," 15, note 1.
70. The term Kanak refers to the indigenous inhabitants of New Caledonia and today is used as either plural or singular, masculine or feminine.
71. See for example, Paul de Deckker and Jean-Marc Regnault, "La question nucléaire dans le Pacifique-sud: travaillisme, syndicalisme et Églises océaniennes dans les relations internationales," Revue d'Histoire Diplomatique 1 (2003), 63-81.
72. François Doumenge, Géopolitique du Pacifique Sud. Talence: University of Bordeaux, 1990, 172.
73. It is worth noting that Doumenge's article was published in Tahiti-Pacifique magazine, not in New Caledonia, and that a longer version was scheduled to appear in the French metropolitan revue Conflits Actuels under the title "Violences dans le Pacifique, Sud." The term "Pacific Way" was first used by Fijian Prime Minister Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara in a speech to the United Nations in 1970, when his country had just become independent and he wanted to project an image of the South Pacific as peaceable and also respectful of traditional customs. It has sometimes been criticized by island intellectuals such as Epeli Hau'ofa of Tonga as overly simplistic, idealistic, and even elitist.
74. Doumenge "La Melanésie," 17.
75. Ibid, 22.
76. John Hargreaves, West Africa: The Former French States. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1967.
77. Ron Crocombe, The South Pacific. Suva: University of the South Pacific Press, 2001, 421.
78. Doumenge "La Melanésie," 21.
79. David Chappell, "The Kanak Awakening of 1969-76," Journal de la Société des Océanistes 117:2 (2003), 187-202.
80. Wallis and Futuna is a little-known French Pacific territory near Samoa inhabited by Polynesians. Its economy is primarily one of subsistence, and more than half the population has migrated to New Caledonia to make money from construction and the nickel mining industry there.
81. French officials and scholars repeatedly argue that France provides access to the European Union for Pacific countries in search of aid, trade, and development assistance, although the EU already provides help, independently of France, and in 1985 France threatened to cut off New Zealand's access to the EU market for opposing its nuclear testing program in French Polynesia.
82. Doumenge "La Melanésie," 23.
83. This arrangement contrasts sharply with the partnership between the Kanak-run northern province and another Canadian nickel firm, Falconbridge, in which that province has 51 percent ownership.
84. David Chappell, "The Noumea Accord: Decolonization without Independence in New Caledonia?" Pacific Affairs 72, 3 (1999), 373-91.
85. Comité de rédaction de Kanak, organe d'information du Parti de Libération Kanak, "François Doumenge serait-il le dernier trou blanc de la recherche universitaire océanienne?" Tahiti-Pacifique Magazine 141 (Jan. 2003), 43.
86. Griffin, Nelson, and Firth, Papua New Guinea, 249-50, 262;
87. and Downs, Australian Trusteeship, 274.
88. Paul de Deckker, "La France dans le Pacifique," Limes: Revue Française de Géopolitique 5 (Nov./Dec. 2000), 135.
89. See Roger Thompson, The Pacific Basin since 1945. London: Longman, 1994, 153;
90. and K. R. Howe, R. Kiste, and B. Lal, eds., Tides of History. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1994, 170, 195.
91. W. David McIntrye, British Decolonization, 1946-1997. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998.
92. Robert Aldrich, France and the South Pacific since 1940. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1993.
93. Robert Kiste, "Termination of the U.S. Trusteeship in Micronesia," Journal of Pacific History 21, 3 (Oct. 1986), 127-38.
94. Peter Larmour, "The Decolonisation of the Pacific Islands," in Ron Crocombe and A. Ali, eds., Foreign Forces in Pacific Politics. Suva: University of the South Pacific Press, 1983, 1-23.
95. Judith Bennett, Wealth of the Solomons. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1987:321.
96. Warren Paia, "Aspects of Constitutional Development in the Solomon Islands," Journal of Pacific History 10, 1-2 (1975), 81-89;
97. and Peter Kenilorea, "Political Development," in Ron May, ed., Priorities in Melanesian Development. Canberra: Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1973, 23-25.
98. Jonathan Fifi'i, From Pig-Theft to Parliament: My Life Between Two Worlds, ed. Roger Keesing. Honiara: Solomon Islands College of Higher Education, and Suva: University of the South Pacific, 1989, 136.
99. Ibid., 146.
100. Nkrumah, Neo-Colonialism, ix.
101. Michael Somare, Sana: An Autobiography. Port Moresby: Niugini Press, 1975, 75-76.
102. Ibid., 51.
103. Ibid., 81-82.
104. Michael Somare, "The Emerging Role of Papua New Guinea in World Affairs." 25th Roy Milne Memorial Lecture, Melbourne: Australian Institute of International Affairs, 1974.
105. Ian Downs, The Australian Trusteeship, Papua New Guinea 1945-75. Canberra: Australian Government, 1980, 415, 536-40.
106. Dumont had written False Start in Africa. New York: Praeger, 1966.
107. Donald Denoon, "How Not to Write Biography," in Brij Lal and Peter Hempenstall, eds., Pacific Lives, Pacific Places: Bursting Boundaries in Pacific History. Canberra: Journal of Pacific History, 2001, 9-21.
108. John Waiko, The Religious Response of Stateless Societies to Colonial Rule: A Comparison of Some East African and Melanesian Examples. London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1973.
109. John Waiko, A Short History of Papua New Guinea. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1943, 179.
110. Albert Maori Kiki, Kiki: Ten Thousand Years in a Lifetime: A New Guinea Autobiography. New York: Praeger, 1968.
111. Ibid., 78.
112. Ibid., 90.
113. Ibid., 128.
114. Katanga province was notorious in the post-independence Congo for its secession attempts, usually financed by foreign (Belgian and U.S.) mining interests that sought lower prices for its copper ore.
115. Ulli Beier, ed., Black Writing from New Guinea. St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1973, 60-61.
116. Leo Hannett, "The Niugini Black Power." Unpublished position statement, University of Papua New Guinea, 1971, 4.
117. Ibid., 13.
118. P. Olisanwuche Esedebe, Pan-Africanism: The Idea and Movement, 1776-1963. Washington D.C.: Howard University Press, 1982.
119. Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara, The Pacific Way: A Memoir. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1997.
120. Bernard Narokobi, The Melanesian Way. Boroko: Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, and Suva: University of the South Pacific, 1980.
121. Ton Otto, "After the 'Tidal Wave': Bernard Narokobi and the Creation of a Melanesian Way," in Ton Otto and Nicholas Thomas, eds., Narratives of the Nation in the South Pacific. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1997, 60.
122. Epeli Hau'ofa, "The New South Pacific Society: Integration and Independence," in Antony Hooper, ed., Class and Culture in the South Pacific. Suva: University of the South Pacific, 1987, 1-12.
123. Tarcisius Kabutaulaka, "Cohesion and Disorder in Melanesia: The Bougainville Conflict and the Melanesian Way," in Werner vom Busch, et al., eds., New Politics in the South Pacific. Suva: University of the South Pacific, 1994, 63-82. The term Melanesian is Greek-derived, refers to the dark skin pigmentation (melanin) of indigenous peoples in the southwest Pacific and began to be used, along with Micronesia (atolls) and Polynesia (many islands, the largest sub-region of Oceania in surface area) by French geographers in the early nineteenth century.
124. Barry Hallen, A Short History of African Philosophy. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002.
125. Father Walter Lini, Beyond Pandemonium: From the New Hebrides to Vanuatu. Suva: University of the South Pacific, 1980, 23.
126. The former New Hebrides was an unusual colony that was shared by Britain and France as a so-called condominium, creating a dual administration that complicated the linguistic and religious identity issue. The Santo rebellion was undertaken by a local syncretic church with backing from French settlers who resented the loss of colonially appropriated lands, and from private American financial interests seeking a tax haven. See Howard Van Trease, The Politics of Land in Vanuatu. Suva: University of the South Pacific, 1987.
127. Ralph Premdas, "Melanesian Socialism: Vanuatu's Quest for Self-Definition and Problems of Implementation," Pacific Studies 11, 1 (Nov. 1987), 126-27.
128. Ati George Sokomanu, "Government in Vanuatu: The Place of Culture and Tradition," in Ron Crocombe, ed., Culture and Democracy in the South Pacific. Suva: University of the South Pacific, 1992, 52-53.
129. Jean-Marie Tjibaou, Kanaké: The Melanesian Way. Papeete: Editions Pacifique, 1978;
130. Alban Bensa and Eric Wittersheim, "Nationalism and Interdependence: The Political Thought of Jean-Marie Tjibaou," The Contemporary Pacific 10, 2 (Fall 1998), 369-90.
131. Jacques Lafleur, et al., Notre Resistance, 1981-1986. Noumea: Support Committee, 1986, 8.
132. Front de Libération Nationale Kanak et Socialiste, F.L.N.K.S.: La Charte do FLNKS. Noumea, 1987;
133. and David Robie, Blood on Their Banner: Nationalist Struggles in the South Pacific. London, Zed, 1989.
134. Both terms derive from the Hawaiian kanaka, meaning person, a word that traveled around the region in the nineteenth century as shipboard and plantation pidgin. French settlers called themselves Calédoniens, or later Caldoches, based on James Cook's 1774 labeling of the main island of their country as New Caledonia.
135. Chappell, "The Kanak Awakening."
136. Fernando Cardoso and Enzo Faletto, Dependency and Development in Latin America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979.
137. See also Escobar, Encountering Development.
138. Sinclair Dinnen, "Winners and Losers: Politics and Disorder in the Solomon Islands 2000-2002," Journal of Pacific History 37, 3 (2002), 285.
139. New Zealand Herald, 9 Aug. 2004.
140. New African, July/Aug. 2000, 12, 32.
141. Dinnen, "Winners and Losers," 287-88.
142. Michael Howard, Mining, Politics and Development in the South Pacific Boulder: Westview Press, 1991.
143. Claude Ake, A Political Economy of Africa. London: Longman, 1981.
144. For example, Bougainville, which has tried to secede from Papua New Guinea (and is tellingly called by Papua New Guinea the Northern Solomons Province), and the neighboring province of Western Solomons, which has also tried to separate from its administering state, feel much more affinity with each other culturally than with their respective colonially created "national" units. In the late 1800s, Britain received the western Solomons from German New Guinea in exchange for relinquishing claims to western Samoa. Similar situations abound in Africa, such as the division of the Ewe people between Ghana and Togo, the very large rival linguistic and religious blocs confined in Nigeria, or the often tense Muslim/non-Muslim divide that stretches from the Atlantic Ocean right across to the Red Sea, to name only a few such postcolonial problems.
145. Brij Lal, Broken Waves: A History of the Fiji Islands in the Twentieth Century. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1992.
146. The most radical critique of the colonial legacy in Fiji has come from indigenous nationalists against immigrant Indians, for example, Asesela Ravuvu, Façade of Democracy. Suva: Reader, 1991.
147. See for example Alexander Wanek, The State and Its Enemies in Papua New Guinea. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1996.
148. Douglas Oliver, Black Islanders. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1991.
149. Dinnen, "Winners and Losers."
150. Lini, Beyond Pandemonium.
151. Michael Howard, ed., Ethnicity and Nation-Building in the Pacific. Tokyo: United Nations University, 1989;
152. Barrie MacDonald, "Decolonisation and Beyond: The Framework for Post-Colonial Relationships in Oceania," Journal of Pacific History 21, 3-4 (1986), 115-26.
153. Thandika Mkandawire, "The Terrible Toll of Post-Colonial 'Rebel Movements' in Africa: Towards an Explanation of the Violence against the Peasantry," Journal of Modern African Studies 40, 2 (2002), 181-215.
154. See Crawford Young, "The Third Wave of Democratization in Africa: Ambiguities and Contradictions," in Richard Joseph, ed., State, Conflict, and Democracy in Africa. Boulder: Rienner, 1999, 15-38.
155. At the 2003 World Trade Organization meeting in Cancun, Mexico, the desire of industrial countries to protect domestic producers by maintaining their own agricultural subsidies and tariffs, at the same time that they urged Third World countries, who depend more directly on agricultural exports, to open themselves to the "free market," typifies the one-sided approach often taken toward international commerce. See Brian Halwell, "Deaf Ears Turned to Poor Voice," Honolulu Advertiser, 21 Sept. 2003, section B, 1, 4.
156. Hau'ofa "The New South Pacific Society," 11.
157. Thandika Mkandawire, "Crisis Management and the Making of'Choiceless Democracies,'" in Richard Joseph, ed., State, Conflict, and Democracy in Africa. Boulder: Rienner, 1999, 119-36.
158. David Hanlon, Remaking Micronesia: Discourses over Development in a Pacific Territory, 1944-1982. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1998;
159. David Gegeo, "Indigenous Knowledge and Empowerment: Rural Development Examined from Within," The Contemporary Pacific 10, 2 (Fall 1998), 289-315.
160. Binayak Ray, "Good Governance, Administrative Reform and Socioeconomic Realities: A South Pacific Perspective." Discussion Paper 98/2, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra, 1998, 1.
161. See also Elise Huffer and Asofou So'o, eds., Governance in Samoa: Pulegai Samoa. Canberra: Australian National University and Suva: University of the South Pacific, 2000.
162. "Native Pacific Cultural Studies on the Edge," Vicente Diaz and J. Kehaulani Kauanui, eds., The Contemporary Pacific 13, 2 (Fall 2001).
163. See also Lynn Hunt, "The Paradoxical Origins of Human Rights," in Jeffrey Wasserstrom, Lynn Hunt, and Marilyn Young, eds., Human Rights and Revolutions. New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000, 3-17.
164. Robert Clark, The Global Imperative: An Interpretive History of the Spread of Humankind. Boulder: Westview Press, 1997.
165. See R. Brian Ferguson and Neil Whitehead, eds., War in the Tribal Zone: Expanding States and Indigenous Warfare. Santa Fe, N.M.: School of American Research, 1992;
166. and Mike Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World. New York: Verso, 2001.
167. Peter Hempenstall, "Imperial Manoeuvres," in K. R. Howe, R. Kiste, and B. Lal, eds., Tides of History: The Pacific Islands in the Twentieth Century. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1994, 30.
168. Wm. Roger Louis and Ronald Robinson, "The Imperialism of Decolonization," Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 22, 3 (1994), 462-511;
169. Yash Ghai, "Constitutional Issues in the Transition to Independence," in Ron Crocombe and A. Ali, eds., Foreign Forces in Pacific Politics Suva: University of the South Pacific Press, 1983, 24-65.
170. John Galtung, "A Structural Theory of Imperialism," Journal of Peace Research 2 (1971), 81-117.
171. Tarcisius Kabutaulaka, "Salvaging the Solomons." Commentary, on Pacific Islands Report, 7 Oct. 2003 [http://pidp.eastwestcenter.org/ pireport].
172. Deepa Ollapally, "The South Looks North: The Third World in the New World Order," Current History (Apr. 1993), 175.
173. Tahiti-Pacifique Magazine (Mar 2004), 30.
174. Pierre Maresca,, "Le Temps do Doute," in Philippe Godard, ed., Le Memorial Calédonien. Noumea: Editions d'Art, 1982, vol. VIII, 13-14.
175. Pacific Islands Report, 10 June 2003 [http://pidp.eastwestcenter.org/ pireport].
176. Pacific Islands Report, 26 Aug. 2003 [http://pidp.eastwestcenter.org/ pireport].
177. Pacific Islands Report, 30 Sept. 2003 [http://pidp.eastwestcenter.org/ pireport].
178. Pacific Islands Report, 10 Oct. 2003 [http://pidp.eastwestcenter.org/ pireport].
179. ABC Radio Australia News, 27 June 2003.
180. Pacific Islands Report, 8 Sept. 2003 [http://pidp.eastwestcenter.org/ pireport].
181. Islands Business, May 2004, 30.
182. The Australian, 9 Aug. 2004;
183. The New Zealand Herald, 10 Aug. 2004;
184. Post-Courier (Papua New Guinea), 9 Aug. 2004.
185. See for example, Bill Standish's analysis in Journal of Pacific History 36, 3 (2001), 285-98.