Cognitive Effects of Benzodiazepine use: A Review

Australian Psychologist

Volumn 38, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 202-213

  Barker, Melinda J ^a   Jackson, Martin ^a   Greenwood, Kenneth M ^a   Crowe, Simon F ^a  

^a LA TROBE UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 1642450828     PISSN: 00050067     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00050060310001707217     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Allen, D., Curran, H.V., & Lader, M. (1991). The effects of repeated doses of clomipramine and alprazolam on physiological, psychomotor and cognitive functions in normal subjects. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 40, 355-362.
2. Allgulander, C., Borg, S., & Vikander, B. (1984). A 4-6 year follow-up of 50 patients with primary dependence on sedative and hypnotic drugs. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 1580-1582.
3. American Hospital Formulary Service. (2002). AHFS Drug Information 2002. Bethesda, MD: American Society of Health-System Pharmacists.
4. American Psychiatric Association, (1990). Benzodiazepine dependence, toxicity, and abuse. Washington, DC: Author.
5. Anonymous. (1984). Benzodiazepines and Pentazocine scheduled under Convention on Psychotic Substances. Lancet, 1(8377), 637.
6. Aranko, K., Mattila, M.J., & Seppala, T. (1983). Development of tolerance and cross-tolerance to the psychomotor actions of lorazepam and diazepam in man. British Journal of Pharmacology, 15, 545-552.
7. Ashton, H. (1986). Adverse effects of prolonged benzodiazepine use. Adverse Drug Reaction Bulletin, 118, 440-443.
8. Ashton, H. (1989). Risks of dependence on benzodiazepine drugs: A major problem of long-term treatment. British Medical Journal, 298, 103-104.
9. Ashton, H. (1995). Toxicity and adverse consequences of benzodiazepine use. Psychiatric Annals, 25, 158-165.
10. Ashton, H., & Golding, J.G. (1989). Tranquillizers: Prevalence, predictors and possible consequences. Data from a large United Kingdom survey. British Journal of Addiction, 84, 541-546.
11. Auerbach, J.G., Hans, S.L., Marcus, J., & Maeir, S. (1992). Maternal psychotropic medication and neonatal behavior. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 14, 399-406.
12. Australian Bureau of Statistics. (1997). National Health Survey 1995: Summary of Results. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. ABS Catalogue No. 4364.0.
13. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2000). Australia's health: The seventh biennial health report of the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Cat. 19.
14. Ayd, F.J. (1994). Prescribing anxiolytics and hypnotics for the elderly. Psychiatric Annals, 24, 91-97.
15. Bailey, L., Ward, M., & Musa, M.N. (1994). Clinical pharmacokinetics of benzodiazepines. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 34, 804-811.
16. Balter, M.B., Manheimer, D.I., Mellinger, G.D., & Uhlenhuth, E.H. (1984). A cross-national comparison of anti-anxiety/sedative drug use. Current Medical Research Opinion, 8, 5-20.
17. Barbee, J.G. (1993). Memory, benzodiazepines, and anxiety: Integration of theoretical and clinical perspectives. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 54, 86-97.
18. Bergman, H., Borg, S., Engelbrektson, K., & Vikander, B. (1989). Dependence on sedative-hypnotics: Neuropsychological impairment, field dependence and clinical course in a 5-year follow-up study. British Journal of Addiction, 84, 547-553.
19. Bergman, H., Borg, S., & Holm, S. (1980). Neuropsychological impairment and exclusive abuse of sedatives or hypnotics. American Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 215-217.
20. Birkett, D.J. (1998). Pharmacokinetics made easy. Sydney, Australia: MCGraw-Hill.
21. Birzele, H.J. (1992). Benzodiazepine induced amnesia after long-term medication and during withdrawal. European Review of Applied Psychology, 42, 277-282.
22. Bourin, M., du Tertre, A.C., & Payeur, R. (1993). Evaluation of safety and side effects in the process of anti-anxiety drug development. European Psychiatry, 8, 285-291.
23. Brosan, L., Broadbent, D., Nutt, D., & Broadbent, M. (1986). Performance effects of diazepam during and after prolonged administration. Psychological Medicine, 16, 561-571.
24. Brown, H. (1995). Young people and the use of prescription pills (benzodiazepines). Melbourne, Australia: Art Offset.
25. Busto, U., Bremner, K.E., Knight, K., terBrugge, K., & Sellers, E.M. (2000). Long-term benzodiazepine therapy does not result in brain abnormalities. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 20, 2-6.
26. Chaves, M.L., Bianchin, M., Peccin, S., & Rotta, F. (1993). Chronic use of benzodiazepines and cognitive deficit complaints: A risk factor study. Italian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 14, 429-435.
27. Chavez, E.L., Trautt, G.M., Brandon, A., & Steyaert, J. (1983). Effects of test anxiety and sex of subject on neuropsychological test performance: Finger tapping, trail making, digit span and digit symbol tests. Perceptual and Motor Skill, 56, 923-929.
28. Chen, Y. (1990). Long-term benzodiazepine treatment: Is it ever justified? Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental, 5, 301-312.
29. Ciraulo, D.A., & Sarid-Segal, O. (1991). Benzodiazepines: Abuse liability. In P.P. Roy-Byrne & D.S. Cowley (Eds.), Benzodiazepines in clinical practice: Risks and benefits (pp. 157-174). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.
30. Coffey, B.J. (1993). Review and update: Benzodiazepines in childhood and adolescence. Psychiatric Annals, 23, 332-339.
31. Cohen, L.S., & Rosenbaum, J.F. (1987). Clonazepam: New uses and potential problems. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 48, 50-55.
32. Coleman, V. (1985). Life without tranquillisers. London: Judy Piatkus Publishers.
33. Collomp, K., Fortier, M., Cooper, S., Long, A., Ahmaidi, S., Prefaut, C., et al. (1994). Performance and metabolic effects of benzodiazepine during submaximal exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 77, 828-833.
34. Crowe, S.F. (1998). Neuropsychological effects of the psychiatric disorders. Newark, NJ: Gordon and Breach/Harwood Academic
35. Curran, H.V. (1986). Tranquillising memories: A review of the effects of benzodiazepines on human memory. Biological Psychology, 23, 179-213.
36. Curran,H.V. (1991). Benzodiazepines, memory and mood: A review. Psychopharmacology, 105, 1-8.
37. Curran, H.V. (1992). Memory functions, alertness and mood of long-term benzodiazepine users: A preliminary investigation of the effects of a normal daily dose. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 6, 69-75.
38. Curran, H.V., Bond, A., O'Sullivan, G., Bruce, M., Marks, I., Lelliot, P., et al. (1994). Memory functions, alprazolam and exposure therapy: a controlled longitudinal study of agoraphobia with panic disorder. Psychological Medicine, 24, 969-976.
39. Curran, H.V., Gorenstein, C., & Lader, M. (1993). Comparative amnesic and sedative effects of lorazepam and oxazepam in healthy volunteers. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 7, 249-256.
40. Curran, H.V., Schiwy, W., & Lader, M. (1987). Differential amnesic properties of benzodiazepines: A dose-response comparison of two drugs with similar elimination half-lives. Psychopharmacology, 92, 358-364.
41. Drug Utilisation Subcommittee. (1999). Australian Statistics on Medicines 1998. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.
42. Fleishaker, J.C., Garzone, P.D., Chambers, J.H., & Sirocco, K. (1995). Comparison of the spectrum of cognitive effects of alprazolam and adinazolam after single doses in healthy subjects. Psychopharmacology, 120, 169-176.
43. Garvey, M.J., & Tollefson, G.D. (1986). Prevalence of misuse of prescribed benzodiazepines in patients with primary anxiety disorder or major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 1601-1603.
44. Ghoneim, M.M., Hinrichs, J.V., & Mewaldt, S.P. (1984), Dose-response analysis of the behavioral effects of diazepam: I. Learning and memory. Psychopharmacology, 82, 291-295.
45. Ghoneim, M.M., Mewaldt, S.P., & Hinrichs, J.V. (1984). Dose-response analysis of the behavioral effects of diazepam: II. Psychomotor performance, cognition and mood. Psychopharmacology, 82, 296-300.
46. Gladsjo, J.A., Rapaport, M.H., MCKinney, R., Lucas, J.A., Rabin, A., Oliver, T., et al. (1998). A neuropsychological study of panic disorder: Negative findings. Journal of Affective Disorders, 49, 123-131.
47. Golombok, S., Moodley, P., & Lader, M. (1988). Cognitive impairment in long-term benzodiazepine users. Psychological Medicine, 18, 365-374.
48. Golombok, S. (1989). Causes, effects and treatment of long-term benzodiazepine use: A review of psychological perspectives. Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental, 4, 15-20.
49. Gorenstein, C., Bernik, M.A., & Pompeia, S. (1994). Differential acute psychomotor and cognitive effects of diazepam on long-term benzodiazepine users. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 9, 145-153.
50. Gorenstein, C., Bernik, M.A., Pompeia, S., & Marcourakis, T. (1995). Impairment of performance associated with long-term use of benzodiazepines. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 9, 313-318.
51. Gorissen, M., Eling, P., van Luijtelaar, G., & Coenen, A. (1995). Effects of diazepam on encoding processes. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 9, 113-121.
52. Greist, J.H., Jefferson, J.W., & Marks, I.M. (1986), Anxiety and its treatment: Help is available. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press Inc.
53. Griffiths, R.R. (1995). Commentary on review by Woods and Winger. Benzodiazepines: long-term use among patients is a concern and abuse among polydrug abusers is not trivial. Psychopharmacology, 118, 116-117.
54. Gudex, C. (1991). Adverse effects of benzodiazepines. Social Science and Medicine, 33, 587-596.
55. Hanlon, J.T., Horner, R.D., Schmader, K. E., Fillenbaum, G.G., Lewis, I.K., Wall, W., et al. (1998). Benzodiazepine use and cognitive function among community-dwelling elderly. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 64, 684-692.
56. Hawley, C.J., Tattersall, M., Dellaportas, C., & Hallstrom, C. (1994). Comparison of long-term benzodiazepine users in three settings. British Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 792-796.
57. Hege, S.G., Ellinwood, E.H.J., Wilson, W.H., & Helligere, C.A.M. (1997). Psychomotor effects of the anxiolytic abecarnil: A comparison with lorazepam. Psychopharmacology, 131, 101-107.
58. Hemmeter, U., Muller, M., Bischof, R., Annen, B., & Holsboer-Trachsler, E. (2000). Effect of zopiclone and temazepam on sleep BEG parameters, psychomotor and memory functions in healthy elderly volunteers. Psychopharmacology, 147, 384-396.
59. Hollister, L.E., Conley, F.K., Britt, R.H., & Shuer, L.S. (1981). Long-term use of benzodiazepines. Journal of the American Medical Association, 246, 1568-1570.
60. Hommer, D., Weingartner, H.J., & Breier, A. (1993). Dissociation of benzodiazepine-induced amnesia from sedation by flumazenil pretreatment. Psychopharmacology, 112, 455-460.
61. Hommer, D.W. (1991). Benzodiazepines: Cognitive and psychomotor effects. In P. Roy-Byrne & D.S. Cowley (Eds.), Benzodiazepines in clinical practice: Risks and benefits. (pp. 113-130). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press Inc.
62. Hutchinson, M.A., Smith, P.F., & Darlington, C.L. (1996). The behavioural and neuronal effects of the chronic administration of benzodiazepine anxiolytic and hypnotic drugs. Progress in Neurobiology, 49, 73-97.
63. Jorm, A.F., Grayson, D., Creasey, H., Waite, L., & Broe, G.A. (2000). Long-term benzodiazepine use by elderly people living in the community. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 24, 7-10.
64. Joyce, E.M., & File, S.E. (1995). Temazepam impairs effortful but not automatic processing of stimulus elements. Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental, 10, 449-453.
65. Khan, A., Joyce, P., & Jones, A.V. (1980). Benzodiazepine withdrawal syndromes. New Zealand Medical Journal, 92, 94-96.
66. Kilic, C. (1999). Long-term effects of alprazolam on memory: A 3.5 year follow-up of agoraphobia/panic patients. Psychological-Medicine, 29, 225-231.
67. Kirkby, K.C., Montgomery, I.M., Badcock, R., & Daniels, B.A. (1995). A comparison of age-related deficits in memory and frontal lobe function following oral lorazepam administration. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 9, 319-325.
68. Kruse, W.H. (1990). Problems and pitfalls in the use of benzodiazepines in the elderly. Drug Safety, 5, 328-344.
69. Lader, M. (1982). Psychological effects of buspirone. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 43, 62-67.
70. Lader, M. (1984). Short-term versus long-term benzodiazepine therapy. Current Medical Research Opinion, 8, 120-126.
71. Lader, M., & Morton, S. (1991). Benzodiazepine problems. British Journal of Addiction, 86, 823-828.
72. Lader, M., & Petursson, H. (1983). Long term effects of benzodiazepines. Neuropharmacology, 22, 527-533.
73. Lader, M., Ron, M., & Petursson, H. (1984). Computerised axial tomography in long term benzodiazepine users. Psychological Medicine, 14, 203-206.
74. Lancet. (1984), UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs. Benzodiazepines and Pentazocine scheduled under Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The Lancet, 1(March 17), 637.
75. Lezak, M.D. (1995). Neuropsychological assessment (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
76. Lister, R.G. (1985). The amnesic action of benzodiazepines in man. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 9, 87-94.
77. Lucki, I., & Rickels, K. (1986). The behavioral effects of benzodiazepines following long-term use. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 22, 424-433.
78. Lucki, I., Rickels, K., & Geller, A.M. (1985). Psychomotor performance follwing long-term use of benzodiazepines. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 21(1), 93-96.
79. Lucki, I., Rickels, K., & Geller, A.M. (1986). Chronic use of benzodiazepines and psychomotor and cognitive test performance. Psychopharmacology, 88, 426-433.
80. Lyndon, R.W., & Russell, J.D. (1988). Benzodiazepines in a rural general practice population. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 22, 292-298.
81. Makkai, T. (2001). Patterns of recent drug use among a sample of Australian detainees. Addiction, 96, 1799-1808.
82. Massin-Krauss, M., Bacon, E., & Danion, J.M. (2002). Effects of the benzodiazepine lorazepam on monitoring and control processes in semantic memory. Consciousness and Cognition, 11, 123-127.
83. Mellinger, G.D., Balter, B.B., & Uhlenhuth, E.H. (1984). Prevalence and correlates of the long-term regular use of anxiolytics. Journal of the American Medical Association, 251, 375-379.
84. Miller, N.S. (1995). Liability and efficacy from long-term use of benzodiazepines: Documentation and interpretation. Psychiatric Annals, 25, 166-173.
85. Mintzer, M.Z., Griffiths, R.R., Contoreggi, C., Kimes, A.S., London, E.D., & Ernst, M. (2001). Effects of Triazolam on brain activity during episodic memory encoding. Neuropsychopharmacology, 25, 744-756.
86. Moodley, P., Golombok, S., Shine, P., & Lader, M. (1993). Computerised axial brain tomograms in long-term benzodiazepine users. Psychiatry Research, 48, 135-144.
87. National Health & Medical Research Council. (1991). Guidelines for the prevention and management of benzodiazepine dependence. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.
88. Paterniti, S., Dufouil, C., & Alperovitch, A. (2002). Long-term benzodiazepine use and cognitive decline in the elderly: The Epidemiology of Vascular Aging Study. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 22, 285-293.
89. Perera, K.M., Powell, T., & Jenner, F.A. (1987). Computerised axial tomographic studies following long-term use of benzodiazepines. Psychological Medicine, 17, 775-777.
90. Petursson, H., Gudjonsson, G.H., & Lader, M.H. (1983). Psychometric performance during withdrawal from long-term benzodiazepine treatment. Psychopharmacology, 81, 345-349.
91. Pollack, M.H. (1993). Innovative uses of Benzodiazepines in psychiatry. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 38, 122-126.
92. Poser, Poser, Roscher, & Argyrakis, A. (1983). Do benzodizepines cause cerebral atrophy? The Lancet, 1, 715.
93. Rickels, K., Case, W.G., & Downing, R.W. (1983). Long-term diazepam therapy and clinical outcome. Journal of the American Medical Association, 250, 767-771.
94. Rickels, K., Lucki, I., Schweizer, E., Garcia-Espana, F., & Case, W. G. (1999). Psychomotor performance of long-term benzodiazepine users before, during, and after benzodiazepine discontinuation. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 19, 107-113.
95. Rodrigo, E.K., King, M.B., & Williams, P. (1988). Health of long term benzodiazepine users. British Medical Journal, 296, 603-606.
96. Romach,M., Busto,U., Sobell,L.C., Sobell,M.B., Somer,G., & Sellers,E.M. (1991). Long-term alprazolam use: Abuse, dependence or treatment? Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 27, 391-395.
97. Ross, J., & Darke, S. (2000). The nature of benzodiazepine dependence among heroin users in Sydney, Australia. Addiction, 95, 1785-1793.
98. Roy-Byrne, P.P. (1991). Benzodiazepines: Dependence and withdrawal. In P. Roy-Byrne & D. S. Cowley (Eds.), Benzodiazepines in clinical practice: Risks and benefits (pp. 133-153). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.
99. Sakol, M.S., & Power, K.G. (1988). The effects of long-term benzodiazepine treatment and graded withdrawal on psychometric performance. Psychopharmacology, 95, 135-138.
100. Salinsky, J.V., & Dore, C.J. (1987). Characteristics of long term benzodiazepine users in general practice. Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners, 37, 202-204.
101. Salzman, C., Fisher, J., Nobel, K., & Glassman, R. (1992). Cognitive improvement following benzodiazepine discontinuation in elderly nursing home residents. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 7, 89-93.
102. Schmauss, C., & Krieg, J. C. (1987), Enlargement of cerebrospinal fluid spaces in long-term benzodiazepine abusers. Psychological Medicine, 17, 869-873.
103. Schukit, M.A., Smith, T.L., Kramer, J., Danko, J., & Volpe, F.R. (2002). The prevalence and clinical course of sedative-hypnotic abuse and dependence in a large cohort. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Use, 28, 73.
104. Schweizer, E. (1995). Generalized anxiety disorder: Longitudinal course and pharmacologic treatment. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 18, 843-857.
105. Seppala, T., Palva, E., Mattila, M.J., Korttila, K., & Shrotriya, R.C. (1980). Tofisopam, a novel 3,4,-benzodiazepine: Multiple dose effects on psychomotor skills and memory. Comparison with diazepam and interactions with ethanol. Psychopharmacology, 69, 209-218.
106. Sheehan, D.V. (1987). Benzodiazepines in panic disorder and agoraphobia. Journal of Affective Disorders, 13, 169-181.
107. Sheikh, J.I. (1992). Problems associated with long-term benzodiazepine use in the elderly. In C.A. Shamoian (Ed.), Psychopharmacological treatment complications in the elderly (pp. 71-87). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press Inc.
108. Simpson, R.J., Power, K.G., Wallace, L.A., Butcher, M.H., Swanson, V., & Simpson, E.C. (1990). Controlled comparison of the characteristics of long-term benzodiazepine users in general practice. British Journal of General Practice, 40, 22-26.
109. Smirne, S., Ferini Strambi, L., Pirola, R., & Tancredi, O. (1989). Effects of flunitrazepam on cognitive functions. Psychopharmacology, 98, 251-256.
110. Sumner, D.D. (1998). Benzodiazepine-induced persisting amnestic disorder: Are older adults at risk? Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 72, 119-125.
111. Tansella, C.Z. (1980). The long-term treatment with benzodiazepines: Suggestions for further research. International Pharmocapsychiatry, 15(2), 99-104.
112. Tata, P.R., Rollings, J., Collins, M., Pickering, A., & Jacobson, R.R. (1994). Lack of cognitive recovery following withdrawal from long-term benzodiazepine use. Psychological Medicine, 24, 203-213.
113. Toenne, U., Hiltunen, A.J., Vikander, B., Engelbrektsson, K., Bergman, H., Bergman, I, Leifman, H., & Borg, S. (1995). Neuropsychological changes during steady-state drug use, withdrawal and abstinence in primary benzodiazepine-dependent patients. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 91, 299-304.
114. Tu, K., Mamdani, M.M., Hux, J.E., & Tu, J. (2001). Progressive trends in the prevalence of benzodiazepine prescribing in older people in Ontario, Canada. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 49, 1341-1345.
115. Uhlenhuth, E.H. (1988). Risks and benefits of long-term benzodiazepine use. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 8, 161-167.
116. Velosa, J.F., & Riddle, M.A. (2000). Pharmacologic treatment of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Psychopharmacology, 9, 119-133.
117. Vgontzas, A.N., Kales, A., & Bixler, E.O. (1995). Benzodiazepine side effects: Role of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Pharmacology, 51, 205-223.
118. Wechsler, D. (1945). Wechsler Memory Scale. New York: Psychological Corporation.
119. Weingartner, H., Eckardt, M., Molchan, S.E., & Sunderland, T. (1992). Measurement and interpretation of changes in memory in response to drug treatments. Special Feature: Neuropsychological factors in mental disorders and their treatments. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 28, 331-340.
120. Wengel, S.P., Burke, W.J., Ranno, A.E., & Roccaforte, W.H. (1993). Use of benzodiazepines in the elderly. Psychiatric Annals, 23, 325-331.
121. Woods, J.H., Katz, J.L., & Winger, G. (1992). Benzodiazepines: Use, abuse, and consequences. Pharmacology Review, 44, 147-151.
122. Zandstra, S.M., Furer, J. W., van de Lisdonk, E.H., Van't Hof, M., Bor, J.H.J., van Weel, C., et al. (2002). Different study criteria affect the prevalence of benzodiazepine use. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 37, 139-144.
123. Zarantonello, M., Slaymaker, F., Johnson, J., & Petzel, T. (1984). Effects of anxiety and depression on anagram performance, ratings of cognitive interference, and the negative subjective evaluation of performance. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40, 20-25.