Building Businesses, Creating Communities: Residential Segregation and the Growth of African American Business in Southern Cities, 1880-1915

Business History Review

Volumn 77, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 639-665

  Ingham, John N ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 1642343644     PISSN: 00076805     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/30041232     Document Type: Review

References (141)

1. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Negro in Business (Atlanta, 1899), 8. Many also thought this might lead to a self-sufficient black economy. See Booker T. Washington, The Negro in Business (Boston, 1899), and W. E. B. Du Bois, Economic Cooperation among Negroes (Atlanta, 1907). These ideas are developed more fully in August Meier, Negro Thought in America: Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T. Washington (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1963).
2. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Negro in Business (Atlanta, 1899), 8. Many also thought this might lead to a self-sufficient black economy. See Booker T. Washington, The Negro in Business (Boston, 1899), and W. E. B. Du Bois, Economic Cooperation among Negroes (Atlanta, 1907). These ideas are developed more fully in August Meier, Negro Thought in America: Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T. Washington (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1963).
3. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Negro in Business (Atlanta, 1899), 8. Many also thought this might lead to a self-sufficient black economy. See Booker T. Washington, The Negro in Business (Boston, 1899), and W. E. B. Du Bois, Economic Cooperation among Negroes (Atlanta, 1907). These ideas are developed more fully in August Meier, Negro Thought in America: Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T. Washington (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1963).
4. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Negro in Business (Atlanta, 1899), 8. Many also thought this might lead to a self-sufficient black economy. See Booker T. Washington, The Negro in Business (Boston, 1899), and W. E. B. Du Bois, Economic Cooperation among Negroes (Atlanta, 1907). These ideas are developed more fully in August Meier, Negro Thought in America: Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T. Washington (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1963).
5. John Sibley Butler and Kenneth Wilson, "Entrepreneurial Enclave: An Exposition into the African American Experience," National Journal of Sociology (Fall 1988); John Sibley Butler, Entrepreneurship and Self-Help Among Black Americans: A Reconsideration of Race and Economics (Albany, N.Y., 1991), 26-32; and Alejandro Portes and Leif Jensen, "What's an Ethnic Enclave? The Case for Conceptual Clarity," American Sociological Review 52 (1987): 768-71.
6. John Sibley Butler and Kenneth Wilson, "Entrepreneurial Enclave: An Exposition into the African American Experience," National Journal of Sociology (Fall 1988); John Sibley Butler, Entrepreneurship and Self-Help Among Black Americans: A Reconsideration of Race and Economics (Albany, N.Y., 1991), 26-32; and Alejandro Portes and Leif Jensen, "What's an Ethnic Enclave? The Case for Conceptual Clarity," American Sociological Review 52 (1987): 768-71.
7. John Sibley Butler and Kenneth Wilson, "Entrepreneurial Enclave: An Exposition into the African American Experience," National Journal of Sociology (Fall 1988); John Sibley Butler, Entrepreneurship and Self-Help Among Black Americans: A Reconsideration of Race and Economics (Albany, N.Y., 1991), 26-32; and Alejandro Portes and Leif Jensen, "What's an Ethnic Enclave? The Case for Conceptual Clarity," American Sociological Review 52 (1987): 768-71.
8. See Paul A. Groves and Edward K. Muller, "The Evolution of Black Residential Areas in Late Nineteenth Century Cities," Journal of Historical Geography 1, no. 2 (1975): 173; Richard C. Wade, Slavery in American Cities: The South, 1820-1860 (New York, 1964), 77-9; Letitia Brown, "Residence Patterns of Negroes in the District of Columbia, 1800," Columbia Historical Society, Records (1969-1970), 72; John P. Radford, "Race, Residence and Ideology: Charleston, South Carolina in the Mid-nineteenth Century," Journal of Historical Geography 2, no. 4 (1976): 329-46; Daphne Spain, "Race Relations and Residential Segregation in New Orleans: Two Centuries' Paradox," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 441 (Jan. 1979): 82-96.
9. See Paul A. Groves and Edward K. Muller, "The Evolution of Black Residential Areas in Late Nineteenth Century Cities," Journal of Historical Geography 1, no. 2 (1975): 173; Richard C. Wade, Slavery in American Cities: The South, 1820-1860 (New York, 1964), 77-9; Letitia Brown, "Residence Patterns of Negroes in the District of Columbia, 1800," Columbia Historical Society, Records (1969-1970), 72; John P. Radford, "Race, Residence and Ideology: Charleston, South Carolina in the Mid-nineteenth Century," Journal of Historical Geography 2, no. 4 (1976): 329-46; Daphne Spain, "Race Relations and Residential Segregation in New Orleans: Two Centuries' Paradox," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 441 (Jan. 1979): 82-96.
10. See Paul A. Groves and Edward K. Muller, "The Evolution of Black Residential Areas in Late Nineteenth Century Cities," Journal of Historical Geography 1, no. 2 (1975): 173; Richard C. Wade, Slavery in American Cities: The South, 1820-1860 (New York, 1964), 77-9; Letitia Brown, "Residence Patterns of Negroes in the District of Columbia, 1800," Columbia Historical Society, Records (1969-1970), 72; John P. Radford, "Race, Residence and Ideology: Charleston, South Carolina in the Mid-nineteenth Century," Journal of Historical Geography 2, no. 4 (1976): 329-46; Daphne Spain, "Race Relations and Residential Segregation in New Orleans: Two Centuries' Paradox," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 441 (Jan. 1979): 82-96.
11. See Paul A. Groves and Edward K. Muller, "The Evolution of Black Residential Areas in Late Nineteenth Century Cities," Journal of Historical Geography 1, no. 2 (1975): 173; Richard C. Wade, Slavery in American Cities: The South, 1820-1860 (New York, 1964), 77-9; Letitia Brown, "Residence Patterns of Negroes in the District of Columbia, 1800," Columbia Historical Society, Records (1969-1970), 72; John P. Radford, "Race, Residence and Ideology: Charleston, South Carolina in the Mid-nineteenth Century," Journal of Historical Geography 2, no. 4 (1976): 329-46; Daphne Spain, "Race Relations and Residential Segregation in New Orleans: Two Centuries' Paradox," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 441 (Jan. 1979): 82-96.
12. See Paul A. Groves and Edward K. Muller, "The Evolution of Black Residential Areas in Late Nineteenth Century Cities," Journal of Historical Geography 1, no. 2 (1975): 173; Richard C. Wade, Slavery in American Cities: The South, 1820-1860 (New York, 1964), 77-9; Letitia Brown, "Residence Patterns of Negroes in the District of Columbia, 1800," Columbia Historical Society, Records (1969-1970), 72; John P. Radford, "Race, Residence and Ideology: Charleston, South Carolina in the Mid-nineteenth Century," Journal of Historical Geography 2, no. 4 (1976): 329-46; Daphne Spain, "Race Relations and Residential Segregation in New Orleans: Two Centuries' Paradox," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 441 (Jan. 1979): 82-96.
13. See John U. Kellogg, "Negro Urban Clusters in the Postbellum South," Geographical Review 47 (July 1977): 310-21; and Leo F. Schnore and Philip C. Evenson, "Segregation in Southern Cities," American Journal of Sociology 72, no. 1 (July 1966): 58-67. See also Charles S. Johnson, Patterns of Negro Segregation (New York, 1943): 8-12; T. J. Woofter, Negro Problems in Cities (New York, 1928); and W. M. Akalou and Cary D. Wintz, "The Economic Impact of Residential Desegregation on Historically Black Neighborhoods in Houston, 1950-1990," Essays in Economic and Business History 13 (1995): 289-304.
14. See John U. Kellogg, "Negro Urban Clusters in the Postbellum South," Geographical Review 47 (July 1977): 310-21; and Leo F. Schnore and Philip C. Evenson, "Segregation in Southern Cities," American Journal of Sociology 72, no. 1 (July 1966): 58-67. See also Charles S. Johnson, Patterns of Negro Segregation (New York, 1943): 8-12; T. J. Woofter, Negro Problems in Cities (New York, 1928); and W. M. Akalou and Cary D. Wintz, "The Economic Impact of Residential Desegregation on Historically Black Neighborhoods in Houston, 1950-1990," Essays in Economic and Business History 13 (1995): 289-304.
15. See John U. Kellogg, "Negro Urban Clusters in the Postbellum South," Geographical Review 47 (July 1977): 310-21; and Leo F. Schnore and Philip C. Evenson, "Segregation in Southern Cities," American Journal of Sociology 72, no. 1 (July 1966): 58-67. See also Charles S. Johnson, Patterns of Negro Segregation (New York, 1943): 8-12; T. J. Woofter, Negro Problems in Cities (New York, 1928); and W. M. Akalou and Cary D. Wintz, "The Economic Impact of Residential Desegregation on Historically Black Neighborhoods in Houston, 1950-1990," Essays in Economic and Business History 13 (1995): 289-304.
16. See John U. Kellogg, "Negro Urban Clusters in the Postbellum South," Geographical Review 47 (July 1977): 310-21; and Leo F. Schnore and Philip C. Evenson, "Segregation in Southern Cities," American Journal of Sociology 72, no. 1 (July 1966): 58-67. See also Charles S. Johnson, Patterns of Negro Segregation (New York, 1943): 8-12; T. J. Woofter, Negro Problems in Cities (New York, 1928); and W. M. Akalou and Cary D. Wintz, "The Economic Impact of Residential Desegregation on Historically Black Neighborhoods in Houston, 1950-1990," Essays in Economic and Business History 13 (1995): 289-304.
17. See John U. Kellogg, "Negro Urban Clusters in the Postbellum South," Geographical Review 47 (July 1977): 310-21; and Leo F. Schnore and Philip C. Evenson, "Segregation in Southern Cities," American Journal of Sociology 72, no. 1 (July 1966): 58-67. See also Charles S. Johnson, Patterns of Negro Segregation (New York, 1943): 8-12; T. J. Woofter, Negro Problems in Cities (New York, 1928); and W. M. Akalou and Cary D. Wintz, "The Economic Impact of Residential Desegregation on Historically Black Neighborhoods in Houston, 1950-1990," Essays in Economic and Business History 13 (1995): 289-304.
18. Kellogg, "Urban Clusters." See also his "The Formation of Black Residential Areas in Lexington, Kentucky, 1865-1887," Journal of Southern History 48, no. 1 (Feb. 1982): 48.
19. Kellogg, "Urban Clusters." See also his "The Formation of Black Residential Areas in Lexington, Kentucky, 1865-1887," Journal of Southern History 48, no. 1 (Feb. 1982): 48.
20. The term "Negro Main Street" is from Wilmoth A. Carter, "Negro Main Street as a Symbol of Discrimination," Phylon 21 (Fall 1960). Robert L. Boyd has recently conducted a series of investigations of black business in northern cities during the years of the Great Migration (1900-1930). His findings were similar to those in this study: as segregated black communities arose in these cities, their spatial isolation increased their participation in business enterprise. The major difference from the southern cities examined in this study is that black business in the North was mostly restricted to particular services, such as barbering, beauty culture, and undertaking, as well as specialized retail areas that catered to certain ethnic needs. In southern cities, on the other hand, African Americans engaged in a much broader range of business ventures. A particularly important difference was their ownership, in most southern cities, of small corner grocery stores. See Robert L. Boyd, "Residential Segregation by Race and the Black Merchants of Northern Cities during the Early Twentieth Century, " Sociological Forum 13, no. 4 (1998): 595-609; his "The Great Migration to the North and the Rise of Ethnic Niches for African American Women in Beauty Culture and Hairdressing," Sociological Focus 29 (1996): 33-45; and also his paper, "The Protected Market Hypothesis and Ethnic Residential Segregation: The Case of Black Undertakers in Northern Cities during the Great Migration," presented to the 1997 Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association, Toronto, Canada, 9 Aug. 1997.
21. The term "Negro Main Street" is from Wilmoth A. Carter, "Negro Main Street as a Symbol of Discrimination," Phylon 21 (Fall 1960). Robert L. Boyd has recently conducted a series of investigations of black business in northern cities during the years of the Great Migration (1900-1930). His findings were similar to those in this study: as segregated black communities arose in these cities, their spatial isolation increased their participation in business enterprise. The major difference from the southern cities examined in this study is that black business in the North was mostly restricted to particular services, such as barbering, beauty culture, and undertaking, as well as specialized retail areas that catered to certain ethnic needs. In southern cities, on the other hand, African Americans engaged in a much broader range of business ventures. A particularly important difference was their ownership, in most southern cities, of small corner grocery stores. See Robert L. Boyd, "Residential Segregation by Race and the Black Merchants of Northern Cities during the Early Twentieth Century, " Sociological Forum 13, no. 4 (1998): 595-609; his "The Great Migration to the North and the Rise of Ethnic Niches for African American Women in Beauty Culture and Hairdressing," Sociological Focus 29 (1996): 33-45; and also his paper, "The Protected Market Hypothesis and Ethnic Residential Segregation: The Case of Black Undertakers in Northern Cities during the Great Migration," presented to the 1997 Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association, Toronto, Canada, 9 Aug. 1997.
22. The term "Negro Main Street" is from Wilmoth A. Carter, "Negro Main Street as a Symbol of Discrimination," Phylon 21 (Fall 1960). Robert L. Boyd has recently conducted a series of investigations of black business in northern cities during the years of the Great Migration (1900-1930). His findings were similar to those in this study: as segregated black communities arose in these cities, their spatial isolation increased their participation in business enterprise. The major difference from the southern cities examined in this study is that black business in the North was mostly restricted to particular services, such as barbering, beauty culture, and undertaking, as well as specialized retail areas that catered to certain ethnic needs. In southern cities, on the other hand, African Americans engaged in a much broader range of business ventures. A particularly important difference was their ownership, in most southern cities, of small corner grocery stores. See Robert L. Boyd, "Residential Segregation by Race and the Black Merchants of Northern Cities during the Early Twentieth Century, " Sociological Forum 13, no. 4 (1998): 595-609; his "The Great Migration to the North and the Rise of Ethnic Niches for African American Women in Beauty Culture and Hairdressing," Sociological Focus 29 (1996): 33-45; and also his paper, "The Protected Market Hypothesis and Ethnic Residential Segregation: The Case of Black Undertakers in Northern Cities during the Great Migration," presented to the 1997 Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association, Toronto, Canada, 9 Aug. 1997.
23. The term "Negro Main Street" is from Wilmoth A. Carter, "Negro Main Street as a Symbol of Discrimination," Phylon 21 (Fall 1960). Robert L. Boyd has recently conducted a series of investigations of black business in northern cities during the years of the Great Migration (1900-1930). His findings were similar to those in this study: as segregated black communities arose in these cities, their spatial isolation increased their participation in business enterprise. The major difference from the southern cities examined in this study is that black business in the North was mostly restricted to particular services, such as barbering, beauty culture, and undertaking, as well as specialized retail areas that catered to certain ethnic needs. In southern cities, on the other hand, African Americans engaged in a much broader range of business ventures. A particularly important difference was their ownership, in most southern cities, of small corner grocery stores. See Robert L. Boyd, "Residential Segregation by Race and the Black Merchants of Northern Cities during the Early Twentieth Century, " Sociological Forum 13, no. 4 (1998): 595-609; his "The Great Migration to the North and the Rise of Ethnic Niches for African American Women in Beauty Culture and Hairdressing," Sociological Focus 29 (1996): 33-45; and also his paper, "The Protected Market Hypothesis and Ethnic Residential Segregation: The Case of Black Undertakers in Northern Cities during the Great Migration," presented to the 1997 Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association, Toronto, Canada, 9 Aug. 1997.
24. John Blassingame, "Before the Ghetto: The Making of the Black Community in Savannah, Georgia, 1865-1880," Journal of Social History 6 (Summer 1973): 473-4; and Jerry J. Thornberry, "The Development of Black Atlanta, 1865-1885" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1977), 27, 128. See also Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, Calif., 1991), especially ch. 6; Michael L. Porter, "Black Atlanta: An Interdisciplinary Study of Blacks on the East Side of Atlanta, 1890-1930" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1974) ; and Thomas W. Hanchette, Sorting Out the New South City: Race, Class, and Urban Development in Charlotte, 1875-1975 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1998), ch. 5. Sam Bass Warner Jr., in Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900 (Cambridge. Mass., 1962), 158-9, theorizes that these organizations must have been present for any neighborhood communities to form.
25. John Blassingame, "Before the Ghetto: The Making of the Black Community in Savannah, Georgia, 1865-1880," Journal of Social History 6 (Summer 1973): 473-4; and Jerry J. Thornberry, "The Development of Black Atlanta, 1865-1885" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1977), 27, 128. See also Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, Calif., 1991), especially ch. 6; Michael L. Porter, "Black Atlanta: An Interdisciplinary Study of Blacks on the East Side of Atlanta, 1890-1930" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1974) ; and Thomas W. Hanchette, Sorting Out the New South City: Race, Class, and Urban Development in Charlotte, 1875-1975 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1998), ch. 5. Sam Bass Warner Jr., in Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900 (Cambridge. Mass., 1962), 158-9, theorizes that these organizations must have been present for any neighborhood communities to form.
26. John Blassingame, "Before the Ghetto: The Making of the Black Community in Savannah, Georgia, 1865-1880," Journal of Social History 6 (Summer 1973): 473-4; and Jerry J. Thornberry, "The Development of Black Atlanta, 1865-1885" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1977), 27, 128. See also Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, Calif., 1991), especially ch. 6; Michael L. Porter, "Black Atlanta: An Interdisciplinary Study of Blacks on the East Side of Atlanta, 1890-1930" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1974) ; and Thomas W. Hanchette, Sorting Out the New South City: Race, Class, and Urban Development in Charlotte, 1875-1975 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1998), ch. 5. Sam Bass Warner Jr., in Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900 (Cambridge. Mass., 1962), 158-9, theorizes that these organizations must have been present for any neighborhood communities to form.
27. John Blassingame, "Before the Ghetto: The Making of the Black Community in Savannah, Georgia, 1865-1880," Journal of Social History 6 (Summer 1973): 473-4; and Jerry J. Thornberry, "The Development of Black Atlanta, 1865-1885" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1977), 27, 128. See also Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, Calif., 1991), especially ch. 6; Michael L. Porter, "Black Atlanta: An Interdisciplinary Study of Blacks on the East Side of Atlanta, 1890-1930" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1974) ; and Thomas W. Hanchette, Sorting Out the New South City: Race, Class, and Urban Development in Charlotte, 1875-1975 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1998), ch. 5. Sam Bass Warner Jr., in Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900 (Cambridge. Mass., 1962), 158-9, theorizes that these organizations must have been present for any neighborhood communities to form.
28. John Blassingame, "Before the Ghetto: The Making of the Black Community in Savannah, Georgia, 1865-1880," Journal of Social History 6 (Summer 1973): 473-4; and Jerry J. Thornberry, "The Development of Black Atlanta, 1865-1885" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1977), 27, 128. See also Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, Calif., 1991), especially ch. 6; Michael L. Porter, "Black Atlanta: An Interdisciplinary Study of Blacks on the East Side of Atlanta, 1890-1930" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1974) ; and Thomas W. Hanchette, Sorting Out the New South City: Race, Class, and Urban Development in Charlotte, 1875-1975 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1998), ch. 5. Sam Bass Warner Jr., in Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900 (Cambridge. Mass., 1962), 158-9, theorizes that these organizations must have been present for any neighborhood communities to form.
29. John Blassingame, "Before the Ghetto: The Making of the Black Community in Savannah, Georgia, 1865-1880," Journal of Social History 6 (Summer 1973): 473-4; and Jerry J. Thornberry, "The Development of Black Atlanta, 1865-1885" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1977), 27, 128. See also Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, Calif., 1991), especially ch. 6; Michael L. Porter, "Black Atlanta: An Interdisciplinary Study of Blacks on the East Side of Atlanta, 1890-1930" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1974) ; and Thomas W. Hanchette, Sorting Out the New South City: Race, Class, and Urban Development in Charlotte, 1875-1975 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1998), ch. 5. Sam Bass Warner Jr., in Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900 (Cambridge. Mass., 1962), 158-9, theorizes that these organizations must have been present for any neighborhood communities to form.
30. A number of scholars have demonstrated this phenomenon, especially in the North, but it was also prevalent in the South. See Hanchette, Sorting Out the New South City, 116; Elsa Barkley Brown, "Uncle Ned's Children: Negotiating Community and Freedom in Postemancipation Richmond, Virginia" (Ph.D. diss., Kent State University, 1994), 193-218; George C. Wright, Life Behind the Veil: Blacks in Louisville, Kentucky, 1865-1930 (Baton Rouge, La., 1985), 83; Lester C. Lamon, Black Tennesseans, 1900-1930 (Knoxville, Tenn., 1977), 140-1; and John Dittmer, Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 1900-1920 (Urbana, Ill., 1977), 38, for examples of this in the South.
31. A number of scholars have demonstrated this phenomenon, especially in the North, but it was also prevalent in the South. See Hanchette, Sorting Out the New South City, 116; Elsa Barkley Brown, "Uncle Ned's Children: Negotiating Community and Freedom in Postemancipation Richmond, Virginia" (Ph.D. diss., Kent State University, 1994), 193-218; George C. Wright, Life Behind the Veil: Blacks in Louisville, Kentucky, 1865-1930 (Baton Rouge, La., 1985), 83; Lester C. Lamon, Black Tennesseans, 1900-1930 (Knoxville, Tenn., 1977), 140-1; and John Dittmer, Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 1900-1920 (Urbana, Ill., 1977), 38, for examples of this in the South.
32. A number of scholars have demonstrated this phenomenon, especially in the North, but it was also prevalent in the South. See Hanchette, Sorting Out the New South City, 116; Elsa Barkley Brown, "Uncle Ned's Children: Negotiating Community and Freedom in Postemancipation Richmond, Virginia" (Ph.D. diss., Kent State University, 1994), 193-218; George C. Wright, Life Behind the Veil: Blacks in Louisville, Kentucky, 1865-1930 (Baton Rouge, La., 1985), 83; Lester C. Lamon, Black Tennesseans, 1900-1930 (Knoxville, Tenn., 1977), 140-1; and John Dittmer, Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 1900-1920 (Urbana, Ill., 1977), 38, for examples of this in the South.
33. A number of scholars have demonstrated this phenomenon, especially in the North, but it was also prevalent in the South. See Hanchette, Sorting Out the New South City, 116; Elsa Barkley Brown, "Uncle Ned's Children: Negotiating Community and Freedom in Postemancipation Richmond, Virginia" (Ph.D. diss., Kent State University, 1994), 193-218; George C. Wright, Life Behind the Veil: Blacks in Louisville, Kentucky, 1865-1930 (Baton Rouge, La., 1985), 83; Lester C. Lamon, Black Tennesseans, 1900-1930 (Knoxville, Tenn., 1977), 140-1; and John Dittmer, Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 1900-1920 (Urbana, Ill., 1977), 38, for examples of this in the South.
34. A number of scholars have demonstrated this phenomenon, especially in the North, but it was also prevalent in the South. See Hanchette, Sorting Out the New South City, 116; Elsa Barkley Brown, "Uncle Ned's Children: Negotiating Community and Freedom in Postemancipation Richmond, Virginia" (Ph.D. diss., Kent State University, 1994), 193-218; George C. Wright, Life Behind the Veil: Blacks in Louisville, Kentucky, 1865-1930 (Baton Rouge, La., 1985), 83; Lester C. Lamon, Black Tennesseans, 1900-1930 (Knoxville, Tenn., 1977), 140-1; and John Dittmer, Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 1900-1920 (Urbana, Ill., 1977), 38, for examples of this in the South.
35. U.S. Census, unpublished mss., Record Group 29, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
36. In 1860, there were 3,237 free blacks in Charleston and 13,909 slaves. In Richmond in the same year there were 2,576 free African Americans and 11,699 slaves. Savannah had just 705 free blacks and 7,712 slaves. New Orleans had 10,689 free blacks and 13,385 slaves, while Washington had 9,209 free African Americans to just 1,774 slaves. Wade, Slavery in the Cities, 326-7.
37. John P. Radford, "Culture, Economy and Urban Structure of Charleston, South Carolina, 1860-1880" (Ph.D. diss., Clark University, 1974). See also his "Social Structure and Urban Form: Charleston, 1860-1880," in From the Old South to the New: Essays on the Transitional South, eds. Walter J. Fraser and Winfred B. Moore Jr. (Westport, Conn., 1980), 81-92.
38. John P. Radford, "Culture, Economy and Urban Structure of Charleston, South Carolina, 1860-1880" (Ph.D. diss., Clark University, 1974). See also his "Social Structure and Urban Form: Charleston, 1860-1880," in From the Old South to the New: Essays on the Transitional South, eds. Walter J. Fraser and Winfred B. Moore Jr. (Westport, Conn., 1980), 81-92.
39. Frederick A. Ford, Census of the City of Charleston, South Carolina for the Year 1861 (Charleston, 1861), taken from Karl E. Taeuber and Alma F. Taeuber, Negroes in Cities: Residential Segregation and Neighborhood Change (New York, 1965), 45-6.
40. Frederick A. Ford, Census of the City of Charleston, South Carolina for the Year 1861 (Charleston, 1861), taken from Karl E. Taeuber and Alma F. Taeuber, Negroes in Cities: Residential Segregation and Neighborhood Change (New York, 1965), 45-6.
41. Information compiled from Scholes' City Directory, Charleston, 1881 (Charleston, S.C., 1881). African Americans, for example, controlled 87 percent of the 52 barbershops in the city. They were located on white business streets and serviced only the white trade. There was a similar situation with butcher shops, poultry dealers, blacksmiths, tailors, dressmakers, and boot and shoemakers.
42. Zane Miller, "Urban Blacks in the South, 1865-1920: The Richmond, Savannah, New Orleans, Louisville and Birmingham Experience," in The New Urban History: Quantitative Explorations by American Historians, ed. Leo F. Schnore (Princeton, N.J., 1975), 201; Arnold R. Hirsch and Joseph Logsdon, Creole New Orleans: Race and Americanization (Baton Rouge, La., 1992), 13; John Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago, 1973); and Spain, "Race Relations," 85-6.
43. Zane Miller, "Urban Blacks in the South, 1865-1920: The Richmond, Savannah, New Orleans, Louisville and Birmingham Experience," in The New Urban History: Quantitative Explorations by American Historians, ed. Leo F. Schnore (Princeton, N.J., 1975), 201; Arnold R. Hirsch and Joseph Logsdon, Creole New Orleans: Race and Americanization (Baton Rouge, La., 1992), 13; John Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago, 1973); and Spain, "Race Relations," 85-6.
44. Zane Miller, "Urban Blacks in the South, 1865-1920: The Richmond, Savannah, New Orleans, Louisville and Birmingham Experience," in The New Urban History: Quantitative Explorations by American Historians, ed. Leo F. Schnore (Princeton, N.J., 1975), 201; Arnold R. Hirsch and Joseph Logsdon, Creole New Orleans: Race and Americanization (Baton Rouge, La., 1992), 13; John Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago, 1973); and Spain, "Race Relations," 85-6.
45. Zane Miller, "Urban Blacks in the South, 1865-1920: The Richmond, Savannah, New Orleans, Louisville and Birmingham Experience," in The New Urban History: Quantitative Explorations by American Historians, ed. Leo F. Schnore (Princeton, N.J., 1975), 201; Arnold R. Hirsch and Joseph Logsdon, Creole New Orleans: Race and Americanization (Baton Rouge, La., 1992), 13; John Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago, 1973); and Spain, "Race Relations," 85-6.
46. Loren Schweninger, "Prosperous Blacks in the South, 1790-1880, " American Historical Review 95 (Feb. 1990): 40.
47. City directories in New Orleans did not list African Americans separately from whites, so it is impossible to construct the same type of analysis as in Charleston. But evidence from a variety of sources points to the existence of a number of businesses courting the black trade on several streets in this area. Most useful in this regard are the holdings in the Marcus Bruce Christian Collection of Papers and Memorabilia in the Special Holdings Collection at the Earl K. Long Library at the University of New Orleans. In this collection Christian details a large number of businesses in these areas that depended upon an African American trade.
48. Blassingame, "Before the Ghetto," 481.
49. Ibid., 466-8. See also Robert Perdue, The Negro in Savannah, 1865-1900 (New York, 1973).
50. Ibid., 466-8. See also Robert Perdue, The Negro in Savannah, 1865-1900 (New York, 1973).
51. John H. Ellis, "Disease and the Destiny of a City: The 1878 Yellow Fever Epidemic in Memphis," Western Tennessee History Society Papers 28 (1974): 75.
52. Kenneth W. Goings and Gerald L. Smith, "'Unhidden' Transcripts: Memphis and African American Agency, 1862-1920," Journal of Urban History 21 (Mar. 1995): 372-94.
53. Denoral Davis, "Against the Odds: Postbellum Growth and Development in a Southern Urban Black Community, 1865-1900" (Ph.D. diss., State University of New York at Binghamton, 1987), 50-5.
54. Groves and Muller, "The Evolution of Black Residential Areas," 177-8. See also, James Borchert, Alley Life in Washington: Family, Community, Religion, and Folklife in the City, 1850-1970 (Urbana, Ill., 1980); Paul A. Groves, "The 'Hidden' Population: Washington's Alley Dwellers in the Later Nineteenth Century," Professional Geographer 26 (Aug. 1974): 270-6; and John P. Radford, "Patterns of Nonwhite Residential Segregation in Washington, D.C., in the Late Nineteenth Century" (M.A. thesis, University of Maryland, 1967).
55. Groves and Muller, "The Evolution of Black Residential Areas," 177-8. See also, James Borchert, Alley Life in Washington: Family, Community, Religion, and Folklife in the City, 1850-1970 (Urbana, Ill., 1980); Paul A. Groves, "The 'Hidden' Population: Washington's Alley Dwellers in the Later Nineteenth Century," Professional Geographer 26 (Aug. 1974): 270-6; and John P. Radford, "Patterns of Nonwhite Residential Segregation in Washington, D.C., in the Late Nineteenth Century" (M.A. thesis, University of Maryland, 1967).
56. Groves and Muller, "The Evolution of Black Residential Areas," 177-8. See also, James Borchert, Alley Life in Washington: Family, Community, Religion, and Folklife in the City, 1850-1970 (Urbana, Ill., 1980); Paul A. Groves, "The 'Hidden' Population: Washington's Alley Dwellers in the Later Nineteenth Century," Professional Geographer 26 (Aug. 1974): 270-6; and John P. Radford, "Patterns of Nonwhite Residential Segregation in Washington, D.C., in the Late Nineteenth Century" (M.A. thesis, University of Maryland, 1967).
57. Groves and Muller, "The Evolution of Black Residential Areas," 177-8. See also, James Borchert, Alley Life in Washington: Family, Community, Religion, and Folklife in the City, 1850-1970 (Urbana, Ill., 1980); Paul A. Groves, "The 'Hidden' Population: Washington's Alley Dwellers in the Later Nineteenth Century," Professional Geographer 26 (Aug. 1974): 270-6; and John P. Radford, "Patterns of Nonwhite Residential Segregation in Washington, D.C., in the Late Nineteenth Century" (M.A. thesis, University of Maryland, 1967).
58. Michael Andrew Fitzpatrick, "Shaw, Washington's Premier Black Neighborhood: An Examination of the Origins and Development of a Black Business Movement, 1880-1920" (M.A. thesis, University of Virginia, 1989).
59. Kellogg, "Urban Clusters," 317-18.
60. Chataigne's Richmond Directory, 1879-80 (Richmond, Va., 1879).
61. Scholes' City Directory, Charleston, 1881 (Charleston, S.C., 1881).
62. The Charleston City Directory, 1890 (Charleston, S.C., 1890), and Charleston S.C. City Directory, 1901 (Charleston, 1901); and Dale Rosengarten et al., Between the Tracks: Charleston's East Side during the Nineteenth Century (Charleston, 1987), 95. MCFall's Drug Store, though, made much of the fact that it attracted a mixed race clientele.
63. The Charleston City Directory, 1890 (Charleston, S.C., 1890), and Charleston S.C. City Directory, 1901 (Charleston, 1901); and Dale Rosengarten et al., Between the Tracks: Charleston's East Side during the Nineteenth Century (Charleston, 1987), 95. MCFall's Drug Store, though, made much of the fact that it attracted a mixed race clientele.
64. The Charleston City Directory, 1890 (Charleston, S.C., 1890), and Charleston S.C. City Directory, 1901 (Charleston, 1901); and Dale Rosengarten et al., Between the Tracks: Charleston's East Side during the Nineteenth Century (Charleston, 1987), 95. MCFall's Drug Store, though, made much of the fact that it attracted a mixed race clientele.
65. Du Bois, The Negro in Business, 33.
66. Spain, "Race Relations," 86; and Pierce F. Lewis, New Orleans: The Making of an Urban Landscape (Cambridge, Mass., 1976), 44.
67. Spain, "Race Relations," 86; and Pierce F. Lewis, New Orleans: The Making of an Urban Landscape (Cambridge, Mass., 1976), 44.
68. Woods' Directory: Being a Colored Business, Professional and Trades Directory of New Orleans, Louisiana (New Orleans, 1914).
69. Miller, "Urban Blacks," 202.
70. Taeuber and Taeuber, Negroes in Cities, 41.
71. Scholes' Directory of the City of Savannah, 1900 (Savannah, Ga., 1900).
72. Groves and Muller, "The Evolution of Black Residential Areas," 181.
73. Michael Andrew Fitzpatrick, "'A Great Agitation for Business': Black Economic Development in Shaw," Washington History 2, no. 2 (Fall/Winter 1990-91): 48-73, 109-11, and his "Shaw, Washington's Premier Black Neighborhood." See also Marcia M. Greenlee, "Shaw: Heart of Black Washington," in Washington At Home, ed. Kathryn S. Smyth (Washington, D.C., 1988), 119-29.
74. Michael Andrew Fitzpatrick, "'A Great Agitation for Business': Black Economic Development in Shaw," Washington History 2, no. 2 (Fall/Winter 1990-91): 48-73, 109-11, and his "Shaw, Washington's Premier Black Neighborhood." See also Marcia M. Greenlee, "Shaw: Heart of Black Washington," in Washington At Home, ed. Kathryn S. Smyth (Washington, D.C., 1988), 119-29.
75. Michael Andrew Fitzpatrick, "'A Great Agitation for Business': Black Economic Development in Shaw," Washington History 2, no. 2 (Fall/Winter 1990-91): 48-73, 109-11, and his "Shaw, Washington's Premier Black Neighborhood." See also Marcia M. Greenlee, "Shaw: Heart of Black Washington," in Washington At Home, ed. Kathryn S. Smyth (Washington, D.C., 1988), 119-29.
76. Andrew F. Hillyer, "An Address on the Union League and the Industrial and Organized Status of the Colored People of the District of Columbia," delivered at the annual meeting of the Union League, April 1893, pp. 1-3 (Andrew F. Hillyer Papers, Library of Congress).
77. Fitzpatrick, "Shaw, Washington's Premier Black Neighborhood," 33.
78. Sherman's Directory and Ready Reference of the Colored Population in the District of Columbia (Washington, D.C., 1913).
79. Union League Directory, 1901 (Washington, D.C.).
80. Memphis City Directory, 1900 (Memphis, Tenn., 1900).
81. Richard M. Raichelson, Beale Street Talks: A Walking Tour Down the Home of the Blues (Memphis, Tenn., 1994); David Bowman, "Beale Street Blues," Southern Exposure 5, no. 1 (1977): 75-9; David M. Tucker, Lieutenant Lee of Beale Street (Nashville, Tenn., 1971).
82. Richard M. Raichelson, Beale Street Talks: A Walking Tour Down the Home of the Blues (Memphis, Tenn., 1994); David Bowman, "Beale Street Blues," Southern Exposure 5, no. 1 (1977): 75-9; David M. Tucker, Lieutenant Lee of Beale Street (Nashville, Tenn., 1971).
83. Richard M. Raichelson, Beale Street Talks: A Walking Tour Down the Home of the Blues (Memphis, Tenn., 1994); David Bowman, "Beale Street Blues," Southern Exposure 5, no. 1 (1977): 75-9; David M. Tucker, Lieutenant Lee of Beale Street (Nashville, Tenn., 1971).
84. Marcus D. Pohlmann, "Memphis, Tennessee," in Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History, vol. 3, eds. Jack Salzman, David Lionel Smith, and Cornel West (New York, 1996), 1754.
85. On Atlanta, see Porter, "Black Atlanta"; Thornberry, "The Development of Black Atlanta." On Nashville, see Benjamin H. Walter, "Ethnicity and Residential Succession: Nashville, 1850-1920," John M. Marshall, "Residential Expansion and Central-City Change," and John Vahaly and Benjamin Walter, "Black Residential Succession in Nashville, 1930-1960," all in Growing Metropolis: Aspects of Development in Nashville, eds. James F. Blumstein and Benjamin Walter (Nashville, Tenn., 1975); Blanche Clark Weaver, "Shifting Residential Patterns in Nashville," Tennessee Historical Quarterly 8 (1959): 2.3-4, 28-9; and Faye Welborn Robbins, "A World within a World: Black Nashville, 1880-1915" (Ph.D. diss., University of Arkansas, 1980).
86. On Atlanta, see Porter, "Black Atlanta"; Thornberry, "The Development of Black Atlanta." On Nashville, see Benjamin H. Walter, "Ethnicity and Residential Succession: Nashville, 1850-1920," John M. Marshall, "Residential Expansion and Central-City Change," and John Vahaly and Benjamin Walter, "Black Residential Succession in Nashville, 1930-1960," all in Growing Metropolis: Aspects of Development in Nashville, eds. James F. Blumstein and Benjamin Walter (Nashville, Tenn., 1975); Blanche Clark Weaver, "Shifting Residential Patterns in Nashville," Tennessee Historical Quarterly 8 (1959): 2.3-4, 28-9; and Faye Welborn Robbins, "A World within a World: Black Nashville, 1880-1915" (Ph.D. diss., University of Arkansas, 1980).
87. On Atlanta, see Porter, "Black Atlanta"; Thornberry, "The Development of Black Atlanta." On Nashville, see Benjamin H. Walter, "Ethnicity and Residential Succession: Nashville, 1850-1920," John M. Marshall, "Residential Expansion and Central-City Change," and John Vahaly and Benjamin Walter, "Black Residential Succession in Nashville, 1930-1960," all in Growing Metropolis: Aspects of Development in Nashville, eds. James F. Blumstein and Benjamin Walter (Nashville, Tenn., 1975); Blanche Clark Weaver, "Shifting Residential Patterns in Nashville," Tennessee Historical Quarterly 8 (1959): 2.3-4, 28-9; and Faye Welborn Robbins, "A World within a World: Black Nashville, 1880-1915" (Ph.D. diss., University of Arkansas, 1980).
88. On Atlanta, see Porter, "Black Atlanta"; Thornberry, "The Development of Black Atlanta." On Nashville, see Benjamin H. Walter, "Ethnicity and Residential Succession: Nashville, 1850-1920," John M. Marshall, "Residential Expansion and Central-City Change," and John Vahaly and Benjamin Walter, "Black Residential Succession in Nashville, 1930-1960," all in Growing Metropolis: Aspects of Development in Nashville, eds. James F. Blumstein and Benjamin Walter (Nashville, Tenn., 1975); Blanche Clark Weaver, "Shifting Residential Patterns in Nashville," Tennessee Historical Quarterly 8 (1959): 2.3-4, 28-9; and Faye Welborn Robbins, "A World within a World: Black Nashville, 1880-1915" (Ph.D. diss., University of Arkansas, 1980).
89. On Atlanta, see Porter, "Black Atlanta"; Thornberry, "The Development of Black Atlanta." On Nashville, see Benjamin H. Walter, "Ethnicity and Residential Succession: Nashville, 1850-1920," John M. Marshall, "Residential Expansion and Central-City Change," and John Vahaly and Benjamin Walter, "Black Residential Succession in Nashville, 1930-1960," all in Growing Metropolis: Aspects of Development in Nashville, eds. James F. Blumstein and Benjamin Walter (Nashville, Tenn., 1975); Blanche Clark Weaver, "Shifting Residential Patterns in Nashville," Tennessee Historical Quarterly 8 (1959): 2.3-4, 28-9; and Faye Welborn Robbins, "A World within a World: Black Nashville, 1880-1915" (Ph.D. diss., University of Arkansas, 1980).
90. On Atlanta, see Porter, "Black Atlanta"; Thornberry, "The Development of Black Atlanta." On Nashville, see Benjamin H. Walter, "Ethnicity and Residential Succession: Nashville, 1850-1920," John M. Marshall, "Residential Expansion and Central-City Change," and John Vahaly and Benjamin Walter, "Black Residential Succession in Nashville, 1930-1960," all in Growing Metropolis: Aspects of Development in Nashville, eds. James F. Blumstein and Benjamin Walter (Nashville, Tenn., 1975); Blanche Clark Weaver, "Shifting Residential Patterns in Nashville," Tennessee Historical Quarterly 8 (1959): 2.3-4, 28-9; and Faye Welborn Robbins, "A World within a World: Black Nashville, 1880-1915" (Ph.D. diss., University of Arkansas, 1980).
91. On Atlanta, see Porter, "Black Atlanta"; Thornberry, "The Development of Black Atlanta." On Nashville, see Benjamin H. Walter, "Ethnicity and Residential Succession: Nashville, 1850-1920," John M. Marshall, "Residential Expansion and Central-City Change," and John Vahaly and Benjamin Walter, "Black Residential Succession in Nashville, 1930-1960," all in Growing Metropolis: Aspects of Development in Nashville, eds. James F. Blumstein and Benjamin Walter (Nashville, Tenn., 1975); Blanche Clark Weaver, "Shifting Residential Patterns in Nashville," Tennessee Historical Quarterly 8 (1959): 2.3-4, 28-9; and Faye Welborn Robbins, "A World within a World: Black Nashville, 1880-1915" (Ph.D. diss., University of Arkansas, 1980).
92. On Atlanta, see Porter, "Black Atlanta"; Thornberry, "The Development of Black Atlanta." On Nashville, see Benjamin H. Walter, "Ethnicity and Residential Succession: Nashville, 1850-1920," John M. Marshall, "Residential Expansion and Central-City Change," and John Vahaly and Benjamin Walter, "Black Residential Succession in Nashville, 1930-1960," all in Growing Metropolis: Aspects of Development in Nashville, eds. James F. Blumstein and Benjamin Walter (Nashville, Tenn., 1975); Blanche Clark Weaver, "Shifting Residential Patterns in Nashville," Tennessee Historical Quarterly 8 (1959): 2.3-4, 28-9; and Faye Welborn Robbins, "A World within a World: Black Nashville, 1880-1915" (Ph.D. diss., University of Arkansas, 1980).
93. Don H. Doyle, Nashville in the New South, 1880-1930 (Knoxville, Tenn., 1985), 78-9.
94. Nashville City Directory, 1910 (Nashville, Tenn., 1910).
95. Don H. Doyle, Nashville since the 1920s (Nashville, Tenn., 1985), 42. See also Douglas Carr Davis, "The Underworld of Nashville: Its Character and Function Based on Records of Personal Experiences of Prisoners in the Tennessee State Prison" (M.A. thesis, Fisk University, 1941); and George Washington Woody Jr. "The Natural History of a Slum Area and of its Inherent Characteristics" (M.A. thesis, Fisk University, 1940).
96. Don H. Doyle, Nashville since the 1920s (Nashville, Tenn., 1985), 42. See also Douglas Carr Davis, "The Underworld of Nashville: Its Character and Function Based on Records of Personal Experiences of Prisoners in the Tennessee State Prison" (M.A. thesis, Fisk University, 1941); and George Washington Woody Jr. "The Natural History of a Slum Area and of its Inherent Characteristics" (M.A. thesis, Fisk University, 1940).
97. Don H. Doyle, Nashville since the 1920s (Nashville, Tenn., 1985), 42. See also Douglas Carr Davis, "The Underworld of Nashville: Its Character and Function Based on Records of Personal Experiences of Prisoners in the Tennessee State Prison" (M.A. thesis, Fisk University, 1941); and George Washington Woody Jr. "The Natural History of a Slum Area and of its Inherent Characteristics" (M.A. thesis, Fisk University, 1940).
98. Nashville Directory, 1880 (Nashville, Tenn., 1880).
99. Nashville Directories 1900 & 1910 (Nashville, Tenn., 1900, 1910). See also "Historical Black Sites and Buildings in Nashville, 1824-1925, Phase I: Thematic Survey Project" (Nashville, Tenn., 1981), 7.
100. Nashville Directories 1900 & 1910 (Nashville, Tenn., 1900, 1910). See also "Historical Black Sites and Buildings in Nashville, 1824-1925, Phase I: Thematic Survey Project" (Nashville, Tenn., 1981), 7.
101. Dittmer, Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 12.
102. Josephine Allen, "Atlanta, Georgia," in Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History, vol. 1, 211.
103. W. E. B. Du Bois, "The Negro North and South," Bibliotheca Sacra 62 (July 1905): 505.
104. Atlanta City Directory for 1901 (Atlanta, 1901). In the city overall, African Americans made up just one third of the population.
105. The growing pattern of segregation in Atlanta was reified in 1913 when the city passed an ordinance stipulating that an occupant of a house in a mixed block could legally object to a person of another color moving in next door. See Roger L. Rice, "Residential Segregation by Law, 1910-1917," Journal of Southern History 34 (May 1968): 181.
106. Sholes' Atlanta Directory, 1880 (Atlanta, Ga., 1880).
107. Atlanta City Directory (Atlanta, 1901).
108. See Mark Bauerlein, Negrophobia: A Race Riot in Atlanta, 1906 (San Francisco, 2001); and Gregory Mixon, '"Good Negro, Bad Negro': The Dynamics of Race and Class in Atlanta During the Era of the 1906 Riot," Georgia Historical Quarterly 81 (1997): 593-621.
109. See Mark Bauerlein, Negrophobia: A Race Riot in Atlanta, 1906 (San Francisco, 2001); and Gregory Mixon, '"Good Negro, Bad Negro': The Dynamics of Race and Class in Atlanta During the Era of the 1906 Riot," Georgia Historical Quarterly 81 (1997): 593-621.
110. Atlanta City Directory for 1910 (Atlanta, 1909).
111. Carl V. Harris, "Reforms in Government Control of Negroes in Birmingham, Alabama, 1890-1920," Journal of Southern History 38, no. 4 (1972): 570. "Large" cities are defined as those with populations over 100,000.
112. I b i d.
113. Miller, "Urban Blacks," 203.
114. Margaret Longnecker White, ed. The Birmingham District: An Industrial History and Guide (Birmingham, Ala., 1981), 321.
115. Maloney's Birmingham 1900 City Directory (Atlanta, 1900).
116. Birmingham Directory, 1908 (Birmingham, Ala., 1908).
117. See Lynne B. Feldman, A Sense of Place: Birmingham's Black Middle-Class Community, 1890-1930 (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1999), 94-102.
118. Kellogg, "Urban Clusters," 319-20.
119. Durham City Directory, 1909-10 (Durham, N.C., 1909).
120. Walter B. Weare, Black Business in the New South: A Social History of North Carolina Mutual Insurance Company (Urbana. Ill, 1983), 76.
121. White, The Birmingham District, 320; Allen, "Atlanta," 213.
122. White, The Birmingham District, 320; Allen, "Atlanta," 213.
123. Chataigne's Richmond City Directory, 1879-80 (Richmond, Va., 1879).
124. Directory of Richmond, Virginia, 1897 (Richmond, 1897).
125. On William Washington Browne, see Daniel Webster David, The Life and Public Services of Rev. Wm. Washington Browne (Philadelphia, 1910); James D. Wilkinson, "William Washington Browne and the True Reformers of Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History 97, no. 3 (July 1989); "W. W. Browne: Organizer Extraordinary," Richmond Literature and Historical Quarterly 2, no. 3 (Winter 1979); Abram Lincoln Harris, The Negro As Capitalist: A Study of Banking and Business Among American Negroes (Philadelphia, 1936), ch. 5; and William Patrick Burrell and D. E. Johnson, Twenty-Five Years' History of the Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers, 1881-1905 (Richmond, Va., 1909). On John Mitchell, see Ann Field Alexander, "Black Protest in the New South: John Mitchell, Jr. (1863-1929) and the Richmond 'Planet" (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1973); George Henry Johnson Jr., "Richmond Negro Business during the 1920s" (M.A. thesis, Virginia State University, 1969); Harris, Negro as Capitalist; Richmond Afro-American, 20-24 Jan. 1976, 26 Mar. 1983. On Maggie Lena Walker, see Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14, no. 3 (1989) ; Charles Willis Simmons, "Maggie Lena Walker and the Consolidated Bank and Trust Company," Negro History Bulletin 38, no. 2 (1975); Suse Field, "Maggie Lena Walker: Lifting as We Climb," Richmond 1 (1976); Daniel Porter Jordan, "Indomitable Maggie Walker," Commonwealth 48, no. 3 (Mar. 1981); and Sepia, Dec. 1977.
126. On William Washington Browne, see Daniel Webster David, The Life and Public Services of Rev. Wm. Washington Browne (Philadelphia, 1910); James D. Wilkinson, "William Washington Browne and the True Reformers of Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History 97, no. 3 (July 1989); "W. W. Browne: Organizer Extraordinary," Richmond Literature and Historical Quarterly 2, no. 3 (Winter 1979); Abram Lincoln Harris, The Negro As Capitalist: A Study of Banking and Business Among American Negroes (Philadelphia, 1936), ch. 5; and William Patrick Burrell and D. E. Johnson, Twenty-Five Years' History of the Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers, 1881-1905 (Richmond, Va., 1909). On John Mitchell, see Ann Field Alexander, "Black Protest in the New South: John Mitchell, Jr. (1863-1929) and the Richmond 'Planet" (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1973); George Henry Johnson Jr., "Richmond Negro Business during the 1920s" (M.A. thesis, Virginia State University, 1969); Harris, Negro as Capitalist; Richmond Afro-American, 20-24 Jan. 1976, 26 Mar. 1983. On Maggie Lena Walker, see Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of
127. On William Washington Browne, see Daniel Webster David, The Life and Public Services of Rev. Wm. Washington Browne (Philadelphia, 1910); James D. Wilkinson, "William Washington Browne and the True Reformers of Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History 97, no. 3 (July 1989); "W. W. Browne: Organizer Extraordinary," Richmond Literature and Historical Quarterly 2, no. 3 (Winter 1979); Abram Lincoln Harris, The Negro As Capitalist: A Study of Banking and Business Among American Negroes (Philadelphia, 1936), ch. 5; and William Patrick Burrell and D. E. Johnson, Twenty-Five Years' History of the Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers, 1881-1905 (Richmond, Va., 1909). On John Mitchell, see Ann Field Alexander, "Black Protest in the New South: John Mitchell, Jr. (1863-1929) and the Richmond 'Planet" (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1973); George Henry Johnson Jr., "Richmond Negro Business during the 1920s" (M.A. thesis, Virginia State University, 1969); Harris, Negro as Capitalist; Richmond Afro-American, 20-24 Jan. 1976, 26 Mar. 1983. On Maggie Lena Walker, see Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14, no. 3 (1989) ; Charles Willis Simmons, "Maggie Lena Walker and the Consolidated Bank and Trust Company," Negro History Bulletin 38, no. 2 (1975); Suse Field, "Maggie Lena Walker: Lifting as We Climb," Richmond 1 (1976); Daniel Porter Jordan, "Indomitable Maggie Walker," Commonwealth 48, no. 3 (Mar. 1981); and Sepia, Dec. 1977.
128. On William Washington Browne, see Daniel Webster David, The Life and Public Services of Rev. Wm. Washington Browne (Philadelphia, 1910); James D. Wilkinson, "William Washington Browne and the True Reformers of Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History 97, no. 3 (July 1989); "W. W. Browne: Organizer Extraordinary," Richmond Literature and Historical Quarterly 2, no. 3 (Winter 1979); Abram Lincoln Harris, The Negro As Capitalist: A Study of Banking and Business Among American Negroes (Philadelphia, 1936), ch. 5; and William Patrick Burrell and D. E. Johnson, Twenty-Five Years' History of the Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers, 1881-1905 (Richmond, Va., 1909). On John Mitchell, see Ann Field Alexander, "Black Protest in the New South: John Mitchell, Jr. (1863-1929) and the Richmond 'Planet" (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1973); George Henry Johnson Jr., "Richmond Negro Business during the 1920s" (M.A. thesis, Virginia State University, 1969); Harris, Negro as Capitalist; Richmond Afro-American, 20-24 Jan. 1976, 26 Mar. 1983. On Maggie Lena Walker, see Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14, no. 3 (1989) ; Charles Willis Simmons, "Maggie Lena Walker and the Consolidated Bank and Trust Company," Negro History Bulletin 38, no. 2 (1975); Suse Field, "Maggie Lena Walker: Lifting as We Climb," Richmond 1 (1976); Daniel Porter Jordan, "Indomitable Maggie Walker," Commonwealth 48, no. 3 (Mar. 1981); and Sepia, Dec. 1977.
129. On William Washington Browne, see Daniel Webster David, The Life and Public Services of Rev. Wm. Washington Browne (Philadelphia, 1910); James D. Wilkinson, "William Washington Browne and the True Reformers of Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History 97, no. 3 (July 1989); "W. W. Browne: Organizer Extraordinary," Richmond Literature and Historical Quarterly 2, no. 3 (Winter 1979); Abram Lincoln Harris, The Negro As Capitalist: A Study of Banking and Business Among American Negroes (Philadelphia, 1936), ch. 5; and William Patrick Burrell and D. E. Johnson, Twenty-Five Years' History of the Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers, 1881-1905 (Richmond, Va., 1909). On John Mitchell, see Ann Field Alexander, "Black Protest in the New South: John Mitchell, Jr. (1863-1929) and the Richmond 'Planet" (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1973); George Henry Johnson Jr., "Richmond Negro Business during the 1920s" (M.A. thesis, Virginia State University, 1969); Harris, Negro as Capitalist; Richmond Afro-American, 20-24 Jan. 1976, 26 Mar. 1983. On Maggie Lena Walker, see Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14, no. 3 (1989) ; Charles Willis Simmons, "Maggie Lena Walker and the Consolidated Bank and Trust Company," Negro History Bulletin 38, no. 2 (1975); Suse Field, "Maggie Lena Walker: Lifting as We Climb," Richmond 1 (1976); Daniel Porter Jordan, "Indomitable Maggie Walker," Commonwealth 48, no. 3 (Mar. 1981); and Sepia, Dec. 1977.
130. On William Washington Browne, see Daniel Webster David, The Life and Public Services of Rev. Wm. Washington Browne (Philadelphia, 1910); James D. Wilkinson, "William Washington Browne and the True Reformers of Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History 97, no. 3 (July 1989); "W. W. Browne: Organizer Extraordinary," Richmond Literature and Historical Quarterly 2, no. 3 (Winter 1979); Abram Lincoln Harris, The Negro As Capitalist: A Study of Banking and Business Among American Negroes (Philadelphia, 1936), ch. 5; and William Patrick Burrell and D. E. Johnson, Twenty-Five Years' History of the Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers, 1881-1905 (Richmond, Va., 1909). On John Mitchell, see Ann Field Alexander, "Black Protest in the New South: John Mitchell, Jr. (1863-1929) and the Richmond 'Planet" (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1973); George Henry Johnson Jr., "Richmond Negro Business during the 1920s" (M.A. thesis, Virginia State University, 1969); Harris, Negro as Capitalist; Richmond Afro-American, 20-24 Jan. 1976, 26 Mar. 1983. On Maggie Lena Walker, see Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14, no. 3 (1989) ; Charles Willis Simmons, "Maggie Lena Walker and the Consolidated Bank and Trust Company," Negro History Bulletin 38, no. 2 (1975); Suse Field, "Maggie Lena Walker: Lifting as We Climb," Richmond 1 (1976); Daniel Porter Jordan, "Indomitable Maggie Walker," Commonwealth 48, no. 3 (Mar. 1981); and Sepia, Dec. 1977.
131. On William Washington Browne, see Daniel Webster David, The Life and Public Services of Rev. Wm. Washington Browne (Philadelphia, 1910); James D. Wilkinson, "William Washington Browne and the True Reformers of Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History 97, no. 3 (July 1989); "W. W. Browne: Organizer Extraordinary," Richmond Literature and Historical Quarterly 2, no. 3 (Winter 1979); Abram Lincoln Harris, The Negro As Capitalist: A Study of Banking and Business Among American Negroes (Philadelphia, 1936), ch. 5; and William Patrick Burrell and D. E. Johnson, Twenty-Five Years' History of the Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers, 1881-1905 (Richmond, Va., 1909). On John Mitchell, see Ann Field Alexander, "Black Protest in the New South: John Mitchell, Jr. (1863-1929) and the Richmond 'Planet" (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1973); George Henry Johnson Jr., "Richmond Negro Business during the 1920s" (M.A. thesis, Virginia State University, 1969); Harris, Negro as Capitalist; Richmond Afro-American, 20-24 Jan. 1976, 26 Mar. 1983. On Maggie Lena Walker, see Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14, no. 3 (1989) ; Charles Willis Simmons, "Maggie Lena Walker and the Consolidated Bank and Trust Company," Negro History Bulletin 38, no. 2 (1975); Suse Field, "Maggie Lena Walker: Lifting as We Climb," Richmond 1 (1976); Daniel Porter Jordan, "Indomitable Maggie Walker," Commonwealth 48, no. 3 (Mar. 1981); and Sepia, Dec. 1977.
132. On William Washington Browne, see Daniel Webster David, The Life and Public Services of Rev. Wm. Washington Browne (Philadelphia, 1910); James D. Wilkinson, "William Washington Browne and the True Reformers of Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History 97, no. 3 (July 1989); "W. W. Browne: Organizer Extraordinary," Richmond Literature and Historical Quarterly 2, no. 3 (Winter 1979); Abram Lincoln Harris, The Negro As Capitalist: A Study of Banking and Business Among American Negroes (Philadelphia, 1936), ch. 5; and William Patrick Burrell and D. E. Johnson, Twenty-Five Years' History of the Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers, 1881-1905 (Richmond, Va., 1909). On John Mitchell, see Ann Field Alexander, "Black Protest in the New South: John Mitchell, Jr. (1863-1929) and the Richmond 'Planet" (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1973); George Henry Johnson Jr., "Richmond Negro Business during the 1920s" (M.A. thesis, Virginia State University, 1969); Harris, Negro as Capitalist; Richmond Afro-American, 20-24 Jan. 1976, 26 Mar. 1983. On Maggie Lena Walker, see Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14, no. 3 (1989) ; Charles Willis Simmons, "Maggie Lena Walker and the Consolidated Bank and Trust Company," Negro History Bulletin 38, no. 2 (1975); Suse Field, "Maggie Lena Walker: Lifting as We Climb," Richmond 1 (1976); Daniel Porter Jordan, "Indomitable Maggie Walker," Commonwealth 48, no. 3 (Mar. 1981); and Sepia, Dec. 1977.
133. On William Washington Browne, see Daniel Webster David, The Life and Public Services of Rev. Wm. Washington Browne (Philadelphia, 1910); James D. Wilkinson, "William Washington Browne and the True Reformers of Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History 97, no. 3 (July 1989); "W. W. Browne: Organizer Extraordinary," Richmond Literature and Historical Quarterly 2, no. 3 (Winter 1979); Abram Lincoln Harris, The Negro As Capitalist: A Study of Banking and Business Among American Negroes (Philadelphia, 1936), ch. 5; and William Patrick Burrell and D. E. Johnson, Twenty-Five Years' History of the Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers, 1881-1905 (Richmond, Va., 1909). On John Mitchell, see Ann Field Alexander, "Black Protest in the New South: John Mitchell, Jr. (1863-1929) and the Richmond 'Planet" (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1973); George Henry Johnson Jr., "Richmond Negro Business during the 1920s" (M.A. thesis, Virginia State University, 1969); Harris, Negro as Capitalist; Richmond Afro-American, 20-24 Jan. 1976, 26 Mar. 1983. On Maggie Lena Walker, see Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14, no. 3 (1989) ; Charles Willis Simmons, "Maggie Lena Walker and the Consolidated Bank and Trust Company," Negro History Bulletin 38, no. 2 (1975); Suse Field, "Maggie Lena Walker: Lifting as We Climb," Richmond 1 (1976); Daniel Porter Jordan, "Indomitable Maggie Walker," Commonwealth 48, no. 3 (Mar. 1981); and Sepia, Dec. 1977.
134. On William Washington Browne, see Daniel Webster David, The Life and Public Services of Rev. Wm. Washington Browne (Philadelphia, 1910); James D. Wilkinson, "William Washington Browne and the True Reformers of Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History 97, no. 3 (July 1989); "W. W. Browne: Organizer Extraordinary," Richmond Literature and Historical Quarterly 2, no. 3 (Winter 1979); Abram Lincoln Harris, The Negro As Capitalist: A Study of Banking and Business Among American Negroes (Philadelphia, 1936), ch. 5; and William Patrick Burrell and D. E. Johnson, Twenty-Five Years' History of the Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers, 1881-1905 (Richmond, Va., 1909). On John Mitchell, see Ann Field Alexander, "Black Protest in the New South: John Mitchell, Jr. (1863-1929) and the Richmond 'Planet" (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1973); George Henry Johnson Jr., "Richmond Negro Business during the 1920s" (M.A. thesis, Virginia State University, 1969); Harris, Negro as Capitalist; Richmond Afro-American, 20-24 Jan. 1976, 26 Mar. 1983. On Maggie Lena Walker, see Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14, no. 3 (1989) ; Charles Willis Simmons, "Maggie Lena Walker and the Consolidated Bank and Trust Company," Negro History Bulletin 38, no. 2 (1975); Suse Field, "Maggie Lena Walker: Lifting as We Climb," Richmond 1 (1976); Daniel Porter Jordan, "Indomitable Maggie Walker," Commonwealth 48, no. 3 (Mar. 1981); and Sepia, Dec. 1977.
135. On William Washington Browne, see Daniel Webster David, The Life and Public Services of Rev. Wm. Washington Browne (Philadelphia, 1910); James D. Wilkinson, "William Washington Browne and the True Reformers of Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History 97, no. 3 (July 1989); "W. W. Browne: Organizer Extraordinary," Richmond Literature and Historical Quarterly 2, no. 3 (Winter 1979); Abram Lincoln Harris, The Negro As Capitalist: A Study of Banking and Business Among American Negroes (Philadelphia, 1936), ch. 5; and William Patrick Burrell and D. E. Johnson, Twenty-Five Years' History of the Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers, 1881-1905 (Richmond, Va., 1909). On John Mitchell, see Ann Field Alexander, "Black Protest in the New South: John Mitchell, Jr. (1863-1929) and the Richmond 'Planet" (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1973); George Henry Johnson Jr., "Richmond Negro Business during the 1920s" (M.A. thesis, Virginia State University, 1969); Harris, Negro as Capitalist; Richmond Afro-American, 20-24 Jan. 1976, 26 Mar. 1983. On Maggie Lena Walker, see Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14, no. 3 (1989) ; Charles Willis Simmons, "Maggie Lena Walker and the Consolidated Bank and Trust Company," Negro History Bulletin 38, no. 2 (1975); Suse Field, "Maggie Lena Walker: Lifting as We Climb," Richmond 1 (1976); Daniel Porter Jordan, "Indomitable Maggie Walker," Commonwealth 48, no. 3 (Mar. 1981); and Sepia, Dec. 1977.
136. On William Washington Browne, see Daniel Webster David, The Life and Public Services of Rev. Wm. Washington Browne (Philadelphia, 1910); James D. Wilkinson, "William Washington Browne and the True Reformers of Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History 97, no. 3 (July 1989); "W. W. Browne: Organizer Extraordinary," Richmond Literature and Historical Quarterly 2, no. 3 (Winter 1979); Abram Lincoln Harris, The Negro As Capitalist: A Study of Banking and Business Among American Negroes (Philadelphia, 1936), ch. 5; and William Patrick Burrell and D. E. Johnson, Twenty-Five Years' History of the Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers, 1881-1905 (Richmond, Va., 1909). On John Mitchell, see Ann Field Alexander, "Black Protest in the New South: John Mitchell, Jr. (1863-1929) and the Richmond 'Planet" (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1973); George Henry Johnson Jr., "Richmond Negro Business during the 1920s" (M.A. thesis, Virginia State University, 1969); Harris, Negro as Capitalist; Richmond Afro-American, 20-24 Jan. 1976, 26 Mar. 1983. On Maggie Lena Walker, see Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14, no. 3 (1989) ; Charles Willis Simmons, "Maggie Lena Walker and the Consolidated Bank and Trust Company," Negro History Bulletin 38, no. 2 (1975); Suse Field, "Maggie Lena Walker: Lifting as We Climb," Richmond 1 (1976); Daniel Porter Jordan, "Indomitable Maggie Walker," Commonwealth 48, no. 3 (Mar. 1981); and Sepia, Dec. 1977.
137. On William Washington Browne, see Daniel Webster David, The Life and Public Services of Rev. Wm. Washington Browne (Philadelphia, 1910); James D. Wilkinson, "William Washington Browne and the True Reformers of Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History 97, no. 3 (July 1989); "W. W. Browne: Organizer Extraordinary," Richmond Literature and Historical Quarterly 2, no. 3 (Winter 1979); Abram Lincoln Harris, The Negro As Capitalist: A Study of Banking and Business Among American Negroes (Philadelphia, 1936), ch. 5; and William Patrick Burrell and D. E. Johnson, Twenty-Five Years' History of the Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers, 1881-1905 (Richmond, Va., 1909). On John Mitchell, see Ann Field Alexander, "Black Protest in the New South: John Mitchell, Jr. (1863-1929) and the Richmond 'Planet" (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1973); George Henry Johnson Jr., "Richmond Negro Business during the 1920s" (M.A. thesis, Virginia State University, 1969); Harris, Negro as Capitalist; Richmond Afro-American, 20-24 Jan. 1976, 26 Mar. 1983. On Maggie Lena Walker, see Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14, no. 3 (1989) ; Charles Willis Simmons, "Maggie Lena Walker and the Consolidated Bank and Trust Company," Negro History Bulletin 38, no. 2 (1975); Suse Field, "Maggie Lena Walker: Lifting as We Climb," Richmond 1 (1976); Daniel Porter Jordan, "Indomitable Maggie Walker," Commonwealth 48, no. 3 (Mar. 1981); and Sepia, Dec. 1977.
138. On William Washington Browne, see Daniel Webster David, The Life and Public Services of Rev. Wm. Washington Browne (Philadelphia, 1910); James D. Wilkinson, "William Washington Browne and the True Reformers of Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History 97, no. 3 (July 1989); "W. W. Browne: Organizer Extraordinary," Richmond Literature and Historical Quarterly 2, no. 3 (Winter 1979); Abram Lincoln Harris, The Negro As Capitalist: A Study of Banking and Business Among American Negroes (Philadelphia, 1936), ch. 5; and William Patrick Burrell and D. E. Johnson, Twenty-Five Years' History of the Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers, 1881-1905 (Richmond, Va., 1909). On John Mitchell, see Ann Field Alexander, "Black Protest in the New South: John Mitchell, Jr. (1863-1929) and the Richmond 'Planet" (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1973); George Henry Johnson Jr., "Richmond Negro Business during the 1920s" (M.A. thesis, Virginia State University, 1969); Harris, Negro as Capitalist; Richmond Afro-American, 20-24 Jan. 1976, 26 Mar. 1983. On Maggie Lena Walker, see Elsa Barkley Brown, "Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of St. Luke," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14, no. 3 (1989) ; Charles Willis Simmons, "Maggie Lena Walker and the Consolidated Bank and Trust Company," Negro History Bulletin 38, no. 2 (1975); Suse Field, "Maggie Lena Walker: Lifting as We Climb," Richmond 1 (1976); Daniel Porter Jordan, "Indomitable Maggie Walker," Commonwealth 48, no. 3 (Mar. 1981); and Sepia, Dec. 1977.
139. Miller, "Urban Blacks," table 5-1, pp. 188-9, 200, 201-2. See also Christopher Silver, Twentieth Century Richmond: Planning, Politics, and Race (Knoxville, Tenn., 1984), 113.
140. Kellogg, "Urban Clusters," 318-19.
141. Andrew Brimmer, "Desegregation and Negro Leadership," in Business Leadership and the Negro Crisis, ed. Eli Ginzberg (New York, 1968), 34.