Chronic kidney disease as a metabolic syndrome with malnutrition - Need for strict control of risk factors

Internal Medicine

Volumn 44, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 179-187

  Shoji, Tetsuo ^a   Nishizawa, Yoshiki ^a  

^a OSAKA CITY UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (Japan)

Author keywords

Atherosclerosis; Cardiovascular disease (CVD); Chronic kidney disease (CKD); Malnutrition; Risk factors

Indexed keywords

ATORVASTATIN; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CLINOFIBRATE; FIBRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; FLUINDOSTATIN; GEMFIBROZIL; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; NICOTINIC ACID; PRAVASTATIN; SIMVASTATIN; VERY LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL;

ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT; BLOOD SAMPLING; BODY MASS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE CONTROL; DISEASE SEVERITY; DYSLIPIDEMIA; GLOMERULUS FILTRATION RATE; HEMODIALYSIS; HUMAN; LIFESTYLE; MALNUTRITION; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; MORTALITY; OBESITY; OXIDATIVE STRESS; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION; SURVIVAL RATE; UNDERWEIGHT; URINARY EXCRETION;

CHRONIC DISEASE; HUMANS; KIDNEY FAILURE, CHRONIC; MALNUTRITION; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; RISK FACTORS; SURVIVAL RATE; WORLD HEALTH;

EID: 17744366393     PISSN: 09182918     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2169/internalmedicine.44.179     Document Type: Review

References (98)

1. Lindner A, Charra B, Sherrard DJ, Scribner BH. Accelerated atherosclerosis in prolonged maintenance hemodialysis. N Engl J Med 290: 697-701, 1974.
2. Levey AS, Beto JA, Coronado BE, et al. Controlling the epidemic of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease: what do we know? What do we need to learn? Where do we go from here? National Kidney Foundation Task Force on Cardiovascular Disease. Am J Kidney Dis 32 853-906, 1998.
3. Sarnak MJ, Levey AS. Cardiovascular disease and chronic renal disease: a new paradigm. Am J Kidney Dis 35: S117-S131, 2000.
4. Kawagishi T, Nishizawa Y, Konishi T, et al. High-resolution B-mode ultrasonography in evaluation of atherosclerosis in uremia. Kidney Int 48: 820-826, 1995.
5. Shoji T, Kawagishi T, Emoto M, et al. Additive impacts of diabetes and renal failure on carotid atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 153: 257-258, 2000.
6. Shoji T, Emoto M, Tabata T, et al. Advanced atherosclerosis in predialysis patients with chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 61: 2187-2192, 2002.
7. Nakashima A, Yorioka N, Asakimori Y, et al. Different risk factors for the maximum and the mean carotid intima-media thickness in hemodialysis patients. Intern Med 42: 1095-1099, 2003.
8. London GM, Marchais SJ, Safar ME, et al. Aortic and large artery compliance in end-stage renal failure. Kidney Int 37: 137-142, 1990.
9. Shoji T, Nishizawa Y, Kawagishi T, et al. Intermediate-density lipoprotein as an independent risk factor for aortic atherosclerosis in hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 1277-1284, 1998.
10. Shinohara K, Shoji T, Tsujimoto Y, et al. Arterial stiffness in predialysis patients with uremia. Kidney Int 65: 936-943, 2004.
11. Benedetto FA, Mallamaci F, Tripepi G, Zoccali C. Prognostic value of ultrasonographic measurement of carotid intima media thickness in dialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 12: 2458-2464, 2001.
12. Nishizawa Y, Shoji T, Maekawa K, et al. Intima-media thickness of carotid artery predicts cardiovascular mortality in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 41: S76-S79, 2003.
13. Kato A, Takita T, Maruyama Y, Kumagai H, Hishida A. Impact of carotid atherosclerosis on long-term mortality in chronic hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 64: 1472-1479, 2003.
14. Blacher J, Guerin AP, Pannier B, Marchais SJ, Safar ME, London GM. Impact of aortic stiffness on survival in end-stage renal disease. Circulation 99: 2434-2439, 1999.
15. Shoji T, Emoto M, Shinohara K, et al. Diabetes mellitus, aortic stiffness, and cardiovascular mortality in end-stage renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 12: 2117-2124, 2001.
16. Mourad JJ, Pannier B, Blacher J, et al. Creatinine clearance, pulse wave velocity, carotid compliance and essential hypertension. Kidney Int 59: 1834-1841, 2001.
17. Kohara K, Tabara Y, Tachibana R, Nakura J, Miki T. Microalbuminuria and Arterial Stiffness in a General Population: the Shimanami Health Promoting Program (J-SHIPP) Study. Hypertens Res 27 471-477, 2004.
18. Dinneen SF, Gerstein HC. The association of microalbuminuria and mortality in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. A systematic overview of the literature. Arch Intern Med 157: 1413-1418, 1997.
19. Samuelsson O. Proteinuria as a prognostic factor during long term hypertensive care. Drugs 35 Suppl 5: 48-54, 1988.
20. Hillege HL, Girbes AR, de Kam PJ, et al. Renal function, neurohormonal activation, and survival in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation 102: 203-210, 2000.
21. National Kidney Foundation K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease: evaluation, classification, and stratification. Am J Kidney Dis 39: S1-S266, 2002.
22. Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (K/DOQI) Group. K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines for management of dyslipidemias in patients with kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis 41: I-IV, S1-S91, 2003.
23. Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (K/DOQI). K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines on hypertension and antihypertensive agents in chronic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis 43: S1-S290, 2004.
24. IV. NKF-K/DOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines for Anemia of Chronic Kidney Disease: update 2000. Am J Kidney Dis 37: S182-S238, 2001.
25. Sarnak MJ, Levey AS, Schoolwerth AC, et al. Kidney disease as a risk factor for development of cardiovascular disease: a statement from the American Heart Association Councils on Kidney in Cardiovascular Disease, High Blood Pressure Research, Clinical Cardiology, and Epidemiology and Prevention. Circulation 108: 2154-2169, 2003.
26. Shoji T, Ishimura E, Inaba M, Tabata T, Nishizawa Y. Atherogenic lipoproteins in end-stage renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis 38: S30-S33, 2001.
27. Shoji T, Nishizawa Y, Kawagishi T, et al. Atherogenic lipoprotein changes in the absence of hyperlipidemia in patients with chronic renal failure treated by hemodialysis. Atherosclerosis 131: 229-236, 1997.
28. Kimoto E, Shoji T, Emoto M, et al. Effect of diabetes on uremic dyslipidemia. J Atheroscler Thromb 9: 305-313, 2002.
29. Mordasini R, Frey F, Flury W, Klose G, Greten H. Selective deficiency of hepatic triglyceride lipase in uremic patients. N Engl J Med 297: 1362-1366, 1977.
30. Shoji T, Nishizawa Y, Nishitani H, Yamakawa M, Morii H. Impaired metabolism of high density lipoprotein in uremic patients. Kidney Int 41: 1653-1661, 1992.
31. Ibels SL, Reardon MF, Nestel PJ. Plasma post-heparin lipolytic activity and triglyceride clearance in uremic and hemodialysis patients and renal allograft recipients. J Lab Clin Med 87: 648-658, 1976.
32. Nishizawa Y, Shoji T, Nishitani H, et al. Hypertriglyceridemia and lowered apolipoprotein C-II/C-III ratio in uremia: effect of a fibric acid, clinofibrate. Kidney Int 44: 1352-1359, 1993.
33. Hirano T, Oi K, Sakai S, Kashiwazaki K, Adachi M, Yoshino G. High prevalence of small dense LDL in diabetic nephropathy is not directly associated with kidney damage: a possible role of postprandial lipemia. Atherosclerosis 141: 77-85, 1998.
34. Oi K, Hirano T, Sakai S, Kawaguchi Y, Hosoya T. Role of hepatic lipase in intermediate-density lipoprotein and small, dense low-density lipoprotein formation in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int Suppl 71: S227-228, 1999.
35. Bagdade JD, Albers JJ. Plasma high-density lipoprotein concentrations in chronic-hemodialysis and renal-transplant patients. N Engl J Med 296: 1436-1439, 1977.
36. Okubo K, Ikewaki K, Sakai S, Tada N, Kawaguchi Y, Mochizuki S. Abnormal HDL apolipoprotein A-I and A-II kinetics in hemodialysis patients: a stable isotope study. J Am Soc Nephrol 15: 1008-1015, 2004.
37. Miida T, Miyazaki O, Hanyu O, et al. LCAT-dependent conversion of prebetal-HDL into alpha-migrating HDL is severely delayed in hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 14: 732-738, 2003.
38. Nishizawa Y, Shoji T, Kakiya R, et al. Non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C) as a predictor of cardiovascular mortality in patients with end-stage renal disease. Kidney Int Suppl: S117-S120, 2003 (Erratum in: Kidney Int Suppl 63: 2345-2346, 2003).
39. Shoji T, Kimoto E, Shinohara K, et al. The association of antibodies against oxidized low-density lipoprotein with atherosclerosis in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int Suppl: S128-130, 2003.
40. Fukumoto M, Shoji T, Emoto M, Kawagishi T, Okuno Y, Nishizawa Y. Antibodies against oxidized LDL and carotid artery intima-media thickness in a healthy population. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 20 703-707, 2000.
41. Koch M, Kutkuhn B, Trenkwalder E, et al. Apolipoprotein B, fibrinogen, HDL cholesterol, and apolipoprotein(a) phenotypes predict coronary artery disease in hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 8 1889-1898, 1997.
42. Japanese Society for Dialysis Therapy. An overview of regular dialysis treatment in Japan (as of Dec 31, 1998): 622-624.
43. Degoulet P, Legrain M, Reach I, et al. Mortality risk factors in patients treated by chronic hemodialysis. Report of the Diaphane collaborative study. Nephron 31: 103-110, 1982.
44. Iseki K, Yamazato M, Tozawa M, Takishita S. Hypocholesterolemia is a significant predictor of death in a cohort of chronic hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 61: 1887-1893, 2002.
45. Liu Y, Coresh J, Eustace JA, et al. Association between cholesterol level and mortality in dialysis patients: role of inflammation and malnutrition. JAMA 291: 451-459, 2004.
46. Kaizu Y, Tsunega Y, Yoneyama T, et al. Overweight as another nutritional risk factor for the long-term survival of non-diabetic hemodialysis patients. Clin Nephrol 50: 44-50, 1998.
47. Johansen KL, Young B, Kaysen GA, Chertow GM. Association of body size with outcomes among patients beginning dialysis. Am J Clin Nutr 80: 324-332, 2004.
48. Leavey SF, Strawderman RL, Jones CA, Port FK, Held PJ. Simple nutritional indicators as independent predictors of mortality in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 31: 997-1006, 1998.
49. Kato A, Odamaki M, Yamamoto T, et al. Influence of body composition on 5 year mortality in patients on regular haemodialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 18: 333-340, 2003.
50. Fleischmann E, Teal N, Dudley J, May W, Bower JD, Salabudeen AK. Influence of excess weight on mortality and hospital stay in 1346 hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 55: 1560-1567, 1999 (Erratum in: Kidney Int 57: 760, 2000).
51. Kalmijn S, Curb JD, Rodriguez BL, Yano K, Abbott RD. The association of body weight and anthropometry with mortality in elderly men: the Honolulu Heart Program. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 23: 395-402, 1999.
52. Landi F, Onder G, Gambassi G, Pedone C, Carbonin P, Bernabei R. Body mass index and mortality among hospitalized patients. Arch Intern Med 160: 2641-2644, 2000.
53. Dey DK, Rothenberg E, Sundh V, Bosaeus I, Steen B. Body mass index, weight change and mortality in the elderly. A 15 y longitudinal population study of 70 y olds. Eur J Clin Nutr 55: 482-492, 2001.
54. Liu L, Bopp MM, Roberson PK, Sullivan DH. Undernutrition and risk of mortality in elderly patients within 1 year of hospital discharge. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 57: M741-746, 2002.
55. Kalantar-Zadeh K, Block G, Horwich T, Fonarow GC. Reverse epidemiology of conventional cardiovascular risk factors in patients with chronic heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 43: 1439-1444, 2004.
56. Zager PG, Nikolic J, Brown RH, et al. "U" curve association of blood pressure and mortality in hemodialysis patients. Medical Directors of Dialysis Clinic, Inc. Kidney Int 54: 561-569, 1998 (Erratum in: Kidney Int 54: 1417, 1998.
57. Shoji T, Tsubakihara Y, Fujii M, Imai E. Hemodialysis-associated hypotension as an independent risk factor for two-year mortality in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 66: 1212-1220, 2004.
58. Bostom AG, Shemin D, Verhoef P, et al. Elevated fasting total plasma homocysteine levels and cardiovascular disease outcomes in maintenance dialysis patients. A prospective study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 17: 2554-2558, 1997.
59. Suliman ME, Qureshi AR, Barany P, et al. Hyperhomocysteinemia, nutritional status, and cardiovascular disease in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 57: 1727-1735, 2000.
60. Zimmermann J, Herrlinger S, Pruy A, Metzger T, Wanner C. Inflammation enhances cardiovascular risk and mortality in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 55: 648-658, 1999.
61. Panichi V, Maggiore U, Taccola D, et al. Interleukin-6 is a stronger predictor of total and cardiovascular mortality than C-reactive protein in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 19: 1154-1160, 2004.
62. Panichi V, Migliori M, De Pietro S, et al. C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 levels are related to renal function in predialytic chronic renal failure. Nephron 91: 594-600, 2002 (Erratum in: Nephron 92: 498, 2002).
63. Girndt M, Kaul H, Sester U, et al. Anti-inflammatory interleukin-10 genotype protects dialysis patients from cardiovascular events. Kidney Int 62: 949-955, 2002.
64. DeFronzo RA, Alvestrand A, Smith D, Hendler R, Hendler E, Wahren J. Insulin resistance in uremia. J Clin Invest 67: 563-568, 1981.
65. Shoji T, Emoto M, Nishizawa Y. HOMA index to assess insulin resistance in renal failure patients. Nephron 89: 348-349, 2001.
66. Shinohara K, Shoji T, Emoto M, et al. Insulin resistance as an independent predictor of cardiovascular mortality in patients with end-stage renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 13: 1894-1900, 2002
67. Morioka T, Emoto M, Tabata T, et al. Glycemic control is a predictor of survival for diabetic patients on hemodialysis. Diabetes Care 24: 909-913, 2001.
68. Maggi E, Bellazzi R, Falaschi F, et al. Enhanced LDL oxidation in uremic patients: an additional mechanism for accelerated atherosclerosis? Kidney Int 45: 876-883, 1994.
69. Maggi E, Bellazzi R, Gazo A, Seccia M, Bellomo G. Autoantibodies against oxidatively-modified LDL in uremic patients undergoing dialysis. Kidney Int 46: 869-876, 1994.
70. Shoji T, Fukumoto M, Kimoto E, et al. Antibody to oxidized low-density lipoprotein and cardiovascular mortality in end-stage renal disease. Kidney Int 62: 2230-2237, 2002.
71. Locatelli F, Pisoni RL, Combe C, et al. Anaemia in haemodialysis patients of five European countries: association with morbidity and mortality in the Dialysis Outcomes and Practice Patterns Study (DOPPS). Nephrol Dial Transplant 19: 121-132, 2004 (Erratum in: Nephrol Dial Transplant 19: 1666, 2004.
72. Held PJ, Port FK, Wolfe RA, et al. The dose of hemodialysis and patient mortality. Kidney Int 50: 550-556, 1996.
73. Block GA, Hulbert-Shearon TE, Levin NW, Port FK. Association of serum phosphorus and calcium x phosphate product with mortality risk in chronic hemodialysis patients: a national study. Am J Kidney Dis 31 607-617, 1998.
74. Avram MM, Sreedhara R, Avram DK, Muchnick RA, Fein P. Enrollment parathyroid hormone level is a new marker of survival in hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis therapy for uremia. Am J Kidney Dis 28: 924-930, 1996.
75. Avram MM, Mittman N, Myint MM, Fein P. Importance of low serum intact parathyroid hormone as a predictor of mortality in hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis patients: 14 years of prospective observation. Am J Kidney Dis 38: 1351-1357, 2001.
76. Teng M, Wolf M, Lowrie E, Ofsthun N, Lazarus JM, Thadhani R. Survival of patients undergoing hemodialysis with paricalcitol or calcitriol therapy. N Engl J Med 349: 446-456, 2003.
77. Shoji T, Shinohara K, Kimoto E, et al. Lower risk for cardiovascular mortality in oral 1alpha-hydroxy vitamin D3 users in a haemodialysis population. Nephrol Dial Transplant 19: 179-194, 2004.
78. London GM, Marty C, Marchais SJ, Guerin AP, Metivier F, de Vernejoul MC. Arterial calcifications and bone histomorphometry in end-stage renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 15: 1943-1951, 2004.
79. Nishizawa Y, Shoji T, Ishimura E, Inaba M, Morii H. Paradox of risk factors for cardiovascular mortality in uremia: is a higher cholesterol level better for atherosclerosis in uremia? Am J Kidney Dis 38: S4-S7, 2001.
80. Funahashi T, Nakamura T, Shimomura I, et al. Role of adipocytokines on the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis in visceral obesity. Intern Med 38: 202-206, 1999.
81. Shoji T, Shinohara K, Hatsuda S, et al. Altered relationship between body fat and plasma adiponectin in end-stage renal disease. Metabolism 54: 330-334, 2005.
82. Foley RN, Culleton BF, Parfrey PS, et al. Cardiac disease in diabetic end-stage renal disease. Diabetologia 40: 1307-1312, 1997.
83. Shepherd J, Cobbe SM, Ford I, et al. Prevention of coronary heart disease with pravastatin in men with hypercholesterolemia. West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study Group. N Engl J Med 333: 1301-1307, 1995.
84. Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. Executive Summary of The Third Report of The National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, And Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol In Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 285: 2486-2497, 2001.
85. Nishizawa Y, Shoji T, Tabata T, Inoue T, Morii H. Effects of lipid-lowering drugs on intermediate-density lipoprotein in uremic patients. Kidney Int Suppl 71: S134-136, 1999.
86. Tonelli M, Collins D, Robins S, Bloomfield H, Curhan GC. Veterans' Affaires High-Density Lipoprotein Intervention Trial (VA-HIT) Investigators. Gemfibrozil for secondary prevention of cardiovascular events in mild to moderate chronic renal insufficiency. Kidney Int 66 1123-1130, 2004.
87. Seliger SL, Weiss NS, Gillen DL, et al. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors are associated with reduced mortality in ESRD patients. Kidney Int 61: 297-304, 2002.
88. Nishizawa Y, Shoji T, Emoto M, et al. Reduction of intermediate density lipoprotein by pravastatin in hemo- and peritoneal dialysis patients. Clin Nephrol 43: 268-277, 1995.
89. Nishikawa O, Mune M, Miyano M, et al. Effect of simvastatin on the lipid profile of hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int Suppl 71: S219-S221, 1999.
90. Ichihara A, Hayashi M, Ryuzaki M, Handa M, Furukawa T, Saruta T. Fluvastatin prevents development of arterial stiffness in haemodialysis patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nephrol Dial Transplant 17: 1513-1517, 2002.
91. Ikejiri A, Hirano T, Murayama S, et al. Effects of atorvastatin on triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, low-density lipoprotein subclass, and C-reactive protein in hemodialysis patients. Metabolism 53: 1113-1117, 2004.
92. Wanner C, Krane V, Marz W, et al. Randomized Controlled Trial on the Efficacy and Safety of Atorvastatin in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes on Hemodialysis (4D Study): Demographic and Baseline Characteristics. Kidney Blood Press Res 27: 259-266, 2004.
93. Wanner C, Krane V, Ruf G, Marz W, Ritz E. Rationale and design of a trial improving outcome of type 2 diabetics on hemodialysis. Die Deutsche Diabetes Dialyse Studie Investigators. Kidney Int Suppl 71: S222-226, 1999.
94. Fellstrom BC, Holdaas H, Jardine AG. Why do we need a statin trial in hemodialysis patients? Kidney Int Suppl: S204-206, 2003.
95. Pupim LB, Flakoll PJ, Brouillette JR, Levenhagen DK, Hakim RM, Ikizler TA. Intradialytic parenteral nutrition improves protein and energy homeostasis in chronic hemodialysis patients. J Clin Invest 110 483-492, 2002.
96. Mune M, Yukawa S, Kishino M, et al. Effect of vitamin E on lipid metabolism and atherosclerosis in ESRD patients. Kidney Int Suppl 71: S126-129, 1999.
97. Satoh M, Yamasaki Y, Nagake Y, et al. Oxidative stress is reduced by the long-term use of vitamin E-coated dialysis filters. Kidney Int 59: 1943-1950, 2001.
98. Miyazaki H, Matsuoka H, Itabe H, et al. Hemodialysis impairs endothelial function via oxidative stress: effects of vitamin E-coated dialyzer. Circulation 101: 1002-1006, 2000.