Positive feedback in collective mobilization: The American strike wave of 1886

Theory and Society

Volumn 32, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 217-254

  Biggs, Michael ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 1642502974     PISSN: 03042421     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1023905019461     Document Type: Article

References (186)

1. Total membership figures (as of the first of the month) were published in Knights of Labor, General Assembly, Proceedings, reproduced in Papers of Terence Vincent Powderly, 1864-1924, and John William Hayes, 1880-1921, the Knights of Labor (microfilm, Glen Rock, N.J.: Microfilming Corporation of America, 1974-75), 1879 (ii): 117; 1880: 202f.; 1881: 333; 1882: 391; 1883: 528; 1884: 796; 1885: 174; 1886: 328. The other series is calculated from the "per capita tax" receipts reported by the General Secretary: membership at the beginning of each quarter equals the total receipts received during the quarter, divided by the tax rate of 6¢ per member per quarter, following Richard Oestreicher, "A Note on Knights of Labor Membership Statistics," Labor History 25/1 (1984): 102-108.
2. Frederick [Friedrich] Engels, Preface to The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, tr. Florence Kelley Wischnewetzky (New York: John W. Lovell Company, 1887), i.
3. E. J. Hobsbawm, "Economic Fluctuations and some Social Movements since 1800" (first published 1952), in Labouring Men: Studies in the History of Labour (New York: Basic Books, 1964), 126. See also Richard B. Freeman, "Spurts in Union Growth: Defining Moments and Social Processes," National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper, 6012 (1997).
4. E. J. Hobsbawm, "Economic Fluctuations and some Social Movements since 1800" (first published 1952), in Labouring Men: Studies in the History of Labour (New York: Basic Books, 1964), 126. See also Richard B. Freeman, "Spurts in Union Growth: Defining Moments and Social Processes," National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper, 6012 (1997).
5. George Rudé, The Crowd in History: A Study of Popular Disturbances in France and England, 1730-1848, rev. edition (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1981), 25.
6. Eric Hobsbawm and George Rudé, Captain Swing (London: Phoenix Press, 1969), 196.
7. Susanne Lohmann, "The Dynamics of Informational Cascades: The Monday Demonstrations in Leipzig, East Germany, 1989-91," World Politics 47/1 (1994): 42-101, table 2, 66. See also Karl-Dieter Opp, Peter Voss, and Christiane Gern, Origins of a Spontaneous Revolution: East Germany, 1989 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995).
8. Susanne Lohmann, "The Dynamics of Informational Cascades: The Monday Demonstrations in Leipzig, East Germany, 1989-91," World Politics 47/1 (1994): 42-101, table 2, 66. See also Karl-Dieter Opp, Peter Voss, and Christiane Gern, Origins of a Spontaneous Revolution: East Germany, 1989 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995).
9. Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow, Charles Tilly, Dynamics of Contention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 7-8. Although they restrict their subject to contentious "politics" - defined as engaging the national state - this is unnecessary.
10. McAdam, Tarrow, Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, 312.
11. Leon Fink, Workingmen's Democracy: The Knights of Labor and American Politics (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Leon Fink, "The New Labor History and the Powers of Historical Pessimism: Consensus, Hegemony, and the Case of the Knights of Labor," Journal of American History 75/1 (1988): 115-136; Gerald Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements: France and the United States, 1876-1914 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1998); Eric L. Hirsch, Urban Revolt: Ethnic Politics in the Nineteenth Century Chicago Labor Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990) ; Gregory S. Kealey and Bryan D. Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be: The Knights of Labor in Ontario, 1880-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Richard Jules Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation: Working People and Class Consciousness in Detroit, 1875-1900 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Richard Schneirov, Labor and Urban Politics: Class Conflict and the Origins of Modern Liberalism in Chicago, 1864-97 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1998); Kim Voss, The Making of American Exceptionalism: The Knights of Labor and Class Formation in the Nineteenth Century (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1993).
12. Leon Fink, Workingmen's Democracy: The Knights of Labor and American Politics (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Leon Fink, "The New Labor History and the Powers of Historical Pessimism: Consensus, Hegemony, and the Case of the Knights of Labor," Journal of American History 75/1 (1988): 115-136; Gerald Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements: France and the United States, 1876-1914 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1998); Eric L. Hirsch, Urban Revolt: Ethnic Politics in the Nineteenth Century Chicago Labor Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990) ; Gregory S. Kealey and Bryan D. Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be: The Knights of Labor in Ontario, 1880-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Richard Jules Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation: Working People and Class Consciousness in Detroit, 1875-1900 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Richard Schneirov, Labor and Urban Politics: Class Conflict and the Origins of Modern Liberalism in Chicago, 1864-97 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1998); Kim Voss, The Making of American Exceptionalism: The Knights of Labor and Class Formation in the Nineteenth Century (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1993).
13. Leon Fink, Workingmen's Democracy: The Knights of Labor and American Politics (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Leon Fink, "The New Labor History and the Powers of Historical Pessimism: Consensus, Hegemony, and the Case of the Knights of Labor," Journal of American History 75/1 (1988): 115-136; Gerald Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements: France and the United States, 1876-1914 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1998); Eric L. Hirsch, Urban Revolt: Ethnic Politics in the Nineteenth Century Chicago Labor Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990) ; Gregory S. Kealey and Bryan D. Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be: The Knights of Labor in Ontario, 1880-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Richard Jules Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation: Working People and Class Consciousness in Detroit, 1875-1900 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Richard Schneirov, Labor and Urban Politics: Class Conflict and the Origins of Modern Liberalism in Chicago, 1864-97 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1998); Kim Voss, The Making of American Exceptionalism: The Knights of Labor and Class Formation in the Nineteenth Century (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1993).
14. Leon Fink, Workingmen's Democracy: The Knights of Labor and American Politics (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Leon Fink, "The New Labor History and the Powers of Historical Pessimism: Consensus, Hegemony, and the Case of the Knights of Labor," Journal of American History 75/1 (1988): 115-136; Gerald Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements: France and the United States, 1876-1914 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1998); Eric L. Hirsch, Urban Revolt: Ethnic Politics in the Nineteenth Century Chicago Labor Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990) ; Gregory S. Kealey and Bryan D. Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be: The Knights of Labor in Ontario, 1880-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Richard Jules Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation: Working People and Class Consciousness in Detroit, 1875-1900 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Richard Schneirov, Labor and Urban Politics: Class Conflict and the Origins of Modern Liberalism in Chicago, 1864-97 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1998); Kim Voss, The Making of American Exceptionalism: The Knights of Labor and Class Formation in the Nineteenth Century (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1993).
15. Leon Fink, Workingmen's Democracy: The Knights of Labor and American Politics (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Leon Fink, "The New Labor History and the Powers of Historical Pessimism: Consensus, Hegemony, and the Case of the Knights of Labor," Journal of American History 75/1 (1988): 115-136; Gerald Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements: France and the United States, 1876-1914 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1998); Eric L. Hirsch, Urban Revolt: Ethnic Politics in the Nineteenth Century Chicago Labor Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990) ; Gregory S. Kealey and Bryan D. Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be: The Knights of Labor in Ontario, 1880-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Richard Jules Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation: Working People and Class Consciousness in Detroit, 1875-1900 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Richard Schneirov, Labor and Urban Politics: Class Conflict and the Origins of Modern Liberalism in Chicago, 1864-97 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1998); Kim Voss, The Making of American Exceptionalism: The Knights of Labor and Class Formation in the Nineteenth Century (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1993).
16. Leon Fink, Workingmen's Democracy: The Knights of Labor and American Politics (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Leon Fink, "The New Labor History and the Powers of Historical Pessimism: Consensus, Hegemony, and the Case of the Knights of Labor," Journal of American History 75/1 (1988): 115-136; Gerald Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements: France and the United States, 1876-1914 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1998); Eric L. Hirsch, Urban Revolt: Ethnic Politics in the Nineteenth Century Chicago Labor Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990) ; Gregory S. Kealey and Bryan D. Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be: The Knights of Labor in Ontario, 1880-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Richard Jules Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation: Working People and Class Consciousness in Detroit, 1875-1900 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Richard Schneirov, Labor and Urban Politics: Class Conflict and the Origins of Modern Liberalism in Chicago, 1864-97 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1998); Kim Voss, The Making of American Exceptionalism: The Knights of Labor and Class Formation in the Nineteenth Century (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1993).
17. Leon Fink, Workingmen's Democracy: The Knights of Labor and American Politics (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Leon Fink, "The New Labor History and the Powers of Historical Pessimism: Consensus, Hegemony, and the Case of the Knights of Labor," Journal of American History 75/1 (1988): 115-136; Gerald Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements: France and the United States, 1876-1914 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1998); Eric L. Hirsch, Urban Revolt: Ethnic Politics in the Nineteenth Century Chicago Labor Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990) ; Gregory S. Kealey and Bryan D. Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be: The Knights of Labor in Ontario, 1880-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Richard Jules Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation: Working People and Class Consciousness in Detroit, 1875-1900 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Richard Schneirov, Labor and Urban Politics: Class Conflict and the Origins of Modern Liberalism in Chicago, 1864-97 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1998); Kim Voss, The Making of American Exceptionalism: The Knights of Labor and Class Formation in the Nineteenth Century (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1993).
18. Leon Fink, Workingmen's Democracy: The Knights of Labor and American Politics (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Leon Fink, "The New Labor History and the Powers of Historical Pessimism: Consensus, Hegemony, and the Case of the Knights of Labor," Journal of American History 75/1 (1988): 115-136; Gerald Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements: France and the United States, 1876-1914 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1998); Eric L. Hirsch, Urban Revolt: Ethnic Politics in the Nineteenth Century Chicago Labor Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990) ; Gregory S. Kealey and Bryan D. Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be: The Knights of Labor in Ontario, 1880-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Richard Jules Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation: Working People and Class Consciousness in Detroit, 1875-1900 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Richard Schneirov, Labor and Urban Politics: Class Conflict and the Origins of Modern Liberalism in Chicago, 1864-97 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1998); Kim Voss, The Making of American Exceptionalism: The Knights of Labor and Class Formation in the Nineteenth Century (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1993).
19. A recent comprehensive explanation is Seymour Martin Lipset and Gary Marks, It Didn't Happen Here: Why Socialism Failed in the United States (New York and London: W. W. Norton, 2000); see also Michael Biggs, "A Century of American Exceptionalism: A Review," Thesis 1168 (2002): 110-21.
20. A recent comprehensive explanation is Seymour Martin Lipset and Gary Marks, It Didn't Happen Here: Why Socialism Failed in the United States (New York and London: W. W. Norton, 2000); see also Michael Biggs, "A Century of American Exceptionalism: A Review," Thesis 11 68 (2002): 110-21.
21. The term is from Doug McAdam and William H. Sewell, Jr., "It's about Time: Temporality in the Study of Social Movements and Revolutions," Ronald R. Aminzade et al., Silence and Voice in the Study of Contentious Politics (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
22. David Montgomery, Beyond Equality: Labor and the Radical Republicans, 1862-1872 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967).
23. This second dimension is treated elsewhere: Michael Biggs, "Strikes as Sequences of Interaction: The American Strike Wave of 1886," Social Science History 26/3 (2002): 583-617.
24. Kenneth E. Boulding, "Business and Economic Systems," in John H. Milsum, editor, Positive Feedback: A General Systems Approach to Positive/Negative Feed-back and Mutual Causality (Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press, 1968), 103. Boulding actually calls this "disequilibriating" feedback. Another synonymous term is "self-reinforcing process."
25. Engels, Preface to The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, i.
26. Quoted in Ruth A. Allen, The Great Southwest Strike (Austin: The University of Texas, 1942), 26.
27. Eric J. Hobsbawm, "The 'New Unionism' Reconsidered," in Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Hans-Gerhard Husung, editors, The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1985), 18. Explaining the revolt of English laborers in 1830, Hobsbawm and George Rude continually refer to fires and contagion: Captain Swing, 214.
28. Michelle Perrot, Workers on Strike: France, 1871-1890 (Leamington Spa: Berg, 1987), 17.
29. Barrington Moore, Injustice: The Social Bases of Obedience and Revolt (White Plains, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1978), 244.
30. J. H. Hexter, The History Primer (New York and London: Basic Books, 1971), ch. 5.
31. Herbert Blumer, "Collective Behavior," in Alfred McClung Lee, editor, Principles of Sociology, rev. edition (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1951), 170.
32. Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (London: Ernest Benn, 1896).
33. Max Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978 [originally 1922]), 23-24.
34. Thomas C. Schelling, "Dynamic Models of Segregation," Journal of Mathematical Sociology 1 (1971): 143-186.
35. Mark Granovetter, "Threshold Models of Collective Behavior," American Journal of Sociology 83/6 (1978): 1420-1443; Dennis Chong, Collective Action and the Civil Rights Movement (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Timur Kuran, Private Truths, Public Lies: The Social Consequences of Preference Falsification (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), ch. 15; Gerald Marwell and Pamela Oliver, The Critical Mass in Collective Action: A Micro-Social Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
36. Mark Granovetter, "Threshold Models of Collective Behavior," American Journal of Sociology 83/6 (1978): 1420-1443; Dennis Chong, Collective Action and the Civil Rights Movement (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Timur Kuran, Private Truths, Public Lies: The Social Consequences of Preference Falsification (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), ch. 15; Gerald Marwell and Pamela Oliver, The Critical Mass in Collective Action: A Micro-Social Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
37. Mark Granovetter, "Threshold Models of Collective Behavior," American Journal of Sociology 83/6 (1978): 1420-1443; Dennis Chong, Collective Action and the Civil Rights Movement (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Timur Kuran, Private Truths, Public Lies: The Social Consequences of Preference Falsification (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), ch. 15; Gerald Marwell and Pamela Oliver, The Critical Mass in Collective Action: A Micro-Social Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
38. Mark Granovetter, "Threshold Models of Collective Behavior," American Journal of Sociology 83/6 (1978): 1420-1443; Dennis Chong, Collective Action and the Civil Rights Movement (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Timur Kuran, Private Truths, Public Lies: The Social Consequences of Preference Falsification (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), ch. 15; Gerald Marwell and Pamela Oliver, The Critical Mass in Collective Action: A Micro-Social Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
39. A useful review is Pamela E. Oliver, "Formal Models of Collective Action," Annual Review of Sociology 19 (1993): 271-300.
40. Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, 2nd edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998). See also Mark N. Katz, Revolutions and Revolutionary Waves (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan Press, 1997).
41. Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, 2nd edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998). See also Mark N. Katz, Revolutions and Revolutionary Waves (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan Press, 1997).
42. Doug McAdam, " 'Initiator' and 'Spin-Off' Movements: Diffusion Processes in Protest Cycles," in Mark Traugott, editor, Repertoires and Cycles of Collective Action (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1995).
43. Tarrow, Power in Movement, 145.
44. McAdam, " 'Initiator' and 'Spin-Off' Movements," 218.
45. Anthony Oberschall, "The 1960s Sit-ins: Protest Diffusion and Movement Take-Off," Research in Social Movements, Conflict and Change 11 (1989): 31-53.
46. Charles Kurzman, "Structural Opportunity and Perceived Opportunity in Social-Movement Theory: The Iranian Revolution of 1979," American Sociological Review 61/1 (1996): 153-170. Curiously, this explanation is framed in terms of political opportunities, though the change is neither located in the state nor exogenous.
47. Andrew Abbott, "Transcending General Linear Reality," Sociological Theory 6/2 (1988): 169-186.
48. Carol Conell, "The Local Roots of Solidarity: Organization and Action in Late-Nineteenth-Century Massachusetts," Theory and Society 17/3 (1988): 365-402; Carol Conell and Kim Voss, "Formal Organization and the Fate of Social Movements: Craft Association and Class Alliance in the Knights of Labor," American Sociological Review 55/2 (1990): 255-269; Kim Voss, "Labor Organization and Class Alliance: Industries, Communities, and the Knights of Labor," Theory and Society 17/3 (1988): 329-364; Voss, The Making of American Exceptionalism, ch. 5.
49. Carol Conell, "The Local Roots of Solidarity: Organization and Action in Late-Nineteenth-Century Massachusetts," Theory and Society 17/3 (1988): 365-402; Carol Conell and Kim Voss, "Formal Organization and the Fate of Social Movements: Craft Association and Class Alliance in the Knights of Labor," American Sociological Review 55/2 (1990): 255-269; Kim Voss, "Labor Organization and Class Alliance: Industries, Communities, and the Knights of Labor," Theory and Society 17/3 (1988): 329-364; Voss, The Making of American Exceptionalism, ch. 5.
50. Carol Conell, "The Local Roots of Solidarity: Organization and Action in Late-Nineteenth-Century Massachusetts," Theory and Society 17/3 (1988): 365-402; Carol Conell and Kim Voss, "Formal Organization and the Fate of Social Movements: Craft Association and Class Alliance in the Knights of Labor," American Sociological Review 55/2 (1990): 255-269; Kim Voss, "Labor Organization and Class Alliance: Industries, Communities, and the Knights of Labor," Theory and Society 17/3 (1988): 329-364; Voss, The Making of American Exceptionalism, ch. 5.
51. Carol Conell, "The Local Roots of Solidarity: Organization and Action in Late-Nineteenth-Century Massachusetts," Theory and Society 17/3 (1988): 365-402; Carol Conell and Kim Voss, "Formal Organization and the Fate of Social Movements: Craft Association and Class Alliance in the Knights of Labor," American Sociological Review 55/2 (1990): 255-269; Kim Voss, "Labor Organization and Class Alliance: Industries, Communities, and the Knights of Labor," Theory and Society 17/3 (1988): 329-364; Voss, The Making of American Exceptionalism, ch. 5.
52. Voss, The Making of American Exceptionalism, table 9, 156-157.
53. Peter Hedström, "Contagious Collectivities: On the Spatial Diffusion of Swedish Trade Unions, 1890-1949," American Journal of Sociology 99/5 (1994): 1157-1179; Peter Hedström, Rickard Sandell, Carlotta Stern, "Mesolevel Networks and the Diffusion of Social Movements: The Case of the Swedish Social Democratic Party," American Journal of Sociology 106/1 (2000): 145-172.
54. Peter Hedström, "Contagious Collectivities: On the Spatial Diffusion of Swedish Trade Unions, 1890-1949," American Journal of Sociology 99/5 (1994): 1157-1179; Peter Hedström, Rickard Sandell, Carlotta Stern, "Mesolevel Networks and the Diffusion of Social Movements: The Case of the Swedish Social Democratic Party," American Journal of Sociology 106/1 (2000): 145-172.
55. Carol Conell and Samuel Cohn, "Learning from Other People's Actions: Environmental Variation and Diffusion in French Coal Mining Strikes, 1890-1935," American Journal of Sociology 101/2 (1995): 366-403.
56. Daniel J. Myers, "Racial Rioting in the 1960s: An Event History Analysis of Local Conditions," American Sociological Review 62/1 (1997): 94-112; "The Diffusion of Collective Violence: Infectiousness, Susceptibility, and Mass Media Networks," American Journal of Sociology, 106/1 (2000): 173-208.
57. Daniel J. Myers, "Racial Rioting in the 1960s: An Event History Analysis of Local Conditions," American Sociological Review 62/1 (1997): 94-112; "The Diffusion of Collective Violence: Infectiousness, Susceptibility, and Mass Media Networks," American Journal of Sociology, 106/1 (2000): 173-208.
58. Everett M. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, 3rd edition (New York and London: The Free Press and Collier Macmillan Publishers, 1983), 5.
59. There is a growing body of literature in economics, for example, W. Brian Arthur, "Positive Feedbacks in the Economy," Scientific American 262/2 (1990): 80-85; Elettra Agliardi, Positive Feedback Economies (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998).
60. There is a growing body of literature in economics, for example, W. Brian Arthur, "Positive Feedbacks in the Economy," Scientific American 262/2 (1990): 80-85; Elettra Agliardi, Positive Feedback Economies (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998).
61. Compare, for example, the classic studies of the diffusion of hybrid corn with recent work by economists (cited above), demonstrating how the adoption of technological standards can be decisively altered by contingent events.
62. On "mechanism," see Jon Elster, Nuts and Bolts for the Social Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Jon Elster, Alchemies of the Mind: Rationality and the Emotions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), ch. 1.
63. On "mechanism," see Jon Elster, Nuts and Bolts for the Social Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Jon Elster, Alchemies of the Mind: Rationality and the Emotions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), ch. 1.
64. Peter Hedström, "Rational Imitation," in Peter Hedström and Richard Swedberg, editors, Social Mechanisms: An Analytical Approach to Social Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 311.
65. Thomas C. Schelling, Micromotives and Macrobehavior (New York: Norton, 1978), 17.
66. Quoted in Colin Barker, "Fear, Laughter, and Collective Power: The Making of Solidarity at the Lenin Shipyard in Gdansk, Poland, August 1980, " in Jeff Goodwin, James M. Jasper, and Francesca Polletta, editors, Passionate Politics: Emotions and Social Movements (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 178.
67. Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups, 2nd edition (Cambridge, Mass, and London: Harvard University Press, 1971).
68. The importance of "altruistic" punishment in preventing free-riding is demonstrated experimentally by Ernst Fehr and Simon Gächter, "Altruistic Punishment in Humans," Nature 415 (2002): 137-140.
69. Quoted in Rick Fantasia, Cultures of Solidarity: Consciousness, Action, and Contemporary American Workers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 96.
70. Chong, Collective Action and the Civil Rights Movement, ch. 6.
71. Granovetter, "Threshold Models of Collective Behavior"; Mark Granovetter and Roland Soong, "Threshold Models of Diffusion and Collective Behavior," Journal of Mathematical Sociology 9 (1983): 165-179.
72. Granovetter, "Threshold Models of Collective Behavior"; Mark Granovetter and Roland Soong, "Threshold Models of Diffusion and Collective Behavior," Journal of Mathematical Sociology 9 (1983): 165-179.
73. Schelling, Micromotives and Macrobehavior, 14.
74. Pamela E. Oliver, "Bringing the Crowd Back In: The Nonorganizational Elements of Social Movements," Research in Social Movements: Continuity and Change 11 (1989), 11.
75. Doug McAdam, "Tactical Innovation and the Pace of Insurgency," American Sociological Review 48/6 (1983): 735-754.
76. This distinction is borrowed from A. C. Pigou, Industrial Fluctuations, 2nd edition (London: Macmillan, 1929), 73.
77. The negative effect of failure may be outweighed by the first and second reasons for inspiration, however. For French coal miners, even failed strikes raised the probability of another strike; Conell and Cohn, "Learning from Other People's Actions."
78. Abhijit V. Banerjee, "A Simple Model of Herd Behavior," Quarterly Journal of Economics 107/3 (1992): 797-817; Sushil Bikhchandani, David Hirshleifer, and Ivo Welch, "A Theory of Fads, Fashion, Custom, and Cultural Change as Informational Cascades," Journal of Political Economy 100/5 (1992): 992-1026; André Orlean, "Informational Influence and the Ambivalence of Imitation," in Jacques Lesourne and André Orlean, editors, Advances in Self-Organization and Evolutionary Economics (London: Economica, 1998). Although the expression "herd behavior" may suggest a reversion to irrationality, these models assume rational decision-making under uncertainty.
79. Abhijit V. Banerjee, "A Simple Model of Herd Behavior," Quarterly Journal of Economics 107/3 (1992): 797-817; Sushil Bikhchandani, David Hirshleifer, and Ivo Welch, "A Theory of Fads, Fashion, Custom, and Cultural Change as Informational Cascades," Journal of Political Economy 100/5 (1992): 992-1026; André Orlean, "Informational Influence and the Ambivalence of Imitation," in Jacques Lesourne and André Orlean, editors, Advances in Self-Organization and Evolutionary Economics (London: Economica, 1998). Although the expression "herd behavior" may suggest a reversion to irrationality, these models assume rational decision-making under uncertainty.
80. Abhijit V. Banerjee, "A Simple Model of Herd Behavior," Quarterly Journal of Economics 107/3 (1992): 797-817; Sushil Bikhchandani, David Hirshleifer, and Ivo Welch, "A Theory of Fads, Fashion, Custom, and Cultural Change as Informational Cascades," Journal of Political Economy 100/5 (1992): 992-1026; André Orlean, "Informational Influence and the Ambivalence of Imitation," in Jacques Lesourne and André Orlean, editors, Advances in Self-Organization and Evolutionary Economics (London: Economica, 1998). Although the expression "herd behavior" may suggest a reversion to irrationality, these models assume rational decision-making under uncertainty.
81. Banerjee, "A Simple Model of Herd Behavior," 798.
82. McAdam, Tarrow, Tilly, Dynamics of Contention.
83. McAdam, Tarrow, Tilly, Dynamics of Contention.
84. Andrew G. Walder, "Collective Behavior Revisited: Ideology and Politics in the Chinese Cultural Revolution," Rationality and Society 6/3 (1994): 412.
85. Reversal is explored at greater length in Biggs, "Strikes as Sequences of Interaction."
86. Ruud Koopmans, "The Dynamics of Protest Waves: West Germany, 1965 to 1989," American Sociological Review 58/5 (1993): 637-658.
87. Edward Shorter and Charles Tilly, Strikes in France, 1830-1968 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), 345. They continue "and when the latticework of organization suffices to transform these individual perceptions of opportunity into collective action," implying that political opportunities are a necessary, rather than a sufficient, condition.
88. The emphasis on politics was applied to America by David Snyder: "Institutional Setting and Industrial Conflict: Comparative Analyses of France, Italy and the United States," American Sociological Review 40/3 (1975): 259-278; "Early North American Strikes: A Reinterpretation," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 30/3 (1977): 325-341. Refutations include P. K. Edwards, Strikes in the United States, 1881-1974 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981), ch. 3; Bruce E. Kaufman, "The Determinants of Strikes in the United States, 1900-1977," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 35/4 (1982): 473-90; Jack W. Skeels, "The Economic and Organizational Basis of Early United States Strikes, 1900-1948," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 35/4 (1982): 491-503. See also Edwards, "Strikes and Politics in the United States, 1900-1919," in Leopold H. Haimson and Charles Tilly, editors, Strikes, Wars, and Revolutions in an International Perspective: Strike Waves in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, and Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1989); and Tilly, "Introduction" to Part IV: The Effects of Short-Term Variation, in the same volume.
89. The emphasis on politics was applied to America by David Snyder: "Institutional Setting and Industrial Conflict: Comparative Analyses of France, Italy and the United States," American Sociological Review 40/3 (1975): 259-278; "Early North American Strikes: A Reinterpretation," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 30/3 (1977): 325-341. Refutations include P. K. Edwards, Strikes in the United States, 1881-1974 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981), ch. 3; Bruce E. Kaufman, "The Determinants of Strikes in the United States, 1900-1977," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 35/4 (1982): 473-90; Jack W. Skeels, "The Economic and Organizational Basis of Early United States Strikes, 1900-1948," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 35/4 (1982): 491-503. See also Edwards, "Strikes and Politics in the United States, 1900-1919," in Leopold H. Haimson and Charles Tilly, editors, Strikes, Wars, and Revolutions in an International Perspective: Strike Waves in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, and Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1989); and Tilly, "Introduction" to Part IV: The Effects of Short-Term Variation, in the same volume.
90. The emphasis on politics was applied to America by David Snyder: "Institutional Setting and Industrial Conflict: Comparative Analyses of France, Italy and the United States," American Sociological Review 40/3 (1975): 259-278; "Early North American Strikes: A Reinterpretation," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 30/3 (1977): 325-341. Refutations include P. K. Edwards, Strikes in the United States, 1881-1974 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981), ch. 3; Bruce E. Kaufman, "The Determinants of Strikes in the United States, 1900-1977," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 35/4 (1982): 473-90; Jack W. Skeels, "The Economic and Organizational Basis of Early United States Strikes, 1900-1948," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 35/4 (1982): 491-503. See also Edwards, "Strikes and Politics in the United States, 1900-1919," in Leopold H. Haimson and Charles Tilly, editors, Strikes, Wars, and Revolutions in an International Perspective: Strike Waves in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, and Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1989); and Tilly, "Introduction" to Part IV: The Effects of Short-Term Variation, in the same volume.
91. The emphasis on politics was applied to America by David Snyder: "Institutional Setting and Industrial Conflict: Comparative Analyses of France, Italy and the United States," American Sociological Review 40/3 (1975): 259-278; "Early North American Strikes: A Reinterpretation," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 30/3 (1977): 325-341. Refutations include P. K. Edwards, Strikes in the United States, 1881-1974 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981), ch. 3; Bruce E. Kaufman, "The Determinants of Strikes in the United States, 1900-1977," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 35/4 (1982): 473-90; Jack W. Skeels, "The Economic and Organizational Basis of Early United States Strikes, 1900-1948," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 35/4 (1982): 491-503. See also Edwards, "Strikes and Politics in the United States, 1900-1919," in Leopold H. Haimson and Charles Tilly, editors, Strikes, Wars, and Revolutions in an International Perspective: Strike Waves in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, and Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1989); and Tilly, "Introduction" to Part IV: The Effects of Short-Term Variation, in the same volume.
92. The emphasis on politics was applied to America by David Snyder: "Institutional Setting and Industrial Conflict: Comparative Analyses of France, Italy and the United States," American Sociological Review 40/3 (1975): 259-278; "Early North American Strikes: A Reinterpretation," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 30/3 (1977): 325-341. Refutations include P. K. Edwards, Strikes in the United States, 1881-1974 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981), ch. 3; Bruce E. Kaufman, "The Determinants of Strikes in the United States, 1900-1977," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 35/4 (1982): 473-90; Jack W. Skeels, "The Economic and Organizational Basis of Early United States Strikes, 1900-1948," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 35/4 (1982): 491-503. See also Edwards, "Strikes and Politics in the United States, 1900-1919," in Leopold H. Haimson and Charles Tilly, editors, Strikes, Wars, and Revolutions in an International Perspective: Strike Waves in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, and Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1989); and Tilly, "Introduction" to Part IV: The Effects of Short-Term Variation, in the same volume.
93. The emphasis on politics was applied to America by David Snyder: "Institutional Setting and Industrial Conflict: Comparative Analyses of France, Italy and the United States," American Sociological Review 40/3 (1975): 259-278; "Early North American Strikes: A Reinterpretation," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 30/3 (1977): 325-341. Refutations include P. K. Edwards, Strikes in the United States, 1881-1974 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981), ch. 3; Bruce E. Kaufman, "The Determinants of Strikes in the United States, 1900-1977," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 35/4 (1982): 473-90; Jack W. Skeels, "The Economic and Organizational Basis of Early United States Strikes, 1900-1948," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 35/4 (1982): 491-503. See also Edwards, "Strikes and Politics in the United States, 1900-1919," in Leopold H. Haimson and Charles Tilly, editors, Strikes, Wars, and Revolutions in an International Perspective: Strike Waves in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, and Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1989); and Tilly, "Introduction" to Part IV: The Effects of Short-Term Variation, in the same volume.
94. The emphasis on politics was applied to America by David Snyder: "Institutional Setting and Industrial Conflict: Comparative Analyses of France, Italy and the United States," American Sociological Review 40/3 (1975): 259-278; "Early North American Strikes: A Reinterpretation," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 30/3 (1977): 325-341. Refutations include P. K. Edwards, Strikes in the United States, 1881-1974 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981), ch. 3; Bruce E. Kaufman, "The Determinants of Strikes in the United States, 1900-1977," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 35/4 (1982): 473-90; Jack W. Skeels, "The Economic and Organizational Basis of Early United States Strikes, 1900-1948," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 35/4 (1982): 491-503. See also Edwards, "Strikes and Politics in the United States, 1900-1919," in Leopold H. Haimson and Charles Tilly, editors, Strikes, Wars, and Revolutions in an International Perspective: Strike Waves in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, and Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1989); and Tilly, "Introduction" to Part IV: The Effects of Short-Term Variation, in the same volume.
95. Holly J. McCammon, "From Repressive Intervention to Integrative Prevention: The U.S. State's Legal Management of Labor Militancy, 1881-1978," Social Forces 71/3 (1993): 569-602.
96. Albert Rees, "Industrial Conflict and Business Fluctuations," Journal of Political Economy 60/5 (1952): 371-382; Orley Ashenfelter and George E. Johnson, "Bargaining Theory, Trade Unions, and Industrial Strike Activity," American Economic Review 59/1 (1969): 35-49; Jean-Michel Cousineau and Robert Lacroix, "Imperfect Information and Strikes: An Analysis of the Canadian Experience, 1967-82," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 39/3 (1986): 377-387.
97. Albert Rees, "Industrial Conflict and Business Fluctuations," Journal of Political Economy 60/5 (1952): 371-382; Orley Ashenfelter and George E. Johnson, "Bargaining Theory, Trade Unions, and Industrial Strike Activity," American Economic Review 59/1 (1969): 35-49; Jean-Michel Cousineau and Robert Lacroix, "Imperfect Information and Strikes: An Analysis of the Canadian Experience, 1967-82," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 39/3 (1986): 377-387.
98. Albert Rees, "Industrial Conflict and Business Fluctuations," Journal of Political Economy 60/5 (1952): 371-382; Orley Ashenfelter and George E. Johnson, "Bargaining Theory, Trade Unions, and Industrial Strike Activity," American Economic Review 59/1 (1969): 35-49; Jean-Michel Cousineau and Robert Lacroix, "Imperfect Information and Strikes: An Analysis of the Canadian Experience, 1967-82," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 39/3 (1986): 377-387.
99. David Snyder, "Early North American Strikes: A Reinterpretation," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 30/3 (1977); 325-341.
100. Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements.
101. For example, Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail (New York: Pantheon Books, 1977), ch. 3.
102. Cf. Stanley Lieberson, Making it Count: The Improvement of Social Research and Theory (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), ch. 4.
103. Federation of Organized Trade and Labor Unions of the United States and Canada, Report of the Fourth Annual Session of the Federation ... held in Chicago, Illinois, October 7, 8, 9 and 10, 1884 (1884), 11.
104. Federation of Organized Trade and Labor Unions, Report, 14.
105. This hypothesis was first proposed by Selig Perlman, "Upheaval and Reorganisation (Since 1876)," in John R. Commons et al., History of Labour in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1918), vol. 2, pp. 370, 373. It has been repeated so often by historians and sociologists that it has the appearance of solid fact: for example Fink, Workingmen's Democracy, xii-xiii; Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism, 2nd edition (New York: International Publishers, 1975), 53; Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements, 46; Hirsch, Urban Revolt, 56; Kealey and Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be, 75; Maury Klein, Union Pacific: The Birth of a Railroad (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1987), 358; Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation, 117; Schneirov, 193; Voss, Making of American Exceptionalism, 75. Only when I looked for the evidence to prove this explanation thoroughly did I discover that it was a myth - as was pointed out long ago by Donald L. Kemmerer and Edward D. Wickersham, "Reasons for the Growth of the Knights of Labor in 1885-1886," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 3/2 (1950): 213-220.
106. This hypothesis was first proposed by Selig Perlman, "Upheaval and Reorganisation (Since 1876)," in John R. Commons et al., History of Labour in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1918), vol. 2, pp. 370, 373. It has been repeated so often by historians and sociologists that it has the appearance of solid fact: for example Fink, Workingmen's Democracy, xii-xiii; Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism, 2nd edition (New York: International Publishers, 1975), 53; Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements, 46; Hirsch, Urban Revolt, 56; Kealey and Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be, 75; Maury Klein, Union Pacific: The Birth of a Railroad (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1987), 358; Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation, 117; Schneirov, 193; Voss, Making of American Exceptionalism, 75. Only when I looked for the evidence to prove this explanation thoroughly did I discover that it was a myth - as was pointed out long ago by Donald L. Kemmerer and Edward D. Wickersham, "Reasons for the Growth of the Knights of Labor in 1885-1886," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 3/2 (1950): 213-220.
107. This hypothesis was first proposed by Selig Perlman, "Upheaval and Reorganisation (Since 1876)," in John R. Commons et al., History of Labour in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1918), vol. 2, pp. 370, 373. It has been repeated so often by historians and sociologists that it has the appearance of solid fact: for example Fink, Workingmen's Democracy, xii-xiii; Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism, 2nd edition (New York: International Publishers, 1975), 53; Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements, 46; Hirsch, Urban Revolt, 56; Kealey and Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be, 75; Maury Klein, Union Pacific: The Birth of a Railroad (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1987), 358; Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation, 117; Schneirov, 193; Voss, Making of American Exceptionalism, 75. Only when I looked for the evidence to prove this explanation thoroughly did I discover that it was a myth - as was pointed out long ago by Donald L. Kemmerer and Edward D. Wickersham, "Reasons for the Growth of the Knights of Labor in 1885-1886," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 3/2 (1950): 213-220.
108. This hypothesis was first proposed by Selig Perlman, "Upheaval and Reorganisation (Since 1876)," in John R. Commons et al., History of Labour in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1918), vol. 2, pp. 370, 373. It has been repeated so often by historians and sociologists that it has the appearance of solid fact: for example Fink, Workingmen's Democracy, xii-xiii; Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism, 2nd edition (New York: International Publishers, 1975), 53; Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements, 46; Hirsch, Urban Revolt, 56; Kealey and Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be, 75; Maury Klein, Union Pacific: The Birth of a Railroad (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1987), 358; Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation, 117; Schneirov, 193; Voss, Making of American Exceptionalism, 75. Only when I looked for the evidence to prove this explanation thoroughly did I discover that it was a myth - as was pointed out long ago by Donald L. Kemmerer and Edward D. Wickersham, "Reasons for the Growth of the Knights of Labor in 1885-1886," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 3/2 (1950): 213-220.
109. This hypothesis was first proposed by Selig Perlman, "Upheaval and Reorganisation (Since 1876)," in John R. Commons et al., History of Labour in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1918), vol. 2, pp. 370, 373. It has been repeated so often by historians and sociologists that it has the appearance of solid fact: for example Fink, Workingmen's Democracy, xii-xiii; Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism, 2nd edition (New York: International Publishers, 1975), 53; Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements, 46; Hirsch, Urban Revolt, 56; Kealey and Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be, 75; Maury Klein, Union Pacific: The Birth of a Railroad (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1987), 358; Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation, 117; Schneirov, 193; Voss, Making of American Exceptionalism, 75. Only when I looked for the evidence to prove this explanation thoroughly did I discover that it was a myth - as was pointed out long ago by Donald L. Kemmerer and Edward D. Wickersham, "Reasons for the Growth of the Knights of Labor in 1885-1886," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 3/2 (1950): 213-220.
110. This hypothesis was first proposed by Selig Perlman, "Upheaval and Reorganisation (Since 1876)," in John R. Commons et al., History of Labour in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1918), vol. 2, pp. 370, 373. It has been repeated so often by historians and sociologists that it has the appearance of solid fact: for example Fink, Workingmen's Democracy, xii-xiii; Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism, 2nd edition (New York: International Publishers, 1975), 53; Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements, 46; Hirsch, Urban Revolt, 56; Kealey and Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be, 75; Maury Klein, Union Pacific: The Birth of a Railroad (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1987), 358; Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation, 117; Schneirov, 193; Voss, Making of American Exceptionalism, 75. Only when I looked for the evidence to prove this explanation thoroughly did I discover that it was a myth - as was pointed out long ago by Donald L. Kemmerer and Edward D. Wickersham, "Reasons for the Growth of the Knights of Labor in 1885-1886," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 3/2 (1950): 213-220.
111. This hypothesis was first proposed by Selig Perlman, "Upheaval and Reorganisation (Since 1876)," in John R. Commons et al., History of Labour in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1918), vol. 2, pp. 370, 373. It has been repeated so often by historians and sociologists that it has the appearance of solid fact: for example Fink, Workingmen's Democracy, xii-xiii; Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism, 2nd edition (New York: International Publishers, 1975), 53; Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements, 46; Hirsch, Urban Revolt, 56; Kealey and Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be, 75; Maury Klein, Union Pacific: The Birth of a Railroad (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1987), 358; Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation, 117; Schneirov, 193; Voss, Making of American Exceptionalism, 75. Only when I looked for the evidence to prove this explanation thoroughly did I discover that it was a myth - as was pointed out long ago by Donald L. Kemmerer and Edward D. Wickersham, "Reasons for the Growth of the Knights of Labor in 1885-1886," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 3/2 (1950): 213-220.
112. This hypothesis was first proposed by Selig Perlman, "Upheaval and Reorganisation (Since 1876)," in John R. Commons et al., History of Labour
113. This hypothesis was first proposed by Selig Perlman, "Upheaval and Reorganisation (Since 1876)," in John R. Commons et al., History of Labour in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1918), vol. 2, pp. 370, 373. It has been repeated so often by historians and sociologists that it has the appearance of solid fact: for example Fink, Workingmen's Democracy, xii-xiii; Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism, 2nd edition (New York: International Publishers, 1975), 53; Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements, 46; Hirsch, Urban Revolt, 56; Kealey and Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be, 75; Maury Klein, Union Pacific: The Birth of a Railroad (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1987), 358; Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation, 117; Schneirov, 193; Voss, Making of American Exceptionalism, 75. Only when I looked for the evidence to prove this explanation thoroughly did I discover that it was a myth - as was pointed out long ago by Donald L. Kemmerer and Edward D. Wickersham, "Reasons for the Growth of the Knights of Labor in 1885-1886," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 3/2 (1950): 213-220.
114. This hypothesis was first proposed by Selig Perlman, "Upheaval and Reorganisation (Since 1876)," in John R. Commons et al., History of Labour in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1918), vol. 2, pp. 370, 373. It has been repeated so often by historians and sociologists that it has the appearance of solid fact: for example Fink, Workingmen's Democracy, xii-xiii; Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism, 2nd edition (New York: International Publishers, 1975), 53; Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements, 46; Hirsch, Urban Revolt, 56; Kealey and Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be, 75; Maury Klein, Union Pacific: The Birth of a Railroad (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1987), 358; Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation, 117; Schneirov, 193; Voss, Making of American Exceptionalism, 75. Only when I looked for the evidence to prove this explanation thoroughly did I discover that it was a myth - as was pointed out long ago by Donald L. Kemmerer and Edward D. Wickersham, "Reasons for the Growth of the Knights of Labor in 1885-1886," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 3/2 (1950): 213-220.
115. This hypothesis was first proposed by Selig Perlman, "Upheaval and Reorganisation (Since 1876)," in John R. Commons et al., History of Labour in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1918), vol. 2, pp. 370, 373. It has been repeated so often by historians and sociologists that it has the appearance of solid fact: for example Fink, Workingmen's Democracy, xii-xiii; Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism, 2nd edition (New York: International Publishers, 1975), 53; Friedman, State-Making and Labor Movements, 46; Hirsch, Urban Revolt, 56; Kealey and Palmer, Dreaming of What Might Be, 75; Maury Klein, Union Pacific: The Birth of a Railroad (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1987), 358; Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation, 117; Schneirov, 193; Voss, Making of American Exceptionalism, 75. Only when I looked for the evidence to prove this explanation thoroughly did I discover that it was a myth - as was pointed out long ago by Donald L. Kemmerer and Edward D. Wickersham, "Reasons for the Growth of the Knights of Labor in 1885-1886," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 3/2 (1950): 213-220.
116. Journal of United Labor, Sep. 1885, quoted in Kemmerer and Wickersham, "Reasons for the Growth of the Knights of Labor in 1885-1886," 216. See also John Swinton's Paper, Sep. 30, 1885.
117. Journal of United Labor, Sep. 1885, quoted in Kemmerer and Wickersham, "Reasons for the Growth of the Knights of Labor in 1885-1886," 216. See also John Swinton's Paper, Sep. 30, 1885.
118. Journal of United Labor, Sep. 1885, quoted in Kemmerer and Wickersham, "Reasons for the Growth of the Knights of Labor in 1885-1886," 216. See also John Swinton's Paper, Sep. 30, 1885.
119. Alarm, Oct. 3, 1885.
120. Shopmen working for connecting railroads naturally inspired and supported each other, on Gould's various lines and on the Union Pacific Railway.
121. See the column headed "Rumblings All Over," John Swinton's Paper, Jul. 19, 1885. The Saginaw strike would actually be a more plausible candidate for the role allotted by Perlman and Ware to the second Gould strike.
122. Paul Avrich, The Haymarket Tragedy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press 1984); Hirsch, Urban Revolt; Bruce C. Nelson, Beyond the Martyrs: A Social History of Chicago's Anarchists, 1878-1900 (New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press, 1988); Schneirov, Labor and Urban Politics.
123. Paul Avrich, The Haymarket Tragedy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press 1984); Hirsch, Urban Revolt; Bruce C. Nelson, Beyond the Martyrs: A Social History of Chicago's Anarchists, 1878-1900 (New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press, 1988); Schneirov, Labor and Urban Politics.
124. Paul Avrich, The Haymarket Tragedy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press 1984); Hirsch, Urban Revolt; Bruce C. Nelson, Beyond the Martyrs: A Social History of Chicago's Anarchists, 1878-1900 (New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press, 1988); Schneirov, Labor and Urban Politics.
125. Paul Avrich, The Haymarket Tragedy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press 1984); Hirsch, Urban Revolt; Bruce C. Nelson, Beyond the Martyrs: A Social History of Chicago's Anarchists, 1878-1900 (New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press, 1988); Schneirov, Labor and Urban Politics.
126. Knights of Labor, General Assembly, Proceedings, 1879 (ii), 114; 1880, 202f.; 1881, 333; 1882, 383; 1883, 528; 1884, 796; 1885, 173; 1886, 326.
127. Knights of Labor, General Assembly, Proceedings, 1879 (ii), 114; 1880, 202f.; 1881, 333; 1882, 383; 1883, 528; 1884, 796; 1885, 173; 1886, 326.
128. Knights of Labor, General Assembly, Proceedings, 1879 (ii), 114; 1880, 202f.; 1881, 333; 1882, 383; 1883, 528; 1884, 796; 1885, 173; 1886, 326.
129. Knights of Labor, General Assembly, Proceedings, 1879 (ii), 114; 1880, 202f.; 1881, 333; 1882, 383; 1883, 528; 1884, 796; 1885, 173; 1886, 326.
130. Knights of Labor, General Assembly, Proceedings, 1879 (ii), 114; 1880, 202f.; 1881, 333; 1882, 383; 1883, 528; 1884, 796; 1885, 173; 1886, 326.
131. Knights of Labor, General Assembly, Proceedings, 1879 (ii), 114; 1880, 202f.; 1881, 333; 1882, 383; 1883, 528; 1884, 796; 1885, 173; 1886, 326.
132. Knights of Labor, General Assembly, Proceedings, 1879 (ii), 114; 1880, 202f.; 1881, 333; 1882, 383; 1883, 528; 1884, 796; 1885, 173; 1886, 326.
133. Knights of Labor, General Assembly, Proceedings, 1879 (ii), 114; 1880, 202f.; 1881, 333; 1882, 383; 1883, 528; 1884, 796; 1885, 173; 1886, 326.
134. Knights of Labor, District Assembly 24, "Record of D.A. 24" (minutes, June 7, 1882 to April 16, 1886), George A. Schilling Collection, Illinois State Historical Library, Springfield, Jan. 15, 1886, 229.
135. Knights of Labor, District Assembly 24, "Record of D.A. 24" (minutes, June 7, 1882 to April 16, 1886), George A. Schilling Collection, Illinois State Historical Library, Springfield, Jan. 15, 1886, 229.
136. Illinois Bureau of Labor Statistics, Fourth Biennial Report (Springfield: H. W. Rokker, 1886), table i, 172-178, and table ii, 187.
137. These numbers do not add up because about 2,700 trade unionists were also Knights. The figure for duplicate memberships excludes three trade unions that were in the midst of becoming Local Assemblies; they reported that all their members belonged to the Knights of Labor.
138. Illinois Bureau of Labor Statistics, Fourth Biennial Report, 191.
139. George A. Schilling, "History of the Labor Movement in Chicago," in Life of Albert E. Parsons with Brief History of the Labor Movement in America (Chicago: Mrs Lucy E. Parsons, 1889), xxiii.
140. Tribune, Dec. 7, 1885, 8.
141. Tribune, Dec. 28, 1885, 8.
142. Tribune, Feb. 8, 8. (Unless otherwise indicated, newspaper citations refer to 1886.)
143. James Brennock, Testimony (March 31, 1900), in Report of the Industrial Commission on the Chicago Labor Disputes of 1900, with Especial Reference to the Disputes in the Building and Machinery Trades (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1901), 465.
144. Martin Irons, "My Experiences in the Labor Movement," Lippincott's Monthly Magazine, 37 (1886): 626.
145. Fink, "The New Labor History and the Powers of Historical Pessimism."
146. Vorbote, Mar. 17, 8.
147. Tribune, Mar. 22, 3.
148. Tribune, Apr. 20, 2.
149. Tribune, Apr. 26, 2.
150. United States Department of Interior, Census Office, Report on Population of the United States at the Eleventh Census, 1890 (Washington, D.C. : Government Printing Office, 1897), part II, table 118, 650.
151. Illinois Bureau of Labor Statistics, Fourth Biennial Report, table xv, 257-71, 274-281.
152. Unfortunately, the tabulation for the Knights of Labor makes it difficult to match workers with a specific Local Assembly. This affects 26 Assemblies. In addition, three trade unions must be omitted because workers received board as well as wages. Wages are inferred for two unions using the wages of Knights in the same occupation.
153. Testing for the difference between two means (without assuming equal variance), the p-value is .007 (n = 56, 85) - excluding organizations of clerks. If those are included, the p-value is .024 (n = 60, 86).
154. Tribune, Apr. 20, 2.
155. Illinois Bureau of Labor Statistics, Fourth Biennial Report, table 2, 482-490.
156. Tribune, Mar. 27, 3.
157. Tribune, Mar. 30, 1.
158. Tribune, Apr. 16, 2.
159. Tribune, Apr. 19, 2.
160. Tribune, Apr. 30, 1.
161. Estimated from Bradstreet's: A Journal of Trade, Finance, and Public Economy, May 8, 290; May 15, 306.
162. Estimated from Bradstreet's: A Journal of Trade, Finance, and Public Economy, May 8, 290; May 15, 306.
163. Vorbote, June 8, 1887, 5.
164. Tribune, May 1, 1; May 2, 9.
165. Tribune, May 1, 1; May 2, 9.
166. Kenneth Andrews and Michael Biggs, "The Dynamics of Protest Diffusion: The 1960 Sit-in Movement in the American South" (presented at the meeting of the American Sociological Association, 2002); McAdam and Sewell, "It's about Time"; Oberschall, "The 1960s Sit-ins."
167. Kenneth Andrews and Michael Biggs, "The Dynamics of Protest Diffusion: The 1960 Sit-in Movement in the American South" (presented at the meeting of the American Sociological Association, 2002); McAdam and Sewell, "It's about Time"; Oberschall, "The 1960s Sit-ins."
168. Kenneth Andrews and Michael Biggs, "The Dynamics of Protest Diffusion: The 1960 Sit-in Movement in the American South" (presented at the meeting of the American Sociological Association, 2002); McAdam and Sewell, "It's about Time"; Oberschall, "The 1960s Sit-ins."
169. By itself, of course, this is not sufficient to explain the popular upsurge that toppled Communism; e.g. Kuran, Private Truths, Public Lies, ch. 16.
170. Hedström, Sandell, and Stern, "Mesolevel Networks"; Doug McAdam and Dieter Rucht, "The Cross-National Diffusion of Movement Ideas," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 528 (1993): 56-74.
171. Hedström, Sandell, and Stern, "Mesolevel Networks"; Doug McAdam and Dieter Rucht, "The Cross-National Diffusion of Movement Ideas," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 528 (1993): 56-74.
172. Marshall Ganz, "Resources and Resourcefulness: Strategic Capacity in the Unionization of California Agriculture, 1959-1966," American Journal of Sociology 105/4 (2000): 1003-1062.
173. A point made by Robert A. Nisbet, Social Change and History: Aspects of the Western Theory of Development (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969).
174. United States Commissioner of Labor, Twenty-first Annual Report: Strikes and Lockouts, 1906 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1907), table iv, 478-479, and table xvi, 736-737; John I. Griffin, Strikes: A Study in Quantitative Economics (New York: Columbia University Press; London: P. S. King and Son, 1939), table ii, 43-44; Florence Peterson, Strikes in the United States, 1880-1936 (United States Department of Labor, Bulletin, no. 651, 1937), table 1, 21.
175. United States Commissioner of Labor, Twenty-first Annual Report: Strikes and Lockouts, 1906 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1907), table iv, 478-479, and table xvi, 736-737; John I. Griffin, Strikes: A Study in Quantitative Economics (New York: Columbia University Press; London: P. S. King and Son, 1939), table ii, 43-44; Florence Peterson, Strikes in the United States, 1880-1936 (United States Department of Labor, Bulletin, no. 651, 1937), table 1, 21.
176. United States Commissioner of Labor, Twenty-first Annual Report: Strikes and Lockouts, 1906 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1907), table iv, 478-479, and table xvi, 736-737; John I. Griffin, Strikes: A Study in Quantitative Economics (New York: Columbia University Press; London: P. S. King and Son, 1939), table ii, 43-44; Florence Peterson, Strikes in the United States, 1880-1936 (United States Department of Labor, Bulletin, no. 651, 1937), table 1, 21.
177. Stanley Lebergott, Manpower in Economic Growth: The American Record since 1800 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), table A-1, 510.
178. Lebergott, Manpower in Economic Growth, table A-17, 524, table A-19, 528.
179. Lebergott, Manpower in Economic Growth, table A-17, 524, table A-19, 528.
180. United States Bureau of the Census, The Statistical History of the United States: From Colonial Times to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1976), vol. 2, series Y204-5, 1083.
181. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical History of the United States, vol. 2, series Y83, 1073.
182. Lebergott, Manpower in Economic Growth, table A-3, 512, table A-15, 522.
183. Jeffrey G. Williamson, Late Nineteenth-Century American Development: A General Equilibrium History (London and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1974), appendix C.3, 302-304.
184. Edwin Frickey, Production in the United States, 1860-1914 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1947), table 6, 54; Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz, Monetary Trends in the United States and the United Kingdom: Their Relation to Income, Prices, and Interest Rates, 1867-1975 (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1982), table 4.8, 122-127; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical History of the United States, vol. 2, series V23, 912-913.
185. Edwin Frickey, Production in the United States, 1860-1914 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1947), table 6, 54; Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz, Monetary Trends in the United States and the United Kingdom: Their Relation to Income, Prices, and Interest Rates, 1867-1975 (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1982), table 4.8, 122-127; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical History of the United States, vol. 2, series V23, 912-913.
186. Edwin Frickey, Production in the United States, 1860-1914 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1947), table 6, 54; Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz, Monetary Trends in the United States and the United Kingdom: Their Relation to Income, Prices, and Interest Rates, 1867-1975 (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1982), table 4.8, 122-127; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical History of the United States, vol. 2, series V23, 912-913.