Soldiers of democracy: Black Texans and the fight for citizenship, 1917-1921

Journal of American History

Volumn 82, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 1478-1504

  Reich, Steven A ^a  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 16244417522     PISSN: 00218723     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2945308     Document Type: Review

References (178)

1. L. H. Henry, Local Officer, Department of Justice, Bureau of Investigation, Texarkana, Texas, to C. E. Breniman, Division Superintendent, San Antonio, Texas, Jan. 7, 1919, in Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925): The First World War, the Red Scare, and the Garvey Movement, ed. Theodore Kornweibel Jr. (microfilm, 25 reels, University Publications of America, 1986), reel 10, frame 11.
2. Among the few accounts acknowledging widespread Black resistance are Neil R. McMillen, Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow (Urbana, 1989), 302-17;
3. Nan Elizabeth Woodruff, "African-American Struggles for Citizenship in the Arkansas and Mississippi Deltas in the Age of Jim Crow," Radical History Review, 55 (Winter 1993), 33-51;
4. and Nancy MacLean, Behind the Mask of Chivalry: The Making of the Second Ku Klux Klan (New York, 1994), 26-30.
5. Henry to Breniman, Jan. 7, 1919, in Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ed. Kornweibel, reel 10, frame 11. The Office of Chief Examiner was established in 1908; four name changes and 27 years later, it became the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). It will be referred to as the FBI throughout this article.
6. Lester C. Lamon, Black Tennesseans, 1900-1930 (Knoxville, 1977), 37.
7. On the Black community, see Darrel E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington, 1987);
8. Douglas Henry Daniels, Pioneer Urbanites: A Social and Cultural History of Black San Francisco (Philadelphia, 1980);
9. John Dittmer, Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 1900-1920 (Urbana, 1977);
10. Lamon, Black Tennesseans;
11. and George C. Wright, Life behind a Veil: Blacks in Louisville, Kentucky, 1865-1930 (Baton Rouge, 1985).
12. On family life, see Herbert Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 (New York, 1976);
13. and Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York, 1985).
14. The classic works on emigration include William E. Bittle and Gilbert Geis, The Longest Way Home: Chief Alfred C. Sam's Back-to-Africa Movement (Detroit, 1964);
15. and Edwin S. Redkey, Black Exodus: Black Nationalist and Back-to-Africa Movements, 1890-1910 (New Haven, 1969).
16. On migration, see Peter Gottlieb, Making Their Own Way: Southern Blacks' Migration to Pittsburgh, 1916-1930 (Urbana, 1987);
17. James R. Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago, 1989);
18. Florette Henri, Black Migration: Movement North, 1900-1920 (Garden City, N.Y., 1975),
19. and Nell Irvin Painter, Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas after Reconstruction (New York, 1976).
20. For examples of discussions on Black politics, see Dittmer, Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 90-109;
21. Lamon, Black Tennesseans, 37-58;
22. McMillen, Dark Journey, 57-71;
23. I. A. Newby, Black Carolinians: A History of Blacks in South Carolina from 1895 to 1968 (Columbia, 1973), 160-61;
24. and Wright, Life behind a Veil, 176-93.
25. C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (New York, 1966), 80.
26. Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877 (New York, 1988), 598.
27. On Black workers, see Joe William Trotter Jr., Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915-32 (Urbana, 1990);
28. Eric Arnesen, Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: Race, Class, and Politics, 1863-1923 (New York, 1991);
29. and Robin D. G. Kelley, Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists during the Great Depression (Chapel Hill, 1990).
30. Works that examine the politicization of Black women include Paula Giddings, When and Where I Enter . . . The Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America (New York, 1984);
31. Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880-1920 (Cambridge, Mass., 1993);
32. Cynthia Neverdon-Morton, Afro-American Women of the South and the Advancement of the Race, 1895-1925 (Knoxville, 1989);
33. Jacqueline Anne Rouse, Lugenia Burns Hope, Black Southern Reformer (Athens, Ga., 1989);
34. and Darlene Clark Hint, ed., Black Women in United States History, vol. XIV: Dorothy Salem, To Better Our World: Black Women in Organized Reform, 1890-1920 (Brooklyn, 1990). In fact, throughout the Jim Crow era, Black women fought on the front line in resistance to segregation.
35. See Willi Coleman, "Black Women and Segregated Public Transportation: Ninety Years of Resistance," in Hine, Black Women in United States History, vol. XIV: Dorothy Salem, to Better Our World: Black Women in Organized Reform, 1890-1920 ibid., vol. V:
36. Black Women in American History: The Twentieth Century, 295-301.
37. Robin D. G. Kelley, "'We Are Not What We Seem': Rethinking Black Working-Class Opposition in the Jim Crow South," Journal of American History, 80 (June 1993), 76-78.
38. For an important study that adopts some of Kelley's insights and interprets the 1917 lynching of Ell Persons in Memphis, Tennessee, in the context of ongoing struggle and resistance, see Kenneth W. Goings and Gerald L. Smith, "'Unhidden' Transcripts: Memphis and African American Agency, 1862-1920," Journal of Urban History, 21 (March 1995), 372-94.
39. Houston Observer, May 11, 1918, in The Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, ed. John W. Kitchens (microfilm, 252 reels, Tuskegee Institute, 1978), reel 244, frame 648;
40. Dallas Exemption Board quoted in Bruce A. Glasrud, "Black Texans, 1900-1930: A History" (Ph.D. diss., Texas Technological College, 1969), 70.
41. Several historians have demonstrated that Blacks moved north not only to seek better jobs but also to gain social and political freedoms: see Gottlieb, Making Their Own Way;
42. Grossman, Land of Hope;
43. McMillen, Dark Journey;
44. Joe William Trotter Jr., Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1915-1945 (Urbana, 1985);
45. and Joe William Trotter Jr., ed., The Great Migration in Historical Perspective: New Dimensions of Race, Class, and Gender (Bloomington, 1991).
46. See also Emmett J. Scott, "Letters of Negro Migrants of 1916-1918," Journal of Negro History, 4 (July 1919), 290-340;
47. and Emmett J. Scott, "Additional Letters of Negro Migrants of 1916-1918," Journal of Negro History, ibid. (Oct. 1919), 412-65.
48. Woodruff, "African-American Struggles for Citizenship," 36;
49. Theodore Rosengarten, All God's Dangers: The Life of Nate Shaw (New York, 1974), 161;
50. Marion County News reprinted in Dallas Express, July 5, 1919.
51. Cotton prices are from George Brown Tindall, The Emergence of the New South, 1913-1945 (Baton Rouge, 1967), 33, 60.
52. On the economic effect of the war on agricultural laborers, see Gavin Wright, Old South, New South: Revolutions in the Southern Economy since the Civil War (New York, 1986), 203-6.
53. Anonymous of Menard, Texas, to Editor, Fort Worth Record, July 23, 1918, in Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ed. Kornweibel, reel 10, frame 16;
54. Houston Observer, Sept. 14, 1918, in Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, ed. Kitchens, reel 244, frame 477;
55. Galveston New Idea, Oct. 6, 1917, in Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ed. Kornweibel, reel 10, frame 69. Efforts to locate issues of the New Idea from this period failed. The federal government, however, extensively investigated the New Idea as a seditious publication. Transcriptions of several articles are in federal case files.
56. "Negro Conscription," New Republic, Oct. 20, 1917, p. 317;
57. Houston Chronicle, July 18, 1917, quoted in Robert V. Haynes, A Night of Violence: The Houston Riot of 1917 (Baton Rouge, 1976), 53.
58. Foner, Reconstruction, 9;
59. Haynes, Night of Violence, 63-68;
60. D. E. Nolan to Acting Director of Military Intelligence, memo, Jan. 20, 1919, in Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ed. Kornweibel, reel 21, frame 231;
61. Horace G. Burke, France, to Editor, Houston Observer, Oct. 19, 1918, in Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, ed. Kitchens, reel 244, frame 659. African American participation in the Spanish-American War raised similar questions among Blacks over domestic concerns about race, citizenship, and political rights.
62. See George P. Marks III, The Black Press Views American Imperialism (New York, 1971);
63. and Willard B. Gatewood Jr., "Black Americans and the Quest for Empire, 1898-1903," Journal of Southern History, 38 (Nov. 1972), 545-66.
64. For a comprehensive study of the riot, see Haynes, Night of Violence.
65. F. Sullens to Major Brown, Nov. 30, 1918, in Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ed. Kornweibel, reel 21, frame 175;
66. Rosengarten, All God's Dangers, 161.
67. T. P. Terry quoted in B. C. Baldwin, memo, Aug. 3, 1917, in Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ed. Kornweibel, reel 9, frame 630;
68. Monroe Bean quoted in J. J. Lawrence, memo, Aug. 22, 1917, Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ibid., frame 688;
69. Houston Chronicle, June 2, 1918, in Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, ed. Kitchens, reel 244, frame 744.
70. Addie W. Hunton and Kathryn M. Johnson, Two Colored Women with the American Expeditionary Forces (1920; New York, 1971), 199. Despite constituting only 16% of the state population, Blacks made up 25% of the conscripts from Texas - about 31,000 men.
71. See Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of Negroes in Texas, 1528-1971 (Austin, 1973), 115.
72. On Black resistance to the draft, see Theodore Kornweibel Jr., "Apathy and Dissent: Black America's Negative Response to World War I," South Atlantic Quarterly, 80 (Summer 1981), 334-36.
73. Dallas Journal, June 7, 1918, in Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, ed. Kitchens, reel 8, frame 35;
74. P. Myer, Assistant General Manager, to B. F. Bonner, Vice President and General Manager, June 25, 1917, box 338, Kirby Lumber Company Records, Forest History Collection (Ralph W. Steen Library, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, Tex.); Bonner to Myer, June 1, 1917, Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, ibid.;
75. and Bonner to I. W. Crawford, June 6, 1917, Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, ibid.
76. T. C. Smith to National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), Dec. 1919, Mumford Branch File, box G-205, Branch Files, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Papers (Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.); New York Age, Nov. 1, 1919, in Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, ed. Kitchens, reel 10, frame 254.
77. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Compendium of the Twelfth Census: 1900, vol. V: Agriculture, pt. 1 (Washington, 1902), 128-29;
78. Bureau of the Census, Compendium of the Fourteenth Census: 1920, vol. VI: Agriculture, pt. 2 (Washington, 1922), 681.
79. For lucid testimony of the struggles of one white tenant in neighboring Lamar County during these years, see U.S. Congress, Senate, Commission on Industrial Relations, Final Report and Testimony, 64 Cong., 1 sess., vol. 9 (Washington, 1916), 9006-43;
80. Dallas Express, Feb. 23, 1918, in Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, ed. Kitchens, reel 7, frame 617.
81. For an analysis of class conflict in this section of the rural Southwest during the early twentieth century, see James R. Green, Grass-Roots Socialism: Radical Movements in the Southwest, 1895-1943 (Baton Rouge, 1978).
82. William Houshoffer, investigative report, May 22, 1918, in Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ed. Kornweibel, reel 10, frame 15;
83. Dallas Express, Feb. 23, 1918, in Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, ed. Kitchens, reel 7, frame 617;
84. Dallas Journal, Aug. 10, 1918, Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, ibid., reel 8, frame 47.
85. For a brilliant account from South African history of how class conflict between marginalized white farmers and capitalizing landowners erupted into violent racial oppression of Black tenant farmers, see Helen Bradford, A Taste of Freedom: The ICU in Rural South Africa, 1924-1930 (Johannesburg, 1987), 186-212.
86. Dicie Shipman, affidavit, Nov. 14, 1918, San Antonio Branch File, box G-204, NAACP Papers; Aunt Leah Shipman, affidavit, Nov. 14, 1918, A Taste of Freedom: The ICU in Rural South Africa, 1924-1930 ibid.
87. Foner, Reconstruction, 122-23.
88. J. H. Harper, report, Aug. 29, 1917, in Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1923), ed. Kornweibel, reel 19, frames 769-70.
89. Bradford Haramonds to James Weldon Johnson, June 1, 1919, Mart Branch File, box G-204, NAACP Papers; Dallas Express, May 24, March 1, Feb. 8, 1919; B. K. Maynard to Walter F. White, March 25, 1918, San Antonio Branch File, box G-204, NAACP Papers.
90. C. B. Johnson to James Weldon Johnson, April 8, 1918, San Antonio Branch File, box G-204, NAACP Papers; San Antonio Branch, publicity release, Oct. 18, 1918, Dallas Express, ibid. The NAACP's national office sent charter applications to potential branches at this time, requesting that branches list the names and occupations of charter members. Although the applications are somewhat uneven in their listing of occupations, enough information survives to indicate a significant working-class membership. Branches did not submit the names and occupations of subsequent enlistees. Total membership numbers are drawn from membership file cards, Auxiliary Files, box L-45, NAACP Papers, Series II.
91. Hallie Q. Brown, Homespun Heroines and Other Women of Distinction (1926; Freeport, N.Y., 1971), 217;
92. Mary B. Talbert to James Weldon Johnson, Dec. 29, 1918, Special Correspondence Files, box C-76, NAACP Papers; Branch Bulletin (Dec. 1918), 62;
93. Talbert to Johnson, March 15, 1919, Special Correspondence Files, box C-76, NAACP Papers. In Texas Talbert organized branches of the NAACP at Galveston, Silsbee, Orange, Austin, Corsicana, Marshall, Texarkana, and Gonzales and conducted membership drives at San Antonio, Dallas, Fort Worth, and Beaumont. For details on her trip, see Talbert to John R. Shillady, Dec. 23, 1918, Branch Bulletin ibid.
94. For a more extended summary of Talbert's work for the NAACP, see Salem, To Better Our World, 176-179.
95. For a good biographical sketch of Talbert, see Lillian S. Williams, "Mary Morris Talbert," in Notable Black American Women, ed. Jessie Carney Smith (Detroit, 1992), 1095-1100.
96. Mrs. C. E. Adams, president of the Texas Federation of Colored Women's Clubs (TFCWC), belonged to the Beaumont Branch and assisted Talbert in doubling branch membership. Mrs. H. E. Williams, vice president of the TFCWC, and Talbert chartered the Corsicana Branch. See Application for Charter, June 6, 1918, Beaumont Branch File, box G-201, NAACP Papers; Application for Charter, Dec. 10, 1918, Corsicana Branch File, Notable Black American Women, ibid.;
97. Galveston News, July 4, 1919, in Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, ed. Kitchens, reel 11, frame 140;
98. Minutes of the Organization Meeting of the Fort Worth Branch, April 20, 1918, Fort Worth Branch File, box G-202, NAACP Papers; Branch Bulletin (June-July 1918), 30. On Talbert and NACW (National Association of Colored Women's Clubs) initiatives, see Williams, "Mary Morris Talbert," 1097, 1099.
99. On the founding and early years of the TFCWC, see A. W. Jackson, A Sure Foundation (Houston, 1940), 292-93.
100. On the involvement of women in the early years of the NAACP at both the national and local levels, see Salem, To Better Our World, 145-80.
101. Application for Charter, Sept. 8, 1918, Silsbee Branch File, box G-205, NAACP Papers; Application for Charter, Feb. 1, 1919, Wharton Branch File, To Better Our World, ibid. Membership numbers are drawn from membership file cards, Auxiliary Files, box L-45, NAACP Papers, Series II.
102. J. E. Turner to Shillady, March 25, 1919, Mumford Branch File, box G-204, NAACP Papers; Grant Burleson to Oswald Garrison Villard, May 31, 1919, Waelder Branch File, box G-205, To Better Our World, ibid.;
103. Grant Derry to Shillady, June 26, 1919, To Better Our World, ibid.;
104. Turner to Shillady, March 25, 1919, Mumford Branch File, box G-204, To Better Our World, ibid.;
105. T. C. Smith to Villard, April 2, 1919, To Better Our World, ibid.;
106. Eric Hobsbawm, Primitive Rebels: Studies in Archaic Forms of Social Movement in the 19th and 20th Centuries (New York, 1965), 60-61; Turner to Shillady, March 25, 1919, Mumford Branch File, box G-204, NAACP Papers.
107. Dallas Express, Feb. 8, April 19, 1919.
108. For examples of Clifton F. Richardson's energetic rhetoric, see Houston Informer, June 28, 1919.
109. For an example of Richardson's efforts to criticize Houston Blacks he considered "antebellum Sambos," see James M. SoRelle, "The Darker Side of 'Heaven': The Black Community in Houston, Texas, 1917-1945" (Ph.D. diss., Kent State University, 1980), 79-81.
110. On Richardson's career as an editor, political activist, and civic booster, see Howard Beeth, "Houston & History, Past and Present: A Look at Black Houston in the 1920s," Southern Studies, 25 (Summer 1986), 177-81;
111. and Howard Beeth, "A Black Elite Agenda in the Urban South: The Call for Political Change and Racial Economic Solidarity in Houston during the 1920s," Essays in Economic and Business History, 10 (June 1992), 41-55.
112. Clipping from Fort Worth Star Telegram, March 3, 1919, Fort Worth Branch File, box G-202, NAACP Papers;
113. Dallas Express, March 15, April 5, 1919;
114. San Antonio Branch to Secretary of War Newton D. Baker, petition, April 18, 1918, San Antonio Branch File, box G-204, NAACP papers; J. A. Grubles to W. E. B. Du Bois, April 22, 1918, Dallas Express, ibid.;
115. Dallas Express, Dec. 20, 1919;
116. C. F. Richardson to Walter F. White, July 2, 1918, Houston Branch File, box G-203, NAACP Papers; P. A. Williams to Shillady, July 1, 15, 1919, Austin Branch File, box G-200, Dallas Express, ibid.
117. Branch Bulletin (June-July 1918), 30.
118. Walter F. White of the NAACP national office recruited G. N. T. Gray, president of the Fort Worth Branch, to investigate the lynching of Bragg Williams at Hillsboro in January 1919. Gray enlisted informants who helped him uncover the names of the perpetrators. G, N. T. Gray to Walter F. White, Feb. 14, 1919, Administrative Files, box C-368, NAACP Papers. The Austin, Houston, and San Antonio branches also investigated mob violence, secured affidavits from victims and witnesses, and pressured the governor to take action. C. F. Richardson also employed the resources of the Houston Informer to investigate mob action against African Americans: for two examples, see Houston Informer, June 7, 1919.
119. W. J. Porter to Shillady, June 12, 1919, Legal Files, box D-1, NAACP Papers; J. F. Hawkins to W. P. Hobby, Jan. 8, 1919, reprinted in Dallas Express, Jan. 25, 1919;
120. Dallas Morning News, Jan. 21, 1919.
121. J. F. Hawkins's bill required, among other things, that all lynching cases be tried in Austin and be prosecuted by the attorney general, that the county in which the lynching occurred pay a $10,000 indemnity to the heirs of the victim, and that lynching be defined as taking the life of a citizen without due process. For a full text of the bill, see Dallas Express, Jan. 25, 1919.
122. E. O. Smith to White, June 10, 1918, box G-203, NAACP Papers; Henry Lucius Mims to Shillady, July 5, 1918, Dallas Express, ibid.;
123. CBL open letter in Houston Observer, Aug. 10, 1918,
124. clipping, Houston Observer, 1918, ibid.
125. For a more detailed summary of the controversy between the CBL and Richardson, see SoRelle, "Darker Side of 'Heaven,'" 361-66.
126. Kenneth Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana, 1976), 230-43;
127. Allan Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890-1920 (Chicago, 1967), 51-90;
128. Trotter, Black Milwaukee, 80-114, 123-28.
129. On factional disputes as generational conflict in Houston, see SoRelle, "Darker Side of 'Heaven,'" 357-58.
130. Smith to White, June 10, 1918, Houston Branch File, box G-203, NAACP Papers; Mims to Shillady, July 5, 1918, Darker Side of 'Heaven,'" ibid.;
131. Houston Informer, Aug. 2, 1919, May 1, 1920.
132. Judith Stein, The World of Marcus Garvey: Race and Class in Modern Society (Baton Rouge, 1986), 5.
133. See also Judith Stein, "Defining the Race, 1890-1930," in The Invention of Ethnicity, ed. Werner Sollors (New York, 1989), esp. 95-97.
134. Robin Kelley attributes the failure of the Birmingham NAACP in the 1920s to its focus on the city's Black business interests rather than on "racial violence, denial of civil liberties, and the immediate problems confronting the poor": Kelley, Hammer and Hoe, xx.
135. Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, "Beyond the Sound of Silence: Afro-American Women's History," Gender & History, 1 (Spring 1989), 59.
136. For accounts of the Longview riot, see William M. Tuttle Jr., "Violence in a 'Heathen' Land: The Longview Race Riot of 1919," Phylon, 33 (Winter 1972), 324-33;
137. Arthur I. Waskow, From Race Riot to Sit-in, 1919 and the 1960s: A Study in the Connections between Conflict and Violence (Garden City, N.Y., 1966), 12-16;
138. and Crisis, 18 (Oct. 1919), 297-98.
139. Dallas Morning News, July 15, 1919;
140. Assistant Director and Chief, Bureau of Investigation, to R. W. Timothy, Waco, Texas, Aug. 9, 1919, in Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ed. Kornweibel, reel 10, frames 22-23;
141. Williams to Shillady, July 15, 1919, Austin Branch File, box G-200, NAACP Papers; Galveston New Idea, July 28, 1919, in Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ed. Kornweibel, reel 6, frame 219.
142. George Ohler, "Background Causes of the Longview Race Riot of July 10, 1919," Journal of the American Studies Association of Texas, 12 (1981), 50;
143. Report of J. L. Webb, July 28, 1919, Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ed. Kornweibel, reel 6, frames 228-29.
144. The FBI summarized its six-month investigation of the Negro Screwman's Union in W. A. Wiseman, report, Nov. 30, 1919, Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ibid., reel 13, frames 350-51.
145. Bureau of Intelligence, report, Aug. 3, 1919, in Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ed. Kornweibel, reel 12, frame 391;
146. Sullens to Brown, Nov. 30, 1918, Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ibid., reel 21, frames 175-77.
147. Report of Special Agent McCaleb, July 31, 1919, Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ibid., reel 12, frame 389; Hobby to A. Mitchell Palmer, July 29, 1919, Papers of the Governor, box 391, Record Group 301 (Texas State Library, Austin).
148. Ranger Frank W. Matthews, report, Aug. 18, 1919, in Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ed. Kornweibel, reel 10, frame 28;
149. Matthews, report, Aug. 16, 1919, Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ibid., frame 27;
150. Matthews, report, Aug. 15, 1919, Federal Surveillance of Afro-Americans (1917-1925), ibid., frame 26.
151. Houston Informer, Aug. 16, 1919, in Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, ed. Kitchens, reel 10, frame 404;
152. T. S. Davis to Shillady, Aug. 11, 1919, Leggett Branch File, box G-203, NAACP Papers. See also T. S. Davis to James Weldon Johnson, Oct. 24, 1919, Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, ibid.
153. The assault on Shillady in Austin is recounted in several places; see especially Mary White Ovington, The Walls Came Tumbling Down (New York, 1947), 172-75.
154. J. Gentry Horace to NAACP, May 22, 1920, Fort Worth Branch File, box G-202, NAACP Papers; S. R. Carter to William Pickens, Feb. 18, 1931, Highbank Branch File, box G-203, The Walls Came Tumbling Down (ibid.;
155. Shillady to Grumbles, Jan. 15, 1920, San Antonio Branch File, box G-204, The Walls Came Tumbling Down (ibid.
156. George F. Porter to James Weldon Johnson, Jan. 30, 1923, Dallas Branch File, box G-201, The Walls Came Tumbling Down (ibid.;
157. Robert Bagnall to Porter, Feb. 6, 1923, The Walls Came Tumbling Down (ibid.;
158. Porter to Bagnall, March 13, 1923, The Walls Came Tumbling Down (ibid.;
159. Bagnall to Porter, March 10, 1923, The Walls Came Tumbling Down (ibid.;
160. Porter to Bagnall, June 6, 1923, The Walls Came Tumbling Down (ibid.;
161. Bagnall to Talbert, Sept. 17, 1921, Special Correspondence Files, box C-76, The Walls Came Tumbling Down ibid.;
162. Bagnall to Talbert, Sept. 19, 1921, The Walls Came Tumbling Down (ibid.;
163. Talbert to Bagnall, Sept. 22, 1921, The Walls Came Tumbling Down (ibid.;
164. Branch Bulletin (Dec. 1921).
165. Dittmer, Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 206-7;
166. McMillen, Dark Journey, 314-16;
167. Crisis, 21 (Dec. 1920), 67-68.
168. For an account of the massacre in Elaine, Phillips County, see Richard C. Cortner, A Mob Intent on Death: The NAACP and the Arkansas Riot Cases (Middletown, 1988), 1-56;
169. and Woodruff, "African-American Struggles for Citizenship."
170. New Orleans States, Aug. 30, 1919, in Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, ed. Kitchens, reel 9, frame 980.
171. Kelley, Hammer and Hoe, xiii.
172. Kelley emphasizes antiradical violence Hammer and Hoe, ibid., 57-77, 159-75.
173. Other historians who attribute significance to antiradical violence include McMillen, Dark Journey, 224-56;
174. Woodruff, "African-American Struggles for Citizenship";
175. and MacLean, Behind the Mask of Chivalry, 149-73.
176. For a recent study of racial unrest in the South during World War I that overemphasizes the cultural and ritual functions of anti-Black violence, as opposed to the political motives that are stressed here, see J. William Harris, "Etiquette, Lynching, and Racial Boundaries in Southern History: A Mississippi Example," American Historical Review, 100 (April 1995), 387-410.
177. Galveston Daily News, Sept. 7, 1919, in Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, ed. Kitchens, reel 9, frames 987-88.
178. S. R. Carter to William Pickens, Feb. 18, 1931, Highbank Branch File, box G-203, NAACP Papers; Goings and Smith, "'Unhidden' Transcripts," 376.