Removal of dyes from the effluent of textile and dyestuff manufacturing industry: A review of emerging techniques with reference to biological treatment

Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology

Volumn 35, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 219-238

  Rai, Harpreet Singh ^a   Bhattacharyya, Mani Shankar ^b   Singh, Jagdeep ^c   Bansal, T K ^a   Vats, Purva ^d   Banerjee, U C ^b  

^a THAPAR UNIVERSITY   (India)

^b NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF PHARMACEUTICAL EDUCATION AND RESEARCH NIPER   (India)

^c DR B R AMBEDKAR NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (India)

^d INSTITUTE OF MICROBIAL TECHNOLOGY   (India)

Author keywords

Bioaugmentation; Biodegradation; Decolorization; Synthetic effluent; Textile and dyestuff effluent; Textile dyes; Triphenylmethane and azo dyes

Indexed keywords

CARBON DIOXIDE; DYES; INORGANIC COMPOUNDS; SEWAGE SLUDGE; WASTEWATER;

BIOLOGICAL DECOLORIZATION; DYE MOLECULES; MINERALIZATIONS; PHYSIOCHEMICAL METHODS;

EFFLUENT TREATMENT;

CARBON DIOXIDE; DYE; INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT; INORGANIC COMPOUND; WATER;

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT; DYE; EFFLUENT TREATMENT; POLLUTANT REMOVAL; TEXTILE INDUSTRY; WASTEWATER TREATMENT;

AEROBIC BACTERIUM; ANAEROBIC BACTERIUM; BIOREMEDIATION; BIOTECHNOLOGICAL PROCEDURES; DECOLORIZATION; EFFLUENT; INDUSTRIAL SLUDGE; INDUSTRIAL WASTE; PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; REVIEW; SLUDGE DIGESTION; SLUDGE TREATMENT; TEXTILE; WASTE COMPONENT REMOVAL;

EID: 15444370108     PISSN: 10643389     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10643380590917932     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. Abadulla, E., Tzanov, T., Costa, S., Robra, K.H., Cavaco-Paulo, A., and Gübitz, G. Decolorization and detoxification of textile dyes with a laccase from Trametes hirsute, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66, 3357, 2000.
2. Alaton, I.A., and Balcioglu, I.A. Photochemical and heterogeneous photocatalytic degradation of waste vinylsulphone dyes: A case study with hydrolyzed reactive Black 5, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A Chem. 141, 247, 2001.
3. Allan, R., and Roxon, J.J. Metabolism by intestinal bacteria: The effect of bile salts on tartazine azo reduction, Xenobiotica 4, 637, 1974.
4. An, H., Qian, T., Gu, X., and Tang, W.Z. Biological treatment of dye wastewaters using an anaerobic-oxic system, Chemosphere 33, 2533, 1996.
5. Austin, G.T. Shreve's Chemical Process Industries, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 784, 1984.
6. Azmi, W., and Banerjee, U. Biodegradation of triphenylmethane dyes, Enzyme Microbiol. Technol. 22, 185, 1998.
7. Azmi, W., and Banerjee, U. Decolorization of triphenylmethane dyes by the growing and resting cells of Bacillus sp, Indian J. Environ. Ecoplan. 2, 241, 1999.
8. Azmi, W., and Banerjee, U. Biological decolorization of crystal violet by a newly isolated Bacillus sp. and microbial assessment of toxicity of untreated and treated dye, Sci. Iranica 8, 171, 2001.
9. Azmi, W., and Banerjee, U. Biological stabilization of textile and dyestuff industrial waste, Indian Chem. Eng. 44, 230, 2002.
10. Balan, D.S.L., and Monteiro, R.T.R. Decolorization of textile indigo dye by ligninolytic fungi, J. Biotechnol. 89, 141, 2001.
11. Barr, D.P., and Aust, S.D. Mechanisms white rot fungi use to degrade pollutants, Environ. Sci. Technol. 28, 78A, 1994.
12. Black, J.J., Holmes, M., Dymerski, P.P., and Zapisek, W.F. Fish tumor pathology and aromatic hydrocarbon pollution in a Great Lakes estuary. In: Hydrocarbons and Halogenated Hydrocarbons in the Aquatic Environment (Afghan, B.K., and Mackoy, D., Eds.), Plenum Press, New York, 559, 1980.
13. Blumel, S., Contzen, M., Lutz, M., Stolz, A., and Knackmuss, H.J. Isolation of a bacterial strain with the ability to utilize the sulfonated azo compound 4-carboxy-4′-sulfoazobenzene as the sole source of carbon and energy, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64, 2315, 1998.
14. Bromley-Challenor, K.C.A., Knapp, J.S., Zhang, Z., Gray, N.C.C., Hetheridge, H.J., and Evans, H.R. Decolorization of an azo dye by unacclimated activated sludge under anaerobic conditions, Water Res. 34, 4410, 2000.
15. Brown, D., and Laboureur, P. The aerobic biodegradabiliry of primary aromatic amines, Chemosphere 12, 405, 1983a.
16. Brown, D., and Hamburger, B. The degradation of dye stuffs. Part III. Investigations of their ultimate degradability. Chemosphere 16, 1539, 1987.
17. Brown, D., and Laboureur, P. The degradation of dye stuffs: Part I. Primary biodegradation under anaerobic conditions, Chemosphere 12, 397, 1983b.
18. Brown, J.P. Reduction of polymeric azo and nitro dyes by intestinal bacteria, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 41, 1283, 1981.
19. Bumpus, J.A., and Brock, B.J. Biodegradation of crystal violet by the white rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54, 1143, 1988.
20. Campos, R., Kamdelbauer, A., Robra, K.H., Cavaco-Paulo, M., and Gübitz, G.M. Indigo degradation with purified laccase from Trametes hirsuta and Sclerotium rolfsii. J. Biotechnol. 89, 131, 2001.
21. Carliell, C.M., Barclay, S.J., Naidoo, N., Buckley, C.A., Mulholland, D.A., and Senior, E. Microbial declorization of reactive azo dye under anaerobic conditions, Water 21, 61, 1995.
22. Carliell, C.M., Godefroy, S.J., Naidoo, N., Buckley, C.A., Senior, E., Mulholland, D., and Martineigh, B.S. Ananerobic decolorization of azo dyes, Seventh International Symposium on Anaerobic Digestion, RSA Litho (pty) Ltd, Goodwood, South Africa, Cape Town, South Africa, 1994.
23. Chen, Y.C., Liao, C.W., Hsiung, K.P. Decolorization of dyes by basidomycete Phanerochaete chrysosporium ATCC 24725, J. Chinese. Agric. Chem. Soc. 29, 439, 1991.
24. Chinwetkitvanich, S., Tuntoonsvelt, M., and Panswad, T. Anaerobic decolorization of reactive dyebath effluents by a two stage UASB system with tapioca as co-substrate, Water Res. 34, 2223, 2000.
25. Chung, K.T., and Cerniglia, C.E. Mutagenicity of azo dyes: Structure activity relationships, Mutat. Res. 277, 201, 1992.
26. Chung, K.T., Fulk, G.E., and Egan, M. Reduction of azo dyes by intestinal anaerobes, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 35, 558, 1978.
27. Coneely, A., Smyth, W.F., and McMullan, G. study of the white-rot fungal degradation of selected phthalocyanine dyes by capillary electrophoresis and liquid chromatography. Anal. Chim. Acta 451, 259, 2002,
28. Costerton, J.W., Lewandowski, Z., De Beer, D., Caldwell, D., Korber, D., and James, G. Biofilms: The customized microniche, J. Biotechnol. 176, 2137, 1994.
29. Coughlin, M.F., Kinkle, B.K., and Bishop, P.L. Degradation of azo dyes containing aminonaphthol by Shingomonas sp 1CX, J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 23, 341, 1999.
30. Coughlin, M.F., Kinkle, B.K., Tepper, A., and Bishop, P.L. Characterization of aerobic azo dye degrading bacteria and their activity in biofilms, Water Sci. Technol. 36, 215, 1997.
31. Cripps, C., Bumpus, J.A., and Aust, S.D. Biodegradation of azo and heterocyclic dyes by Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1114, 1990.
32. 2. J. Phytochem. Photobiol. 162, 317, 2004.
33. Donlon, B.A., Razo-Flores, E., Lettinga, G., and Field, J.A. Continous detoxification, transformation and degradation of nitrophenols in upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors, Biotechnol. Bioeng. 51, 439, 1996.
34. Donlon, B.A., Razo-Flores, E., Field, J., and Lettinga, G. Toxicity of N-Substituted aromatics to acetoclastic methanogenic activity in granular sludge, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61, 3889, 1995.
35. Donlon, B.A., Razo-Flores, E., Luijten, M., Swarts, H., Lettinga, G., and Field, J.A. Detoxification and partial mineralization of the azo dye mordant orange 1 in a continuous upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 47, 83, 1997.
36. Dwyer, D.F., Krumme, M.L., Boyd, S.A., Tiedje, J.M. Kinetics of phenol biodegradation by an immobilized methanogenic consortium, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 52, 345, 1986.
37. Easton, J.R. The dye maker's view. In: Colour in Dyehouse Effluent (Cooper, P., Ed.) Society of Dyers and Colourists, Nottingham, 9, 1995.
38. Field, J.A., Stams, A.J.M., Kato, M., and Schraa, G. Enhanced biodegradation of aromatic pollutants in cocultures of anaerobic and aerobic bacterial consortia, Antoine van Leeuwenhoek 67, 47, 1995.
39. FitzGerald, S.W., and Bishop, P.L. Two stage anaerobic/aerobic treatment of sulfonated azo dyes, J. Environ. Sci. Health. A 30, 1251, 1995.
40. Georgiou, D., Metallinous, C., Aivasidis, A., Voudrias, E., and Gimouhopoulos, K. Decolorization of azo-reactive dyes and cotton-textile wastewater using anaerobic digestion and acetate consuming bacteria, Biochem. Eng. J. 19, 75, 2004.
41. Gingell, R., and Walker, R. Mechanisms of azo reduction by Streptococcus faecalis II. The role of soluble flavins, Xenobiotica 1, 231, 1971.
42. Govindaswami, M., Schmidt, T.M., White, D.C., and Loper, J.C. Phylogenetic analysis of bacterial aerobic degrader of azo dyes, J. Biotechnol. 175, 6062, 1993.
43. Haug, W., Schmidt, A., Nortermann, B., Hempel, D.C., Stolz, A., and Knackmuss, H.J. Mineralization of the sulfonated azo dye mordant yellow3 by a 6-aminonaphthalene-2-sulfonate-degrading bacterial consortium, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57, 3144, 1991.
44. Horsefield, P., Logan, F.A., and Newey, J.A. Oral irritation with gentian violet, Br. Med. J. 2, 529, 1976.
45. Hildenbrand, S., Schmahl, F.W., Wodarz, R., Kimmel, R., and Dartsch, P.C. Azo dyes and carcinogenic aromatic amines in cell culture, Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 72, M52, 1999.
46. Hu, T.L. Decolorization of reactive azo dyes by transformation with Pseudomonas luteola, Biores. Technol. 49, 47, 1994.
47. Hu, T.L. Degradation of reactive azo dye RP2B by Pseudomonas luteola, Water Sci. Technol. 38, 299, 1998.
48. Hu, T.L., Jiang, K.Y., and Lin, C. The study of model for organic substance transformation in wastewater, Wastewater Treatment Technology in Republic of China, Proc. 16th conf. 37, 1991.
49. Idaka, E., Horitsu, H., and Ogawa, T. Some properties of azoreductase produced by Pseudomonas cepacia, Bull. Environ. Cont. Toxicol. 39, 982, 1987.
50. Jiang, H., and Bishop, P.L. Aerobic biodegradation of azo dyes in biofilms, Water Sci. Technol. 29, 525, 1994.
51. Knackmuss, H.J. Integrated anaerobic/aerobic processes for the elimination of electron deficient xenobiotic compounds. In: Environmental Biotechnology (Verachtert, H., and Verstraete, W., Eds.), Oostende, 89, 1997.
52. Konopka, A. Isolation and characterizatioin of a subsurface bacterium that degrades anilines and methylanilines, FEMS Lett. 111, 93, 1993.
53. Kudlich, M., Keck, A., Klein, J., and Stolz, A. Localization of the enzyme system involved in anaerobic reduction of azo dyes by Sphingomonas sp. BN6 and effect of artificial redox mediators on the rate of azo dye reduction, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63, 3691, 1997.
54. Kulla, H.G., Aerobic bacterial degradation of azo dyes, FEMS Symp. 12, 387, 1981.
55. Kulla, H.G., Klausener, F., Meyer, U., Ludeke, B., and Leisinger, T. Interference of aromtic sulfo groups in microbial degradation of azo dyes: Orange I and orange II, Arch. Microbiol. 135, 1, 1983.
56. Kriek, E. Aromatic amines and related compounds as carcinogenic hazards to man. In: Environmental carcinogenesis (Emmelot P. and Kriek E. Eds.), Elsvier, Amsterdam, 143, 1979.
57. Kwasniewska, K. Biodegradation of crystal violet (hexamethyl-p-rosaniline chloride) by oxidative red yeasts, Bull. Environ. Toxicol. 34, 323, 1985.
58. Lie, T.J., Leadbetter, J.R., and Leadbetter, E.R. Metabolism of sulfonic acid and other organosulfur compounds by sulfate-reducing bacteria, Geomicrobiol. J. 15, 135, 1998.
59. Loidl, M., Hinteregger, C., Ditzelmuller, G., Ferschl, A., Streichsbier, F. Degradation of aniline and monochlorinated anilines by soil born Pseudomonas acidovorans strains, Arch. Microbiol. 155, 56, 1990.
60. Longstaff, E. An assessment and categorization of the animal carcinogenicity data on selected dyestuffs and an extrapolation of those data on the relative carcinogenic risk to man, Dyes Pigments 4, 243, 1983.
61. Lourenco, N.D., Novais, J.M., and Pinheiro, H.M. Reactive textile dye color removal in a sequencing batch reactor, Water Sci. Technol. 42, 321, 2000.
62. Moldes, D., Galleo, P.P., Rodrìguez Couto, S., and Sanromán, À. Grape seeds: the best lignocellulosic waste to produce laccase by solid state cultures of Trametes hirsute. Biotechnol. Lett. 25, 491, 2003.
63. Nicholson, D.K., Woods, S.L., Istok, J.D., and Peek, D.C. Reduction dechlorination of chlorophenols by a pentachlorophenol-acclimated methanogenic consortium, Appl. Environ Microbiol. 58, 2280, 1992.
64. Nigam, P., Banat, I.M., Singh, D., and Merchant, R. Microbial process for the decolourization of textile effluent containing azo, diazo and reactive dyes, Process Biochem. 31, 435, 1996a.
65. Nigam, P., McMullan, G., Banat, I.M., and Merchant, R. Decolourization of effluent from the textile industry by a microbial consortium, Biotechnol. Lett. 18, 117, 1996b.
66. Ogawa, T., Idaka, E., and Yatome, C. Studies on the treatment of the wastewater containing dyestuffs by microorganisms. In: Microbiology for Environmental Cleaning (Arima, K., Ed.) published under the support of the Ministry of Education, grant 212204-1977, 426, 1978.
67. Ollikka, P., Alhonnaki, K., Leppaen, V., Clumoff, T., Raijola, T., and Suominene, L. Decolorization of azo, triphenylmethane, hetrocyclic and polymeric dyes by lignin peroxidase isoenzymes from Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59, 4010, 1993.
68. O'Neil, C., Hawkes, F.R., Esteves, S.S.R., Hawkes, D.L., and Wilcox, S.J. Anaerobic and aerobic treatment of simulated textile effluent, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 74, 993, 1999.
69. Parkin, G.F., and Speece, R.E. Attached versus suspended growth anaerobic reactors: Response to toxic substrances, Water Sci. Technol. 15, 261, 1983.
70. Pagga, U., and Brown, D. The degradation of dyestuffs: Part II. Behaviour of dyestuffs in aerobic biodegradation tests, Chemosphere 15, 479, 1986.
71. Paszczynski, A., Huynh, V.B., and Crawford, R. Comparison of ligninase-1 and peroxidase-M2 from the white rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 244, 750, 1986.
72. Paszczynski, A., Pasti-Grigsby, M.B., Goszczynski, S., Grawford, R.L., and Crawford, D.L. Mineralization of sulfonated azo dyes and sulfanilic acid by Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Streptomyces chromofuscus, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58, 3598, 1992.
73. Quezada, H., Linares, I., and Buitron, G. Use of a sequencing batch biofilter for degradation of azo dyes (acids and bases), Water Sci. Technol. 42, 329, 2000.
74. Razo-Flores, E., Donlon, B., Field, J., and Lettinga, G. Biodegradadibility of N-substituted aromatics and alkylphenols under methanogenic conditions using granular sludge, Water Sci. Technol. 33, 47, 1996.
75. Razo-Flores, E., Luijten, M., Donlon, B., Lettinga, G., and Field, J. Biodegradation of selected azo dyes under methanogenic conditions, Water Sci. Technol. 36, 65, 1997.
76. Rosenkranz, H.S., and Klopman, G. Structural basis of mutagenicity of 1-amino-2-naphthol based azo dyes, Mutagenesis 5, 137, 1990.
77. Sani, R., and Banerjee, U. Decolorization of triphenylmethane dyes and textile and dye-stuff effluent by Kurthia sp, Enzyme Microbiol. Techechnol. 24, 433, 1999a.
78. Sani, R., and Banerjee, U. Decolorization of acid green 20, a textile dye, by the white rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Adv. Environ. Res. 2, 485-490, 1999b.
79. SBP Board of Consultants and Engineers. Handbook of Exported Oriented Dyes and Intermediate Industries, SBP Consultants and Engineers Pvt. Ltd., 6, 1994
80. Shaul, G.M., Holdsworth T.J., Dempsey, C.R., and Dostal, K.A. Fate of water soluble azo dyes in the activated sludge process, Chemosphere 22, 107, 1991.
81. Shore, J. Dyeing with reactive dyes. In: Cellulosics Dyeing (Shore, J., Ed.), Alden Press, Oxford, Manchester, UK, 1995.
82. Sierra, R., and Lettinga, G. The effects of aromatic structures on inhibition of acetoclastic methanogens in granular sludge, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 34, 544, 1991.
83. Soares, G.M.B., Costa-Ferreira, M., Pessoa de Amorim, M.T. Decolorization of an anthraquinone-type dye using a laccase formulation, Bioresource Technol. 79, 171, 2001.
84. Stolz, A., Nortermann, B., and Knackmuss, S.J. Bacterial metabolism of 5-aminosalicylic acid: Initial ring cleavage, Biochem. J. 282, 685, 1992.
85. Tan, N.C.G., Lettinga, G., and Field, J.A. Biodegradation of sulfonated aromatic compounds. In: Environmental Technologies to Treat Sulfur Pollution. Principles and Engineering (Lens, P., and Hulshoff, P. L. Eds.), IWA Publishing, London, 377, 2000.
86. Tan, N.C.G., Boldu, F.X., Opsteeg, J.L., Lettinga, G., and Field, J.A. Biodegradation of azo dyes in cocultures of anaerobic granular sludge with aerobic aromatic amine degrading enrichment cultures, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 51, 865, 1999.
87. Thurston, C.F. The structure and function of fungal laccase, Microbiology 140, 19, 1994.
88. 2 requiring oxygenase, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 81, 2280, 1984.
89. Tseng, S.K., and Lin, M.R. Treatment of organic wastewater by anaerobic biological fluidized bed reactors, Water Sci. Technol. 29, 157, 1994.
90. Todini, O., and Hulshoff, P.L. Anaerobic degradation of benzaldehyde in methanogenic granular sludge: The influence of additional substrates, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 38, 417, 1992.
91. Vaidya, A.A., and Datye, K.V. Environmental pollution during chemical processing of synthetic fibers, Colorate 14, 3, 1982.
92. Van der Zee, F.P., Bisschops, I.A.E., Blanchard, V.G., Bouwman, R.H.M., Lettinga, G., Field, J.A. The contribution of biotic and abiotic processes during azo dye reduction in anaerobic sludge, Water. Res. 37, 3098, 2003.
93. Van der Zee, F.P., Lettinga, G., and Field, J.A. The role of (auto)catalysis in the mechanism of anaerobic azo reduction, Water Sci. Technol. 42, 301, 2000c.
94. Vasdev, K., Kuhad, R.C., and Saxena, R.K. Decolorization of triphenylmethane dyes by a bird's nest fungus Cyathus bulleri, Current Microbiol. 30, 269, 1995.
95. Walker, R., and Ryan, A.J. Some molecular parameters influencing rate of reduction of azo compounds by intestinal microflora, Xenobiotica 1, 483, 1971.
96. Waring, D.R., and Hallas, G. The Chemistry and Application of Dyes, Plenum Press, New York, 1990.
97. Willets, J.R.M., Ashbolt, N.J., Moosbrugger, R.E., and Aslam, M.R., The use of a themophilic anaerobic system for pretreatment of textile dye wastewater, Water Sci. Technol. 42, 309, 2000.
98. Wong, Y., and Jian, Yu. Laccase catalyzed decolorization of synthetic dyes, Water Res. 33, 3512, 1999.
99. Wong P.K., and Yuen, P.Y. Decolorization and biodegradation of methyl red by Klebsiella pneumoniae RS-13, Water Res. 30, 1736, 1996.
100. Wu, W.M., Bhatnagar, L., and Zeikus, J.G. Performance of anaerobic granules for degradation of pentachlorophenol, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 59, 389, 1993.
101. Wuhrmann, K., Menscher, K., and Kappeler, T. Investigation on rate determining factors in the microbial reduction of azo dyes, Eur. J. Appl. Micro. Biotech. 9, 325, 1980.
102. Yatome, C., Yamada, S., Ogawa, T., and Matsui, M. Degradation of crystal violet by Bacillus subtilis, J. Environ. Sci. Health A 26, 75, 1991.
103. Yesilada, O. Degradation of crystal violet by fungi, World. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 11, 601, 1995.
104. Young, L., and Yu, J. Ligninase-catalyzed decolorization of synthetic dyes, Water Res. 31, 1187, 1997.
105. Zimmermann, T., Kulla, H.G., and Leisinger, T. Properties of purified orange II-azoreductase, the enzyme initiating azo dye degradation by Pseudomonas KF46, Eur. J. Biochem. 129, 197, 1982a.
106. Zimmermann T., Gasser F., Kulla H., and Leisinger T. Comparison of two bacterial azoreductases acquired during adaptation to growth on azo dyes, Arch. Micro. 138, 37, 1984.
107. Zimmermann, T., Kulla, H.G., and Leisinger, T. Purification and properties of Orange II-azoreductase from Pseudomonas KF46, Experientia. 38, 1380, 1982b.
108. Zissi U., Lyberatos, G., and Pavlou, S. Biodegradation of p-aminoazobenzene by Bacillus subtilis under aerobic conditions, J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 19, 49, 1997.
109. Zitomer D.H., and Shrout, J.D. Feasibility and benefits of methanogenesis under oxygen limited conditions, Waste Manage. 18(2), 107, 1998.
110. Zitomer D.H., and Speece, R.H. Sequential environments for enhanced biotransformation of aqueous contaminants, Environ. Sci. Technol. 27(2), 227, 1993.
111. Zhen Z., and Yu, J. Stresses on immobilized Phanerochaete chrysosporium hyphae in submerged cultures for ligninase production, Can. J. Chem. Eng. 76, 784, 1998.
112. Zollinger, H. Colour Chemistry: Synthesis, Properties and Applications of Organic Dyes and Pigments, VCH, New York, 92, 1987.