What is the dominant aβ species in human brain tissue? A review

Neurotoxicity Research

Volumn 7, Issue 1-2, 2005, Pages 29-41

  Gregory, Gillian C ^a   Halliday, Glenda M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

Author keywords

A alloforms; Alzheimer disease; Beta amyloid peptide; Secretases

Indexed keywords

AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN; AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN (1 42); AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN[1-40]; AMYLOID BETA-PROTEIN (1-42); PEPTIDE FRAGMENT;

BRAIN LEVEL; CHEMISTRY; HUMAN; METABOLISM; REVIEW;

AMYLOID BETA-PROTEIN; BRAIN CHEMISTRY; HUMANS; PEPTIDE FRAGMENTS;

EID: 15844394507     PISSN: 10298428     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/BF03033774     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. Andreasen N, C Hesse, P Davidsson, L Minthon, A Wallin, B Winblad, H Vanderstichele, E Vanmechelen and K Blennow (1999a) Cerebrospinal fluid beta-amyloid(1-42) in Alzheimer disease: Differences between early- and late-onset Alzheimer disease and stability during the course of disease. Arch. Neurol. 56, 673-680.
2. Andreasen N, L Minthon, E Vanmechelen, H Vanderstichele, P Davidsson, B Winblad and K Blennow (1999b) Cerebrospinal fluid tau and Abeta42 as predictors of development of Alzheimer's disease in patients with mild cognitive impairment. Neurosci. Lett. 273, 5-8.
3. Avdulov NA, SV Chochina, U Igbavboa, CS Warden, AV Vassiliev and WG Wood (1997) Lipid binding to amyloid beta-peptide aggregates: Preferential binding of cholesterol as compared with phosphatidylcholine and fatty acids. J. Neurochem. 69, 1746-1752.
4. Banks WA, SM Ronbinson, S Verma and JE Morley (2003) Efflux of human and mouse amyloid β proteins 1-40 and 1-42 from brain: Impairment in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Neuroscience 121, 487-492.
5. Bard F, C Cannon, R Barbour, RL Burke, D Games, H Grajeda, T Guido, K Hu, J Huang, K Johnson-Wood, K Khan, D Kholodenko, M Lee, I Lieberburg, R Motter, M Nguyen, F Soriano, N Vasquez, K Weiss, B Welch, P Seubert, D Schenk and T Yednock (2000) Peripherally administered antibodies against amyloid beta-peptide enter the central nervous system and reduce pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer disease. Nat. Med. 6, 916-919.
6. Beffert U, JS Cohn, C Petit-Turcotte, M Tremblay, N Aumont, C Ramassamy, J Davignon and J Poirier (1999) Apolipoprotein E and beta-amyloid levels in the hippocampus and frontal cortex of Alzheimer's disease subjects are disease-related and apolipoprotein E genotype dependent. Brain Res. 843, 87-94.
7. Bitan G, MD Kirkitadze, A Lomakin, SS Vollers, GB Benedek and DB Teplow (2003a) Amyloid beta -protein (Abeta) assembly: Abeta 40 and Abeta 42 oligomerize through distinct pathways. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100, 330-335.
8. Bitan G, SS Vollers and DB Teplow (2003b) Elucidation of primary structure elements controlling early amyloid beta-protein oligomerization. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 34882-34889.
9. Borchelt DR, T Ratovitski, J van Lare, MK Lee, V Gonzales, NA Jenkins, NG Copeland, DL Price and SS Sisodia (1997) Accelerated amyloid deposition in the brains of transgenic mice coexpressing mutant presenilin 1 and amyloid precursor proteins. Neuron 19, 939-945.
10. Borroni B, F Colciaghi, C Caltagirone, L Rozzini, L Broglio, F Cattabeni, M Di Luca and A Padovani (2003) Platelet amyloid precursor protein abnormalities in mild cognitive impairment predict conversion to dementia of Alzheimer type: A 2-year follow-up study. Arch. Neurol. 60, 1740-1744.
11. Brown MS, J Ye, RB Rawson and JL Goldstein (2000) Regulated intramembrane proteolysis: A control mechanism conserved from bacteria to humans. Cell 100, 391-398.
12. Butterfield DA and AI Bush (2004) Alzheimer's amyloid β-peptide (1-42): Involvement of methionine residue 35 in the oxidative stress and neurotoxicity properties of this peptide. Neurobiol. Aging 25, 563-568.
13. Calero M, A Rostagno, E Matsubara, B Zlokovic, B Frangione and J Ghiso (2000) Apolipoprotein J (clusterin) and Alzheimer's disease. Microsc. Res. Tech. 50, 305-315.
14. Chesneau V, K Vekrellis, MR Rosner and DJ Selkoe (2000) Purified recombinant insulin-degrading enzyme degrades amyloid betaprotein but does not promote its oligomerization. Biochem. J. 351, 509-516.
15. Coles M, W Bicknell, AA Watson, DP Fairlie and DJ Craik (1998) Solution structure of amyloid beta-peptide(1-40) in a watermicelle environment. Is the membrane-spanning domain where we think it is? Biochemistry 37, 11064-11077.
16. Cook DG, MS Forman, JC Sung, S Leight, DL Kolson, T Iwatsubo, VM Lee and RW Doms (1997) Alzheimer's Abeta(1-42) is generated in the endoplasmic reticulum/intermediate compartment of NT2N cells. Nat. Med. 3, 1021-1023.
17. Crawford F, Z Suo, C Fang and M Mullan (1998) Characteristics of the in vitro vasoactivity of beta-amyloid peptides. Exp. Neurol. 150, 159-168.
18. Crescenzi O, S Tomaselli, R Guerrini, S Salvadori, AM D'Ursi, PA Temussi and D Picone (2002) Solution structure of the Alzheimer amyloid beta-peptide (1-42) in an apolar microenvironment. Similarity with a virus fusion domain. Eur. J. Biochem. 269, 5642-5648.
19. Cuajungco MP, LE Goldstein, A Nunomura, MA Smith, JT Lim, CS Atwood, X Huang, YW Farrag, G Perry and AI Bush (2000) Evidence that the beta-amyloid plaques of Alzheimer's disease represent the redox-silencing and entombment of Abeta by zinc. J. Biol. Chem. 275, 19439-19442.
20. Das P and TE Golde (2002) Open peer commentary regarding Abeta immunization and CNS inflammation by Pasinetti et al., Neurobiol. Aging 23, 671-4; discussion 683-684.
21. De Ferrari GV and NC Inestrosa (2000) Wnt signaling function in Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 33, 1-12.
22. DeMattos RB, KR Bales, DJ Cummins, JC Dodart, SM Paul and DM Holtzman (2001) Peripheral anti-Abeta antibody alters CNS and plasma Abeta clearance and decreases brain Abeta burden in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98, 8850-8855.
23. DeMattos RB, KR Bales, DJ Cummins, SM Paul and DM Holtzman (2002) Brain to plasma amyloid-beta efflux: A measure of brain amyloid burden in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Science 295, 2264-2267.
24. Esler WP, WT Kimberly, BL Ostaszewski, W Ye, TS Diehl, DJ Selkoe and MS Wolfe (2002) Activity-dependent isolation of the presenilin- gamma-secretase complex reveals nicastrin and a gamma substrate. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99, 2720-2725.
25. Francis R, G McGrath, J Zhang, DA Ruddy, M Sym, J Apfeld, M Nicoll, M Maxwell, B Hai, MC Ellis, AL Parks, W Xu, J Li, M Gurney, RL Myers, CS Himes, R Hiebsch, C Ruble, JS Nye and D Curtis (2002) aph-1 and pen-2 are required for Notch pathway signaling, gamma-secretase cleavage of betaAPP, and presenilin protein accumulation. Dev. Cell 3, 85-97.
26. Fukumoto H, A Asami-Odaka, N Suzukiand T Iwatsubo (1996) Association of Abeta 40-positive senile plaques with microglial cells in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease and in non-demented aged individuals. Neurodegeneration 5, 13-17.
27. Funato H, M Yoshimura, K Kusui, A Tamaoka, K Ishikawa, N Ohkoshi, K Namekata, R Okeda and Y Ihara (1998) Quantitation of amyloid beta-protein (Abeta) in the cortex during aging and in Alzheimer's disease. Am. J. Pathol. 152, 1633-1640.
28. Games D, D Adams, R Alessandrini, R Barbour, P Berthelette, C Blackwell, T Carr, J Clemens, T Donaldson, F Gillespie, T Guido, S Hagopian, K Johnson-Wood, K Khan, M Lee, P Leibowitz, I Lieberburg, S Little, E Masliah, L McConlogue, M Montoya-Zavala, L Mucke, L Paganini, E Penniman, M Power, D Schenk, P Seubert, B Snyder, F Soriano, H Tan, J Vitale, S Wadsworth, B Wolozin and J Zhao (1995) Alzheimer-type neuropathology in transgenic mice overexpressing V717F beta-amyloid precursor protein. Nature 373, 523-527.
29. Glenner GG and CW Wong (1984) Alzheimer's disease: Initial report of the purification and characterization of a novel cerebrovascular amyloid protein. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 120, 885-890.
30. Goate A, MC Chartier-Harlin, M Mullan, J Brown, F Crawford, L Fidani, L Giuffra, A Haynes, N Irving, L James, R Mant, P Newton, K Rooke, P Roques, C Talbot, M Pericak-Vance, A Roses, R Williamson, M Rossor, M Owen and J Hardy (1991) Segregation of a missense mutation in the amyloid precursor protein gene with familial Alzheimer's disease. Nature 349, 704-706.
31. Gotz J, JR Streffer, D David, A Schild, F Hoerndli, L Pennanen, P Kurosinski and F Chen (2004) Transgenic animal models of Alzheimer's disease and related disorders: Histopathology, behavior and therapy. Mol. Psychiatry 9, 664-683.
32. Goutte C, M Tsunozaki, VA Hale and JR Priess (2002) APH-1 is a multipass membrane protein essential for the Notch signaling pathway in Caenorhabditis elegans embryos. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99, 775-779.
33. Gravina SA, L Ho, CB Eckman, KE Long, L Otvos, Jr., LH Younkin, N Suzuki and SG Younkin (1995) Amyloid beta protein (Abeta) in Alzheimer's disease brain. Biochemical and immunocytochemical analysis with antibodies specific for forms ending at Abeta 40 or Abeta 42(43). J. Biol. Chem. 270, 7013-7016.
34. Gu Y, N Sanjo, F Chen, H Hasegawa, A Petit, X Ruan, W Li, C Shier, T Kawarai, G Schmitt-Ulms, D Westaway, P St George-Hyslop and PE Fraser (2004) The presenilin proteins are components of multiple membrane-bound complexes which have different biological activities. J. Biol. Chem. 279, 31329-31336.
35. Haass C, MG Schlossmacher, AY Hung, C Vigo-Pelfrey, A Mellon, BL Ostaszewski, I Lieberburg, EH Koo, D Schenk, DB Teplow and DJ Selkoe (1992) Amyloid beta-peptide is produced by cultured cells during normal metabolism. Nature 359, 322-325.
36. Haass C, AY Hung, MG Schlossmacher, DB Teplow and DJ Selkoe (1993) Beta-amyloid peptide and a 3-kDa fragment are derived by distinct cellular mechanisms. J. Biol. Chem. 268, 3021-3024.
37. Hampel H, A Mitchell, K Blennow, RA Frank, S Brettschneider, L Weller and HJ Moller (2004) Core biological marker candidates of Alzheimer's disease - perspectives for diagnosis, prediction of outcome and reflection of biological activity. J. Neural Transm. 111, 247-272.
38. Hardy JA and GA Higgins (1992) Alzheimer's disease: The amyloid cascade hypothesis. Science 256, 184-185.
39. Hartley DM, DM Walsh, CP Ye, T Diehl, S Vasquez, PM Vassilev, DB Teplow and DJ Selkoe (1999) Protofibrillar intermediates of amyloid beta-protein induce acute electrophysiological changes and progressive neurotoxicity in cortical neurons. J. Neurosci. 19, 8876-8884.
40. Hartmann T, SC Bieger, B Bruhl, PJ Tienari, N Ida, D Allsop, GW Roberts, CL Masters, CG Dotti, K Unsicker and K Beyreuther (1997) Distinct sites of intracellular production for Alzheimer's disease Abeta40/42 amyloid peptides. Nat. Med. 3, 1016-1020.
41. Hershkowitz M and A Adunsky (1996) Binding of platelet-activating factor to platelets of Alzheimer's disease and multiinfarct dementia patients. Neurobiol. Aging 17, 865-868.
42. Hoglund K, O Wiklund, H Vanderstichele, O Eikenberg, E Vanmechelen and K Blennow (2004) Plasma levels of beta-amyloid(1-40), beta-amyloid(1-42), and total beta-amyloid remain unaffected in adult patients with hypercholesterolemia after treatment with statins. Arch. Neurol. 61, 333-337.
43. Hosoda R, TC Saido, L Otvos Jr, T Arai, DM Mann, VM Lee, JQ Trojanowski and T Iwatsubo (1998) Quantification of modified amyloid beta peptides in Alzheimer disease and Down syndrome brains. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 57, 1089-1095.
44. Houlden H, M Baker, E McGowan, P Lewis, M Hutton, R Crook, NW Wood, S Kumar-Singh, J Geddes, M Swash, F Scaravilli, JL Holton, T Lashley, T Tomita, T Hashimoto, A Verkkoniemi, H Kalimo, M Somer, A Paetau, JJ Martin, C Van Broeckhoven, T Golde, J Hardy, M Haltia and T Revesz (2000) Variant Alzheimer's disease with spastic paraparesis and cotton wool plaques is caused by PS-1 mutations that lead to exceptionally high amyloid-beta concentrations. Ann. Neurol. 48, 806-808.
45. Hsiao K, P Chapman, S Nilsen, C Eckman, Y Harigaya, S Younkin, F Yang and G Cole (1996) Correlative memory deficits, Abeta elevation, and amyloid plaques in transgenic mice. Science 274, 99-102.
46. Ida N, T Hartmann, J Pantel, J Schroder, R Zerfass, H Forstl, R Sandbrink, CL Masters and K Beyreuther (1996) Analysis of heterogeneous A4 peptides in human cerebrospinal fluid and blood by a newly developed sensitive Western blot assay. J. Biol. Chem. 271, 22908-22914.
47. Ingelsson M, H Fukumoto, KL Newell, JH Growdon, ET Hedley-Whyte, MP Frosch, MS Albert, BT Hyman and MC Irizarry (2004) Early Abeta accumulation and progressive synaptic loss, gliosis, and tangle formation in AD brain. Neurology 62, 925-931.
48. Iwata N, S Tsubuki, Y Takaki, K Watanabe, M Sekiguchi, E Hosoki, M Kawashima-Morishima, HJ Lee, E Hama, Y Sekine-Aizawa and TC Saido (2000) Identification of the major Abeta1-42-degrading catabolic pathway in brain parenchyma: Suppression leads to biochemical and pathological deposition. Nat. Med. 6, 143-150.
49. Iwata N, S Tsubuki, Y Takaki, K Shirotani, B Lu, NP Gerard, C Gerard, E Hama, HJ Lee and TC Saido (2001) Metabolic regulation of brain Abeta by neprilysin. Science 292, 1550-1552.
50. Iwatsubo T, A Odaka, N Suzuki, H Mizusawa, N Nukina and Y Ihara (1994) Visualization of Abeta 42(43) and Abeta 40 in senile plaques with end-specific Abeta monoclonals: Evidence that an initially deposited species is Abeta 42(43). Neuron 13, 45-53.
51. Iwatsubo T, DM Mann, A Odaka, N Suzuki and Y Ihara (1995) Amyloid beta protein (Abeta) deposition: Abeta 42(43) precedes Abeta 40 in Down syndrome. Ann. Neurol. 37, 294-299.
52. Jarrett JT, EP Berger and PT Lansbury Jr (1993) The carboxy terminus of the beta amyloid protein is critical for the seeding of amyloid formation: Implications for the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Biochemistry 32, 4693-4697.
53. Kakimura J, Y Kitamura, T Taniguchi, S Shimohama and PJ Gebicke-Haerter (2001) Bip/GRP78-induced production of cytokines and uptake of amyloid-beta(1-42) peptide in microglia. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 281, 6-10.
54. Kamenetz F, T Tomita, H Hsieh, G Seabrook, D Borchelt, T Iwatsubo, S Sisodia and R Malinow (2003) APP processing and synaptic function. Neuron 37, 925-937.
55. Kanai M, E Matsubara, K Isoe, K Urakami, K Nakashima, H Arai, H Sasaki, K Abe, T Iwatsubo, T Kosaka, M Watanabe, Y Tomidokoro, M Shizuka, K Mizushima, T Nakamura, Y Igeta, Y Ikeda, M Amari, T Kawarabayashi, K Ishiguro, Y Harigaya, K Wakabayashi, K Okamoto, S Hirai and M Shoji (1998) Longitudinal study of cerebrospinal fluid levels of tau, Abetal-40, and Abeta 1-42(43) in Alzheimer's disease: A study in Japan. Ann. Neurol. 44, 17-26.
56. Kanemaru K, N Kameda an H Yamanouchi (2000) Decreased CSF amyloid beta42 and normal tau levels in dementia with Lewy bodies. Neurology 54, 1875-1876.
57. Kawarabayashi T, LH Younkin, TC Saido, M Shoji, KH Ashe and SG Younkin (2001) Age-dependent changes in brain, CSF, and plasma amyloid (beta) protein in the Tg2576 transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurosci. 21, 372-381.
58. Kirkitadze MD, MM Condron and DB Teplow (2001) Identification and characterization of key kinetic intermediates in amyloid beta-protein fibrillogenesis. J. Mol. Biol. 312, 1103-1119.
59. Klein WL, GA Krafft and CE Finch (2001) Targeting small Abeta oligomers: the solution to an Alzheimer's disease conundrum? Trends Neurosci. 24, 219-224.
60. Kuo YM, MR Emmerling, C Vigo-Pelfrey, TC Kasunic, JB Kirkpatrick, GH Murdoch, MJ Ball and AE Roher (1996) Watersoluble Abeta (N-40, N-42) oligomers in normal and Alzheimer disease brains. J. Biol. Chem. 271, 4077-4081.
61. Kuo YM, MR Emmerling, CL Bisgaier, AD Essenburg, HC Lampert, D Drumm and AE Roher (1998) Elevated low-density lipoprotein in Alzheimer's disease correlates with brain abeta 1-42 levels. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 252, 711-715.
62. Kuo YM, MR Emmerling, HC Lampert, SR Hempelman, TA Kokjohn, AS Woods, RJ Cotter and AE Roher (1999) High levels of circulating Abeta42 are sequestered by plasma proteins in Alzheimer's disease. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 257, 787-791.
63. Lauer D, A Reichenbach and G Birkenmeier (2001) Alpha 2-macroglobulin-mediated degradation of amyloid beta 1-42: A mechanism to enhance amyloid beta catabolism. Exp. Neurol. 167, 385-392.
64. Li QX, SJ Fuller, K Beyreuther and CL Masters (1999) The amyloid precursor protein of Alzheimer disease in human brain and blood. J. Leukoc. Biol. 66, 567-574.
65. Li R, K Lindholm, LB Yang, X Yue, M Citron, R Yan, T Beach, L Sue, M Sabbagh, H Cai, P Wong, D Price and Y Shen (2004) Amyloid beta peptide load is correlated with increased beta-secretase activity in sporadic Alzheimer's disease patients. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101, 3632-3637.
66. Lue LF, YM Kuo, AE Roher, L Brachova, Y Shen, L Sue, T Beach, H Kurth, RE Rydel and J Rogers (1999) Soluble amyloid beta peptide concentration as a predictor of synaptic change in Alzheimer's disease. Am. J. Pathol. 155, 853-862.
67. Lustbader JW, M Cirilli, C Lin, HW Xu, K Takuma, N Wang, C Caspersen, X Chen, S Pollak, M Chaney, F Trinchese, S Liu, F Gunn-Moore, LF Lue, DG Walker, P Kuppusamy, ZL Zewier, O Arancio, D Stern, SS Yan and H Wu (2004) ABAD directly links Abeta to mitochondrial toxicity in Alzheimer's disease. Science 304, 448-452.
68. Mackic J,J Ghiso, B Frangione, L Kirkman, J Bading and B Zlokovic (2002) Differential cerebrovascular sequestration and enhanced blood-brain barrier permeability to circulating Alzheimer's amyloid-β peptide in aged Rhesus vs. aged Squirrel monkey. Vascular Pharmacol. 18, 303-313.
69. Mager PP (1998) Molecular simulation of the primary and secondary structures of the Abeta(1-42)-peptide of Alzheimer's disease. Med. Res. Rev. 18, 403-430.
70. Malouf AT (1992) Effect of beta amyloid peptides on neurons in hippocampal slice cultures. Neurobiol. Aging 13, 543-551.
71. Mann DM, T Iwatsubo, H Fukumoto, Y Ihara, A Odaka and N Suzuki (1995) Microglial cells and amyloid beta protein (Abeta) deposition; association with Abeta 40-containing plaques. Acta Neuropathol. 90, 472-477.
72. Mann DM, T Iwatsubo, SM Pickering-Brown, F Owen, TC Saido and RH Perry (1997) Preferential deposition of amyloid beta protein (Abeta) in the form Abeta40 in Alzheimer's disease is associated with a gene dosage effect of the apolipoprotein E E4 allele. Neurosci. Lett. 221, 81-84.
73. Mayeux R, MX Tang, DM Jacobs, J Manly, K Bell, C Merchant, SA Small, Y Stern, HM Wisniewski and PD Mehta (1999) Plasma amyloid beta-peptide 1-42 and incipient Alzheimer's disease. Ann. Neurol. 46, 412-416.
74. Mehta PD, T Pirttila, SP Mehta, EA Sersen, PS Aisen and HM Wisniewski (2000) Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid levels of amyloid beta proteins 1-40 and 1-42 in Alzheimer disease. Arch. Neurol. 57, 100-105.
75. Michikawa M, JS Gong, QW Fan, N Sawamuraand K Yanagisawa (2001) A novel action of Alzheimer's amyloid beta-protein (Abeta): Oligomeric Abeta promotes lipid release. J. Neurosci. 21, 7226-7235.
76. Miklossy J, K Taddei, D Suva, G Verdile, J Fonte, C Fisher, A Gnjec, J Ghika, F Suard, PD Mehta, CA McLean, CL Masters, WS Brooks and RN Martins (2003) Two novel presenilinmutations (Y256S and Q222H) are associated with early-onset Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol. Aging 24, 655-662.
77. Misonou H, M Morishima-Kawashima and Y Ihara (2000) Oxidative stress induces intracellular accumulation of amyloid beta-protein (Abeta) in human neuroblastoma cells. Biochemistry 39, 6951-6959.
78. Morishima-Kawashima M, N Oshima, H Ogata, H Yamaguchi, M Yoshimura, S Sugihara and Y Ihara (2000) Effect of apolipoprotein E allele epsilon4 on the initial phase of amyloid beta-protein accumulation in the human brain. Am. J. Pathol. 157, 2093-2099.
79. Motter nR, C Vigo-Pelfrey, D Kholodenko, R Barbour, K Johnson-Wood, D Galasko, L Chang, B Miller, C Clark and R Green (1995) Reduction of beta-amyloid peptide42 in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Ann. Neurol. 38, 643-648.
80. Mukherjee A, E Song, M Kihiko-Ehmann, JP Goodman, Jr., JS Pyrek, S Estus and LB Hersh (2000) Insulysin hydrolyzes amyloid beta peptides to products that are neither neurotoxic nor deposit on amyloid plaques. J. Neurosci. 20, 8745-8749.
81. Nakamura T, M Shoji, Y Harigaya, M Watanabe, K Hosoda, TT Cheung, LM Shaffer, TE Golde, LH Younkin, SG Younkin and S Hirai (1994) Amyloid beta protein levels in cerebrospinal fluid are elevated in early-onset Alzheimer's disease. Ann. Neurol. 36, 903-911.
82. Naslund J, A Schierhorn, U Hellman, L Lannfelt, AD Roses, LO Tjernberg, J Silberring, SE Gandy, B Winblad, P Greengard et al. (1994) Relative abundance of Alzheimer Abeta amyloid peptide variants in Alzheimer disease and normal aging. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 8378-8382.
83. Naslund J, V Haroutunian, R Mohs, KL Davis, P Davies, P Greengard and JD Buxbaum (2000) Correlation between elevated levels of amyloid beta-peptide in the brain and cognitive decline. JAMA 283, 1571-1577.
84. Nilsberth C, A Westlind-Danielsson, CB Eckman, MM Condron, K Axelman, C Forsell, C Stenh, J Luthman, DB Teplow, SG Younkin, J Naslund and L Lannfelt (2001) The 'Arctic' APP mutation (E693G) causes Alzheimer's disease by enhanced Abeta protofibril formation. Nat. Neurosci. 4, 887-893.
85. Nunan J and DH Small (2000) Regulation of APP cleavage by alpha-, beta- and gamma-secretases. FEBS Lett. 483, 6-10.
86. Otto M, H Esselmann, W Schulz-Shaeffer, M Neumann, A Schroter, P Ratzka, L Cepek, I Zerr, P Steinacker, O Windl, J Kornhuber, HA Kretzschmar, S Poser and J Wiltfang (2000) Decreased beta-amyloid 1-42 in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Neurology 54, 1099-1102.
87. Paola D, C Domenicotti, M Nitti, A Vitali, R Borghi, D Cottalasso, D Zaccheo, P Odetti, P Strocchi, UM Marinari, M Tabaton and MA Pronzato (2000) Oxidative stress induces increase in intracellular amyloid beta-protein production and selective activation of betaI and betaII PKCs in NT2 cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 268, 642-646.
88. Pike CJ, AJ Walencewicz, CG Glabe and CW Cotman (1991) Aggregation-related toxicity of synthetic beta-amyloid protein in hippocampal cultures. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 207, 367-368.
89. Plant LD, JP Boyle, IF Smith, C Peers and HA Pearson (2003) The production of amyloid β peptide is a critical requirement for the viability of central neurons. J. Neurosci. 23, 5531-5535.
90. Qiu WQ, DM Walsh, Z Ye, K Vekrellis, J Zhang, MB Podlisny, MR Rosner, A Safavi, LB Hersh and DJ Selkoe (1998) Insulindegrading enzyme regulates extracellular levels of amyloid betaprotein by degradation. J. Biol. Chem. 273, 32730-32738.
91. Qiu Z, DK Strickland, BT Hyman and GW Rebeck (1999) Alpha2-macroglobulin enhances the clearance of endogenous soluble beta-amyloid peptide via low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein in cortical neurons. J. Neurochem. 73, 1393-1398.
92. Ramsden M, LD Plant, NJ Webster, PF Vaughan, Z Henderson and HA Pearson (2001) Differential effects of unaggregated and aggregated amyloid beta protein (1-40) on K(+) channel currents in primary cultures of rat cerebellar granule and cortical neurones. J. Neurochem. 79, 699-712.
93. Rhodin JA, TN Thomas, L Clark, A Garces and M Bryant (2003) In vivo cerebrovascular actions of amyloid beta-peptides and the protective effect of conjugated estrogens. J. Alzheimers Dis. 5, 275-286.
94. Roher AE, JD Lowenson, S Clarke, AS Woods, RJ Cotter, E Gowing and MJ Ball (1993) Beta-amyloid-(1-42) is a major component of cerebrovascular amyloid deposits: Implications for the pathology of Alzheimer disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90, 10836-10840.
95. Samuels SC, JM Silverman, DB Marin, ER Peskind, SG Younki, DA Greenberg, E Schnur, J Santoro and KL Davis (1999) CSF beta-amyloid, cognition, and APOE genotype in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 52, 547-551.
96. Schenk D, R Barbour, W Dunn, G Gordon, H Grajeda, T Guido, K Hu, J Huang, K Johnson-Wood, K Khan, D Kholodenko, M Lee, Z Liao, I Lieberburg, R Motter, L Mutter, F Soriano, G Shopp, N Vasquez, C Vandevert, S Walker, M Wogulis, T Yednock, D Games and P Seubert (1999) Immunization with amyloid-beta attenuates Alzheimer-disease-like pathology in the PDAPP mouse. Nature 400, 173-177.
97. Scheuner D, C Eckman, M Jensen, X Song, M Citron, N Suzuki, TD Bird, J Hardy, M Hutton, W Kukull, E Larson, E Levy-Lahad, M Viitanen, E Peskind, P Poorkaj, G Schellenberg, R Tanzi, W Wasco, L Lannfelt, D Selkoe and S Younkin (1996) Secreted amyloid beta-protein similar to that in the senile plaques of Alzheimer's disease is increased in vivo by the presenilin 1 and 2 and APP mutations linked to familial Alzheimer's disease. Nat. Med. 2, 864-870.
98. Selkoe DJ (2001a) Alzheimer's disease: Genes, proteins, and therapy. Physiol. Rev. 81, 741-766.
99. Selkoe DJ (2001b) Clearing the brain's amyloid cobwebs. Neuron 32, 177-180.
100. Shaffer LM, MD Dority, R Gupta-Bansal, RC Frederickson, SG Younkin and KR Brunden (1995) Amyloid beta protein (Abeta) removal by neuroglial cells in culture. Neurobiol. Aging 16, 737-745.
101. Shinkai Y, M Yoshimura, M Morishima-Kawashima, Y Ito, H Shimada, K Yanagisawa and Y Ihara (1997) Amyloid beta-protein deposition in the leptomeninges and cerebral cortex. Ann. Neurol. 42, 899-908.
102. Shoji M (2002) Cerebrospinal fluid Abeta40 and Abeta42: Natural course and clinical usefulness. Front. Biosci. 7, d997-d1006.
103. Shoji M, E Matsubara, M Kanai, M Watanabe, T Nakamura, Y Tomidokoro, M Shizuka, K Wakabayashi, Y Igeta, Y Ikeda, K Mizushima, M Amari, K Ishiguro, T Kawarabayashi, Y Harigaya, K Okamoto and S Hirai (1998) Combination assay of CSF tau, Abeta 1-40 and Abeta 1-42(43) as a biochemical marker of Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurol. Sci. 158, 134-140.
104. Shoji M, M Kanai, E Matsubara, M Ikeda, Y Harigaya, K Okamoto and S Hirai (2000) Taps to Alzheimer's patients: A continuous Japanese study of cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers. Ann. Neurol. 48, 402.
105. Suzuki N, TT Cheung, XD Cai, A Odaka, L Otvos, Jr., C Eckman, TE Golde and SG Younkin (1994) An increased percentage of long amyloid beta protein secreted by familial amyloid beta protein precursor (beta APP717) mutants. Science 264, 1336-1340.
106. Tamaoka A, T Kondo, A Odaka, N Sahara, N Sawamura, K Ozawa, N Suzuki, S Shoji and H Mori (1994a) Biochemical evidence for the long-tail form (Abeta 1-42/43) of amyloid beta protein as a seed molecule in cerebral deposits of Alzheimer's disease. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 205, 834-842.
107. Tamaoka A, A Odaka, Y Ishibashi, M Usami, N Sahara, N Suzuki, N Nukina, H Mizusawa, S Shoji and I Kanazawa (1994b) APP717 missense mutation affects the ratio of amyloid beta protein species (Abeta 1-42/43 and Abeta 1-40) in familial Alzheimer's disease brain. J. Biol. Chem. 269, 32721-32724.
108. Tamaoka A, N Sawamura, A Odaka, N Suzuki, H Mizusawa, S Shoji and H Mori (1995) Amyloid beta protein 1-42/43 (Abeta 1-42/43) in cerebellar diffuse plaques: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunocytochemical study. Brain Res. 679, 151-156.
109. Tamaoka A, T Fukushima, N Sawamura, K Ishikawa, E Oguni, Y Komatsuzaki and S Shoji (1996) Amyloid beta protein in plasma from patients with sporadic Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurol. Sci 141, 65-68.
110. Tamaoka A, N Sawamura, T Fukushima, S Shoji, E Matsubara, M Shoji, S Hirai, Y Furiya, R Endoh and H Mori (1997) Amyloid beta protein 42(43) in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurol. Sci. 148, 41-45.
111. Tamaoka A, PE Fraser, K Ishii, N Sahara, K Ozawa, M Ikeda, AM Saunders, Y Komatsuzaki, R Sherrington, G Levesque, G Yu, E Rogaeva, S Shoji, LE Nee, DA Pollen, L Hendriks, JJ Martin, C Van Broeckhoven, AD Roses, LA Farrer, PH St George-Hyslop and H Mori (1998) Amyloid-beta-protein isoforms in brain of subjects with PS 1-linked, beta APP-linked and sporadic Alzheimer disease. Mol. Brain Res. 56, 178-185.
112. Tapiola T, T Pirttila, PD Mehta, I Alafuzofff, M Lehtovirta and H Soininen (2000a) Relationship between apoE genotype and CSF beta-amyloid (1-42) and tau in patients with probable and definite Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol. Aging 21, 735-740.
113. Tapiola T, T Pirttila, M Mikkonen, PD Mehta, I Alafuzoff, K Koivisto and H Soininen (2000b) Three-year follow-up of cerebrospinal fluid tau, beta-amyloid 42 and 40 concentrations in Alzheimer's disease. Neurosci. Lett. 280, 119-122.
114. Temussi PA, L Masino and A Pastore (2003) From Alzheimer to Huntington: why is a structural understanding so difficult? EMBOJ. 22, 355-361.
115. Turner PR, K O'Connor, WP Tate and WC Abraham (2003) Roles of amyloid precursor protein and its fragments in regulating neural activity, plasticity and memory. Prog. Neurobiol. 70, 1-32.
116. Turner RS, N Suzuki, AS Chyung, SG Younkin and VM Lee (1996) Amyloids beta40 and beta42 are generated intracellularly in cultured human neurons and their secretion increases with maturation. J. Biol. Chem. 271, 8966-8970.
117. Ulery PG, J Beers, I Mikhailenko, RE Tanzi, GW Rebeck, BT Hyman and DK Strickland (2000) Modulation of beta-amyloid precursor protein processing by the low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP). Evidence that LRP contributes to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. J. Biol. Chem. 275, 7410-7415.
118. Van Broeckhoven C, J Haan, E Bakker, JA Hardy, W Van Hul, A Wehnert, M Vegter-Van der Vlis and RA Roos (1990) Amyloid beta protein precursor gene and hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis (Dutch). Science 248, 1120-1122. Vassar R, BD Bennett, S Babu-Khan, S Kahn, EA Mendiaz, P Denis,
119. DB Teplow, S Ross, P Amarante, R Loeloff, Y Luo, S Fisher, J Fuller, S Edenson, J Lile, MA Jarosinski, AL Biere, E Curran, T Burgess, JC Louis, F Collins, J Treanor, G Rogers and M Citron (1999) Beta-secretase cleavage of Alzheimer's amyloid precursor protein by the transmembrane aspartic protease BACE. Science 286, 735-741.
120. Verdile G, A Gnjec, J Miklossy, J Fonte, G Veurink, K Bates, B Kakulas, PD Mehta, EA Milward, N Tan, R Lareau, D Lim, A Dharmarajan and RN Martins (2004) Protein markers for Alzheimer disease in the frontal cortex and cerebellum. Neurology 63, 1385-1392.
121. Walsh DM, A Lomakin, GB Benedek, MM Condron and DB Teplow (1997) Amyloid beta-protein fibrillogenesis. Detection of a protofibrillar intermediate. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 22364-22372.
122. Walsh DM, I Klyubin, JV Fadeeva, WK Cullen, R Anwyl, MS Wolfe, MJ Rowan and DJ Selkoe (2002) Naturally secreted oligomers of amyloid beta protein potently inhibit hippocampal long-term potentiation in vivo. Nature 416, 535-539.
123. Wang J, DW Dickson, JQ Trojanowski and VM Lee (1999) The levels of soluble versus insoluble brain Abeta distinguish Alzheimer's disease from normal and pathologic aging. Exp. Neurol. 158, 328-337.
124. Weiner HL, CA Lemere, R Maron, ET Spooner, TJ Grenfell, C Mori, S Issazadeh, WW Hancock and DJ Selkoe (2000) Nasal administration of amyloid-beta peptide decreases cerebral amyloid burden in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Ann. Neurol. 48, 567-579.
125. Weller RO (1998) Pathology of cerebrospinal fluid and interstitial fluid of the CNS: Significance for Alzheimer disease, prion disorders and multiple sclerosis. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 57, 885-894.
126. Wild-Bode C, T Yamazaki, A Capell, U Leimer, H Steiner, Y Ihara and C Haass (1997) Intracellular generation and accumulation of amyloid beta-peptide terminating at amino acid 42. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 16085-16088.
127. Yankner BA, LK Duffy and DA Kirschner (1990) Neurotrophic and neurotoxic effects of amyloid beta protein: Reversal by tachykinin neuropeptides. Science 250, 279-282.
128. Yasojima K, EG McGeer and PL McGeer (2001) Relationship between beta amyloid peptide generating molecules and neprilysin in Alzheimer disease and normal brain. Brain Res. 919, 115-121.
129. Yatin SM, S Varadarajan, CD Link and DA Butterfield (1999) In vitro and in vivo oxidative stress associated with Alzheimer's amyloid beta-peptide (1-42). Neurobiol. Aging 20, 325-330; discussion 339-342. (1-42)
130. Yu G, M Nishimura, S Arawaka, D Levitan, L Zhang, A Tandon, YQ Song, E Rogaeva, F Chen, T Kawarai, A Supala, L Levesque, H Yu, DS Yang, E Holmes, P Milman, Y Liang, DM Zhang, DH Xu, C Sato, E Rogaev, M Smith, C Janus, Y Zhang, R Aebersold, LS Farrer, S Sorbi, A Bruni, P Fraser and P St George-Hyslop (2000) Nicastrin modulates presenilin-mediated notch/ glp-1 signal transduction and betaAPP processing. Nature 407, 48-54.
131. 2 -induced apoptosis in human neuronal cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 235, 845-848.
132. Zlokovic BV (2004) Clearing amyloid through the blood-brain barrier. J. Neurochem. 89, 807-811.
133. Zlokovic BV (1996) Cerebrovascular transport of Alzheimer's amyloid beta and apolipoproteins J and E: Possible anti-amyloidogenic role of the blood-brain barrier. Life Sci. 59, 1483-1497.
134. Zou K, J-S Gong, K Yanagisawa and M Michikawa (2002) A novel function of monomeric amyloid beta-protein serving as an antioxidant molecule against metal-induced oxidative damage. J. Neurosci. 22, 4833-4841.
135. Zou K, D Kim, A Kakio, K Byun, J-S Gong, J Kim, M Kim, N Sawamura, S-i Nishimoto, K Matsuzaki, B Lee, K Yanagisawa and M Michikawa (2003) Amyloid beta-protein 1-40 protects neurons from damage induced by Abeta 1-42 in culture and in rat brain. J. Neurochem. 87, 609-619.