The American Way: Edith Sampson, the NAACP, and African American Identity in the Cold War

Diplomatic History

Volumn 20, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 565-590

  Laville, Helen ^a   Lucas, Scott ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 1542744878     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7709.1996.tb00287.x     Document Type: Review

References (127)

1. Louisiana Weekly, 29 October 1949, Edith Spurlock Sampson Papers, box 9, folder 192, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Boston, Massachusetts.
2. Chicago Tribune, 10 October 1979.
3. Gerald Horne, Black and Red: W.E.B. DuBois and the Afro-American Response to the Cold War, 1944-1963 (Albany, 1986), 286; idem, Communist Front?: The Civil Rights Congress, 1946-1956 (Cranbury, NJ, 1988), 173; Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion (London, 1984); idem, W. E. B. DuBois: Black Radical Democrat (Boston, 1986); Martin Bauml Duberman, Paul Robeson (New York, 1988).
4. Gerald Horne, Black and Red: W.E.B. DuBois and the Afro-American Response to the Cold War, 1944-1963 (Albany, 1986), 286; idem, Communist Front?: The Civil Rights Congress, 1946-1956 (Cranbury, NJ, 1988), 173; Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion (London, 1984); idem, W. E. B. DuBois: Black Radical Democrat (Boston, 1986); Martin Bauml Duberman, Paul Robeson (New York, 1988).
5. Gerald Horne, Black and Red: W.E.B. DuBois and the Afro-American Response to the Cold War, 1944-1963 (Albany, 1986), 286; idem, Communist Front?: The Civil Rights Congress, 1946-1956 (Cranbury, NJ, 1988), 173; Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion (London, 1984); idem, W. E. B. DuBois: Black Radical Democrat (Boston, 1986); Martin Bauml Duberman, Paul Robeson (New York, 1988).
6. Gerald Horne, Black and Red: W.E.B. DuBois and the Afro-American Response to the Cold War, 1944-1963 (Albany, 1986), 286; idem, Communist Front?: The Civil Rights Congress, 1946-1956 (Cranbury, NJ, 1988), 173; Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion (London, 1984); idem, W. E. B. DuBois: Black Radical Democrat (Boston, 1986); Martin Bauml Duberman, Paul Robeson (New York, 1988).
7. Gerald Horne, Black and Red: W.E.B. DuBois and the Afro-American Response to the Cold War, 1944-1963 (Albany, 1986), 286; idem, Communist Front?: The Civil Rights Congress, 1946-1956 (Cranbury, NJ, 1988), 173; Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion (London, 1984); idem, W. E. B. DuBois: Black Radical Democrat (Boston, 1986); Martin Bauml Duberman, Paul Robeson (New York, 1988).
8. Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion, 33. There are differences of approach among the revisionists. For example, Horne depicts the "militant anti-imperialism" of the NAACP up to 1946, including the denunciation of Churchill's Fulton speech (see footnote 35 below); Marable is reluctant to give the association credit for any postwar initiative. What links the two is their reduction, from 1947, of the motives of "mainstream" African American groups to the domestic crusade against communism.
9. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York, 1944), 4; Paul Robeson, Here I Stand (Boston, 1971), 2; Benjamin Rivlin, "The Legacy of Ralph Bunche," in Ralph Bunche: The Man and His Times, ed. Benjamin Rivlin (New York, 1990), 23; Harold Isaacs, The New World of Negro Americans (New York, 1963), 343; Herbert Aptheker, ed., The Correspondence of W.E.B. Du Bois, vol. 3, Selections, 1944-1963 (Amherst, MA, 1978), 54.
10. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York, 1944), 4; Paul Robeson, Here I Stand (Boston, 1971), 2; Benjamin Rivlin, "The Legacy of Ralph Bunche," in Ralph Bunche: The Man and His Times, ed. Benjamin Rivlin (New York, 1990), 23; Harold Isaacs, The New World of Negro Americans (New York, 1963), 343; Herbert Aptheker, ed., The Correspondence of W.E.B. Du Bois, vol. 3, Selections, 1944-1963 (Amherst, MA, 1978), 54.
11. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York, 1944), 4; Paul Robeson, Here I Stand (Boston, 1971), 2; Benjamin Rivlin, "The Legacy of Ralph Bunche," in Ralph Bunche: The Man and His Times, ed. Benjamin Rivlin (New York, 1990), 23; Harold Isaacs, The New World of Negro Americans (New York, 1963), 343; Herbert Aptheker, ed., The Correspondence of W.E.B. Du Bois, vol. 3, Selections, 1944-1963 (Amherst, MA, 1978), 54.
12. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York, 1944), 4; Paul Robeson, Here I Stand (Boston, 1971), 2; Benjamin Rivlin, "The Legacy of Ralph Bunche," in Ralph Bunche: The Man and His Times, ed. Benjamin Rivlin (New York, 1990), 23; Harold Isaacs, The New World of Negro Americans (New York, 1963), 343; Herbert Aptheker, ed., The Correspondence of W.E.B. Du Bois, vol. 3, Selections, 1944-1963 (Amherst, MA, 1978), 54.
13. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York, 1944), 4; Paul Robeson, Here I Stand (Boston, 1971), 2; Benjamin Rivlin, "The Legacy of Ralph Bunche," in Ralph Bunche: The Man and His Times, ed. Benjamin Rivlin (New York, 1990), 23; Harold Isaacs, The New World of Negro Americans (New York, 1963), 343; Herbert Aptheker, ed., The Correspondence of W.E.B. Du Bois, vol. 3, Selections, 1944-1963 (Amherst, MA, 1978), 54.
14. On the development of government policy toward Africa after World War II see Thomas J. Noer, Cold War and Black Liberation: The United States and White Rule in Africa, 1948-1968 (Columbia, MO, 1985); and Thomas Borstelmann, Apartheid's Reluctant Uncle: The U.S. and Southern Africa in the Early Cold War (New York, 1993). See also the excellent study by Mary Dudziak, "Desegregation as a Cold War Imperative," Stanford Law Review 41 (November 1988): 61, which links the Truman administration's support for the judicial battle against racial discrimination to the international struggle with the Soviet Union. See also a forerunner of the revisionism of the 1980s, James Roark, "American Black Leaders: The Response to Colonialism and the Cold War, 1943-1953," African Historical Studies 4:2 (1971): 253. Roark is not as strident in his denunciation of the African American leadership. He also gives greater consideration than Horne or Marable to the motives of that leadership, citing the fear of being branded disloyal and the support for the Truman administration because of the "promise of advance toward equality at home"; however, his assertion that the protest against anticolonialism "fell off sharply" after 1947 is based on a limited survey of the NAACP's policy.
15. On the development of government policy toward Africa after World War II see Thomas J. Noer, Cold War and Black Liberation: The United States and White Rule in Africa, 1948-1968 (Columbia, MO, 1985); and Thomas Borstelmann, Apartheid's Reluctant Uncle: The U.S. and Southern Africa in the Early Cold War (New York, 1993). See also the excellent study by Mary Dudziak, "Desegregation as a Cold War Imperative," Stanford Law Review 41 (November 1988): 61, which links the Truman administration's support for the judicial battle against racial discrimination to the international struggle with the Soviet Union. See also a forerunner of the revisionism of the 1980s, James Roark, "American Black Leaders: The Response to Colonialism and the Cold War, 1943-1953," African Historical Studies 4:2 (1971): 253. Roark is not as strident in his denunciation of the African American leadership. He also gives greater consideration than Horne or Marable to the motives of that leadership, citing the fear of being branded disloyal and the support for the Truman administration because of the "promise of advance toward equality at home"; however, his assertion that the protest against anticolonialism "fell off sharply" after 1947 is based on a limited survey of the NAACP's policy.
16. On the development of government policy toward Africa after World War II see Thomas J. Noer, Cold War and Black Liberation: The United States and White Rule in Africa, 1948-1968 (Columbia, MO, 1985); and Thomas Borstelmann, Apartheid's Reluctant Uncle: The U.S. and Southern Africa in the Early Cold War (New York, 1993). See also the excellent study by Mary Dudziak, "Desegregation as a Cold War Imperative," Stanford Law Review 41 (November 1988): 61, which links the Truman administration's support for the judicial battle against racial discrimination to the international struggle with the Soviet Union. See also a forerunner of the revisionism of the 1980s, James Roark, "American Black Leaders: The Response to Colonialism and the Cold War, 1943-1953," African Historical Studies 4:2 (1971): 253. Roark is not as strident in his denunciation of the African American leadership. He also gives greater consideration than Horne or Marable to the motives of that leadership, citing the fear of being branded disloyal and the support for the Truman administration because of the "promise of advance toward equality at home"; however, his assertion that the protest against anticolonialism "fell off sharply" after 1947 is based on a limited survey of the NAACP's policy.
17. On the development of government policy toward Africa after World War II see Thomas J. Noer, Cold War and Black Liberation: The United States and White Rule in Africa, 1948-1968 (Columbia, MO, 1985); and Thomas Borstelmann, Apartheid's Reluctant Uncle: The U.S. and Southern Africa in the Early Cold War (New York, 1993). See also the excellent study by Mary Dudziak, "Desegregation as a Cold War Imperative," Stanford Law Review 41 (November 1988): 61, which links the Truman administration's support for the judicial battle against racial discrimination to the international struggle with the Soviet Union. See also a forerunner of the revisionism of the 1980s, James Roark, "American Black Leaders: The Response to Colonialism and the Cold War, 1943-1953," African Historical Studies 4:2 (1971): 253. Roark is not as strident in his denunciation of the African American leadership. He also gives greater consideration than Horne or Marable to the motives of that leadership, citing the fear of being branded disloyal and the support for the Truman administration because of the "promise of advance toward equality at home"; however, his assertion that the protest against anticolonialism "fell off sharply" after 1947 is based on a limited survey of the NAACP's policy.
18. Lawrence Neal, while criticizing the assimilation of leaders like Roy Wilkins and Whitney Young into a "racist power structure" and calling for African American separatism, incisively wrote in 1968 that "It is important not to fall into the trap of simply labelling these leaders as 'Uncle Toms.' It is imperative that we have a clear understanding of the manner in which they view the world. This is the only way to fight them. They speak for thousands of black people, and the failure of the militants to understand the reasons for the appeal would be disastrous." Lawrence Neal, "Black Power in the International Context," in The Black Power Revolt, ed. Floyd B. Barbour (Boston, 1968), 138.
19. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954-63 (New York, 1988), 140; Clayborne Carson et al., eds., The Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights Reader (London, 1990), 48.
20. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954-63 (New York, 1988), 140; Clayborne Carson et al., eds., The Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights Reader (London, 1990), 48.
21. Town Hall Meeting of the Air, Good Evening, Neighbors! The Story of an American Institution, 54, Sampson Papers, box 9, folder 194; Draft Senior Staff Report NSC 114 and Annex 5, 27 July 1951, U.S. Declassified Document Reference System, 1980 (Washington, 1974), 284B-285A.
22. Town Hall Meeting of the Air, Good Evening, Neighbors! The Story of an American Institution, 54, Sampson Papers, box 9, folder 194; Draft Senior Staff Report NSC 114 and Annex 5, 27 July 1951, U.S. Declassified Document Reference System, 1980 (Washington, 1974), 284B-285A.
23. Board of directors meeting, 11 April 1949, Papers of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (Frederick, MD, 1987-), pt. 1, reel 3; Chester Williams, "Adven" ture in Understanding," in Good Evening, Neighbors!, 59-68.
24. Board of directors meeting, 11 April 1949, Papers of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (Frederick, MD, 1987-), pt. 1, reel 3; Chester Williams, "Adven" ture in Understanding," in Good Evening, Neighbors!, 59-68.
25. NCNW to Sampson, 5 May 1949, Sampson Papers, box 9, folder 188.
26. The Reminiscences of Miss Anna Lord Strauss (Oral History Research Office, Columbia University), 327.
27. Anna Lord Strauss speech, "Community Activities Here and Abroad," Mount Holyoke United Nations Institute, 14 July 1950, Anna Lord Strauss Papers, box 3, folder 46, Schlesinger Library; Mary Decker, The World We Saw with Town Hall (New York, 1950), 168; Louisiana Weekly, 29 October 1949, Sampson Papers, box 9, folder 192; The Reminiscences of Miss Anna Lord Strauss, 327. In the 1930s, Walter White had passed as Caucasian to investigate the Ku Klux Klan. In his memoirs, he only referred in passing to Sampson's participation in the seminar, but he had written soon after the return of the tour to America: "The most valuable salesman of American democracy on the Town Hall tour has been Mrs. Edith Sampson of Chicago. By her impressive physical presence and by her participation in broadcasts, in seminars, and in conferences, she has done more to correct erroneous impressions about the status ot the Negro in America, than all of the rest of us put together." Walter White, How Far the Promised Land? (New York, 1955), 3-18; pamphlet for the Chicago Citizen's Committee, Sampson Papers, box 1, folder 1.
28. Anna Lord Strauss speech, "Community Activities Here and Abroad," Mount Holyoke United Nations Institute, 14 July 1950, Anna Lord Strauss Papers, box 3, folder 46, Schlesinger Library; Mary Decker, The World We Saw with Town Hall (New York, 1950), 168; Louisiana Weekly, 29 October 1949, Sampson Papers, box 9, folder 192; The Reminiscences of Miss Anna Lord Strauss, 327. In the 1930s, Walter White had passed as Caucasian to investigate the Ku Klux Klan. In his memoirs, he only referred in passing to Sampson's participation in the seminar, but he had written soon after the return of the tour to America: "The most valuable salesman of American democracy on the Town Hall tour has been Mrs. Edith Sampson of Chicago. By her impressive physical presence and by her participation in broadcasts, in seminars, and in conferences, she has done more to correct erroneous impressions about the status ot the Negro in America, than all of the rest of us put together." Walter White, How Far the Promised Land? (New York, 1955), 3-18; pamphlet for the Chicago Citizen's Committee, Sampson Papers, box 1, folder 1.
29. Anna Lord Strauss speech, "Community Activities Here and Abroad," Mount Holyoke United Nations Institute, 14 July 1950, Anna Lord Strauss Papers, box 3, folder 46, Schlesinger Library; Mary Decker, The World We Saw with Town Hall (New York, 1950), 168; Louisiana Weekly, 29 October 1949, Sampson Papers, box 9, folder 192; The Reminiscences of Miss Anna Lord Strauss, 327. In the 1930s, Walter White had passed as Caucasian to investigate the Ku Klux Klan. In his memoirs, he only referred in passing to Sampson's participation in the seminar, but he had written soon after the return of the tour to America: "The most valuable salesman of American democracy on the Town Hall tour has been Mrs. Edith Sampson of Chicago. By her impressive physical presence and by her participation in broadcasts, in seminars, and in conferences, she has done more to correct erroneous impressions about the status ot the Negro in America, than all of the rest of us put together." Walter White, How Far the Promised Land? (New York, 1955), 3-18; pamphlet for the Chicago Citizen's Committee, Sampson Papers, box 1, folder 1.
30. Anna Lord Strauss speech, "Community Activities Here and Abroad," Mount Holyoke United Nations Institute, 14 July 1950, Anna Lord Strauss Papers, box 3, folder 46, Schlesinger Library; Mary Decker, The World We Saw with Town Hall (New York, 1950), 168; Louisiana Weekly, 29 October 1949, Sampson Papers, box 9, folder 192; The Reminiscences of Miss Anna Lord Strauss, 327. In the 1930s, Walter White had passed as Caucasian to investigate the Ku Klux Klan. In his memoirs, he only referred in passing to Sampson's participation in the seminar, but he had written soon after the return of the tour to America: "The most valuable salesman of American democracy on the Town Hall tour has been Mrs. Edith Sampson of Chicago. By her impressive physical presence and by her participation in broadcasts, in seminars, and in conferences, she has done more to correct erroneous impressions about the status ot the Negro in America, than all of the rest of us put together." Walter White, How Far the Promised Land? (New York, 1955), 3-18; pamphlet for the Chicago Citizen's Committee, Sampson Papers, box 1, folder 1.
31. Anna Lord Strauss speech, "Community Activities Here and Abroad," Mount Holyoke United Nations Institute, 14 July 1950, Anna Lord Strauss Papers, box 3, folder 46, Schlesinger Library; Mary Decker, The World We Saw with Town Hall (New York, 1950), 168; Louisiana Weekly, 29 October 1949, Sampson Papers, box 9, folder 192; The Reminiscences of Miss Anna Lord Strauss, 327. In the 1930s, Walter White had passed as Caucasian to investigate the Ku Klux Klan. In his memoirs, he only referred in passing to Sampson's participation in the seminar, but he had written soon after the return of the tour to America: "The most valuable salesman of American democracy on the Town Hall tour has been Mrs. Edith Sampson of Chicago. By her impressive physical presence and by her participation in broadcasts, in seminars, and in conferences, she has done more to correct erroneous impressions about the status ot the Negro in America, than all of the rest of us put together." Walter White, How Far the Promised Land? (New York, 1955), 3-18; pamphlet for the Chicago Citizen's Committee, Sampson Papers, box 1, folder 1.
32. Decker, The World We Saw, 196-97; U.S. State Department, The Record, 19; "Edith Sampson-Thorn in Russia's Side," Reader's Digest, April 1951, 108. The incident was also highlighted by Walter White in his syndicated column in the summer of 1949 and alter Sampson's appointment to the United Nations in the fall of 1950. See Chicago Defender, 30 September 1950.
33. Decker, The World We Saw, 196-97; U.S. State Department, The Record, 19; "Edith Sampson-Thorn in Russia's Side," Reader's Digest, April 1951, 108. The incident was also highlighted by Walter White in his syndicated column in the summer of 1949 and alter Sampson's appointment to the United Nations in the fall of 1950. See Chicago Defender, 30 September 1950.
34. Decker, The World We Saw, 196-97; U.S. State Department, The Record, 19; "Edith Sampson-Thorn in Russia's Side," Reader's Digest, April 1951, 108. The incident was also highlighted by Walter White in his syndicated column in the summer of 1949 and alter Sampson's appointment to the United Nations in the fall of 1950. See Chicago Defender, 30 September 1950.
35. Decker, The World We Saw, 196-97; U.S. State Department, The Record, 19; "Edith Sampson-Thorn in Russia's Side," Reader's Digest, April 1951, 108. The incident was also highlighted by Walter White in his syndicated column in the summer of 1949 and alter Sampson's appointment to the United Nations in the fall of 1950. See Chicago Defender, 30 September 1950.
36. Town Meeting of the Air, 577th transcript, "What Are Democracy's Best Answers to Communism?" 13 September 1949, Sampson Papers, box 9, folder 192. See also "Thorn in Russia's Side," 107.
37. Town Meeting of the Air, 577th transcript, "What Are Democracy's Best Answers to Communism?" 13 September 1949, Sampson Papers, box 9, folder 192. See also "Thorn in Russia's Side," 107.
38. St. Louis American, 21 March 1950, Sampson Papers, box 5, folder 109; Sampson to the NCNW Committee on International Relations, 9 August 1950, Sampson Papers, box 9, folder 188; "Race Bias Held Costly to U.S.," Des Moines Register, 18 April 1950, Sampson Papers, box 9, folder 192.
39. St. Louis American, 21 March 1950, Sampson Papers, box 5, folder 109; Sampson to the NCNW Committee on International Relations, 9 August 1950, Sampson Papers, box 9, folder 188; "Race Bias Held Costly to U.S.," Des Moines Register, 18 April 1950, Sampson Papers, box 9, folder 192.
40. Toledo Blade, 26 October 1949, Sampson Papers, box 5, folder 109; "Aunt Edith Meets World Leaders," Chicago Sun-Times, undated, Sampson Papers, box 9, folder 194.
41. Toledo Blade, 26 October 1949, Sampson Papers, box 5, folder 109; "Aunt Edith Meets World Leaders," Chicago Sun-Times, undated, Sampson Papers, box 9, folder 194.
42. The issue was so emotive by 1947 that the British, to counter Soviet charges of colonialism, organized a comprehensive program of covert and overt propaganda, led by Minister of State Christopher Mayhew at the UN, to press the charge of Soviet "slavery." W. S. Lucas and C. J. Morris, "A Very British Crusade: The Information Research Department and the Cold War," in British Intelligence, Strategy and the Cold War, 1945-51, ed. Richard Aldrich (London, 1992), 85. Thus, the U.S. delegation to the UN Human Rights Commission refused debate on a detailed report, sponsored by the NAACP and led by W. E. B. DuBois, of discrimination against African Americans and other minorities.
43. India Edwards, Pulling No Punches: Memoir of a Woman in Politics (New York, 1977), 168; Chicago Defender, 16 September 1950.
44. India Edwards, Pulling No Punches: Memoir of a Woman in Politics (New York, 1977), 168; Chicago Defender, 16 September 1950.
45. Horne, Black and Red, 280; New York Herald-Tribune in Sampson Papers, box 2, file 43; New York Times, cited in Chicago Defender, 2 September 1950.
46. Horne, Black and Red, 280; New York Herald-Tribune in Sampson Papers, box 2, file 43; New York Times, cited in Chicago Defender, 2 September 1950.
47. Horne, Black and Red, 280; New York Herald-Tribune in Sampson Papers, box 2, file 43; New York Times, cited in Chicago Defender, 2 September 1950.
48. Chicago Defender, 2 September 1950; Baltimore Afro-American, 2 September 1950; Pittsburgh Courier, 2 September 1950.
49. Chicago Defender, 2 September 1950; Baltimore Afro-American, 2 September 1950; Pittsburgh Courier, 2 September 1950.
50. Chicago Defender, 2 September 1950; Baltimore Afro-American, 2 September 1950; Pittsburgh Courier, 2 September 1950.
51. Amsterdam News, 21 and 28 October and 18 November 1950; Baltimore Afro-American, 4 November 1950; Chicago Defender, 28 October and 18 and 28 November 1950. The Defender was also treating its readers to a photographic record of Mrs. Sampson's day off with her friends, Mr. and Mrs. Herman McCoy, with "Mrs. Sampson in Mrs. McCoy's beauty salon, in the kitchen giving orders to the McCoys' cook and upstairs relaxing in the spaciously and handsomely decorated drawing room," while its society columnist noted the visit to New York of Mrs. Sampson's sister, Blanche Morris, the owner of "Morris' Eat Shop." Chicago Defender, 18 November 1950, 6 and 10. See also ibid., 2 December 1950.
52. Amsterdam News, 21 and 28 October and 18 November 1950; Baltimore Afro-American, 4 November 1950; Chicago Defender, 28 October and 18 and 28 November 1950. The Defender was also treating its readers to a photographic record of Mrs. Sampson's day off with her friends, Mr. and Mrs. Herman McCoy, with "Mrs. Sampson in Mrs. McCoy's beauty salon, in the kitchen giving orders to the McCoys' cook and upstairs relaxing in the spaciously and handsomely decorated drawing room," while its society columnist noted the visit to New York of Mrs. Sampson's sister, Blanche Morris, the owner of "Morris' Eat Shop." Chicago Defender, 18 November 1950, 6 and 10. See also ibid., 2 December 1950.
53. Amsterdam News, 21 and 28 October and 18 November 1950; Baltimore Afro-American, 4 November 1950; Chicago Defender, 28 October and 18 and 28 November 1950. The Defender was also treating its readers to a photographic record of Mrs. Sampson's day off with her friends, Mr. and Mrs. Herman McCoy, with "Mrs. Sampson in Mrs. McCoy's beauty salon, in the kitchen giving orders to the McCoys' cook and upstairs relaxing in the spaciously and handsomely decorated drawing room," while its society columnist noted the visit to New York of Mrs. Sampson's sister, Blanche Morris, the owner of "Morris' Eat Shop." Chicago Defender, 18 November 1950, 6 and 10. See also ibid., 2 December 1950.
54. Amsterdam News, 21 and 28 October and 18 November 1950; Baltimore Afro-American, 4 November 1950; Chicago Defender, 28 October and 18 and 28 November 1950. The Defender was also treating its readers to a photographic record of Mrs. Sampson's day off with her friends, Mr. and Mrs. Herman McCoy, with "Mrs. Sampson in Mrs. McCoy's beauty salon, in the kitchen giving orders to the McCoys' cook and upstairs relaxing in the spaciously and handsomely decorated drawing room," while its society columnist noted the visit to New York of Mrs. Sampson's sister, Blanche Morris, the owner of "Morris' Eat Shop." Chicago Defender, 18 November 1950, 6 and 10. See also ibid., 2 December 1950.
55. Amsterdam News, 21 and 28 October and 18 November 1950; Baltimore Afro-American, 4 November 1950; Chicago Defender, 28 October and 18 and 28 November 1950. The Defender was also treating its readers to a photographic record of Mrs. Sampson's day off with her friends, Mr. and Mrs. Herman McCoy, with "Mrs. Sampson in Mrs. McCoy's beauty salon, in the kitchen giving orders to the McCoys' cook and upstairs relaxing in the spaciously and handsomely decorated drawing room," while its society columnist noted the visit to New York of Mrs. Sampson's sister, Blanche Morris, the owner of "Morris' Eat Shop." Chicago Defender, 18 November 1950, 6 and 10. See also ibid., 2 December 1950.
56. Amsterdam News, 21 October 1950; Baltimore Afro-American, 4 November 1950; Chicago Defender, 4 November 1950; "Mobilizing America's Strength for World Security" and "World Security Begins at Home," October 1950, Sampson Papers, box 5, folder 109.
57. Amsterdam News, 21 October 1950; Baltimore Afro-American, 4 November 1950; Chicago Defender, 4 November 1950; "Mobilizing America's Strength for World Security" and "World Security Begins at Home," October 1950, Sampson Papers, box 5, folder 109.
58. Amsterdam News, 21 October 1950; Baltimore Afro-American, 4 November 1950; Chicago Defender, 4 November 1950; "Mobilizing America's Strength for World Security" and "World Security Begins at Home," October 1950, Sampson Papers, box 5, folder 109.
59. Amsterdam News, 21 October 1950; Baltimore Afro-American, 4 November 1950; Chicago Defender, 4 November 1950; "Mobilizing America's Strength for World Security" and "World Security Begins at Home," October 1950, Sampson Papers, box 5, folder 109.
60. Sampson statement, undated [late 1950], Sampson Papers, box 6, folder 134; Williams to Spaulding, 18 April 1951, Sampson Papers, box 10, folder 224; J. D. Ratcliff, Christian Herald, 1 August 1968, Sampson Papers, box 2, folder 43.
61. "Thorn in Russia's Side," 107-9. Behind the scenes, Sampson was also instrumental in an American initiative to "rescue" Egypt from neutralism after the Egyptians refrained from supporting the UN intervention in the Korean War. Sampson, working with the secretary-general of the Arab League, Abdul Rahman Azzam, arranged for a $30,000 Egyptian contribution to relief efforts in South Korea. In return, Sampson put Azzam in contact with agencies that might support the Arab League's film, Sands of Sorrow, about the plight of Palestinian refugees. Sampson to Azzam, 19 November 1950, and subsequent letters, Sampson Papers, box 5, folder 102.
62. See, for example, the controversy over the State Department's confiscation of Paul Robeson's passport. Duberman, Paul Robeson, 389. Morris to Sampson, "Regarding Talk to American Women's Club," undated, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 230.
63. See, for example, the controversy over the State Department's confiscation of Paul Robeson's passport. Duberman, Paul Robeson, 389. Morris to Sampson, "Regarding Talk to American Women's Club," undated, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 230.
64. Austro-Americin Institute of Education report, 21 June 1951, Sampson Papers, box 10, folder 225; Jet, 7 February 1952, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 237; Sampson letter (recipient unknown), 4 February 1952, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 229; Götesborg-Posten, 22 January 1952, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 235. A notable example of the approach occurred in Paris when Sampson clashed with Josephine Baker. "Fed up" with hearing Baker "malign the U.S." while praising French colonial policy, Sampson commented that "We are at least making an honest effort to eradicate barriers. When France tries to to one-tenth as much for its colonials, I will be willing to listen to Josephine Baker's complaints. . . . [French colonials] suffer much more than does Miss Baker in Atlanta or New York." "Edith Sampson Attacks Josephine Baker Stand," Jet, 10 January 1952, Sampson Papers, box 2, folder 43.
65. Austro-Americin Institute of Education report, 21 June 1951, Sampson Papers, box 10, folder 225; Jet, 7 February 1952, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 237; Sampson letter (recipient unknown), 4 February 1952, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 229; Götesborg-Posten, 22 January 1952, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 235. A notable example of the approach occurred in Paris when Sampson clashed with Josephine Baker. "Fed up" with hearing Baker "malign the U.S." while praising French colonial policy, Sampson commented that "We are at least making an honest effort to eradicate barriers. When France tries to to one-tenth as much for its colonials, I will be willing to listen to Josephine Baker's complaints. . . . [French colonials] suffer much more than does Miss Baker in Atlanta or New York." "Edith Sampson Attacks Josephine Baker Stand," Jet, 10 January 1952, Sampson Papers, box 2, folder 43.
66. Austro-Americin Institute of Education report, 21 June 1951, Sampson Papers, box 10, folder 225; Jet, 7 February 1952, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 237; Sampson letter (recipient unknown), 4 February 1952, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 229; Götesborg-Posten, 22 January 1952, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 235. A notable example of the approach occurred in Paris when Sampson clashed with Josephine Baker. "Fed up" with hearing Baker "malign the U.S." while praising French colonial policy, Sampson commented that "We are at least making an honest effort to eradicate barriers. When France tries to to one-tenth as much for its colonials, I will be willing to listen to Josephine Baker's complaints. . . . [French colonials] suffer much more than does Miss Baker in Atlanta or New York." "Edith Sampson Attacks Josephine Baker Stand," Jet, 10 January 1952, Sampson Papers, box 2, folder 43.
67. Edwards, Pulling No Punches, 167; Stone to Sampson, 27 December 1951, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 227; Donovan to Sampson, 20 June 1952, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 233.
68. "The Right to Freedom," Stuttgarter Zeitung, 3 December 1951, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 227; Manchester Guardian, 13 February 1952, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 230; The Observer, 17 February 1952, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 230.
69. "The Right to Freedom," Stuttgarter Zeitung, 3 December 1951, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 227; Manchester Guardian, 13 February 1952, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 230; The Observer, 17 February 1952, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 230.
70. "The Right to Freedom," Stuttgarter Zeitung, 3 December 1951, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 227; Manchester Guardian, 13 February 1952, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 230; The Observer, 17 February 1952, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 230.
71. American Friends of the Middle East newsletter, Sampson Papers, box 11, folder 249; Sampson report, 20 December 1958, Sampson Papers, box 5, folder 113; Dorothy Height oral history, The Black Women Oral History Project (Westport, CT, 1991), 5:135-39. In South America, Sampson and Dorothy Height, the other African American on the tour, were flooded with demands to visit newspaper offices and people's homes. Height recalled one incident when university students in Uruguay bombarded the seminar participants with questions about the racial situation: "Zelia Ruebhausen, who was from the League of Women Voters, and a couple of other people had prepared all sorts of things that they were ready to answer, and they were asked to lead the discussion. But the students . . . said, no, they wanted to hear from us what was happening, from Edith Sampson and me. . . . So just by chance, I said, "Well, one of the things I have to point out to you here is Judge Sampson. She is representing the Mayor of Chicago, she is a justice on the courts of Chicago, and as I look at the schools she has attended, she has never attended segregated schools I have never been in a segregated school. And there are . . . millions of people who have never been in a segregated school." Height, oral history, 137-38.
72. Edwards to Sampson, 20 April 1959, Sampson Papers, box 3, folder 75; Sampson to Acheson, 6 March 1960, Sampson Papers, box 4, folder 79; Acheson to Sampson, 28 March 1960, and Sampson to Acheson, 6 April 1960, Sampson Papers, box 4, folder 79; Johnson to Sampson, 18 June 1960, Sampson Papers, box 4, folder 81; Sampson to Johnson, 21 March 1961, Sampson Papers, box 4, folder 84.
73. Sampson speech, "International Aspects of Race Relations," Iowa State Welfare Association, 4 October 1959, Sampson Papers, box 6, folder 117.
74. Sampson speech, "A Speech to One Graduate," 31 May 1960, Sampson Papers, box 6, folder 122.
75. Sampson speech, "The United Nations' Dangerous Friends," Southern Illinois University Model United Nations ceremony, February 1962, Sampson Papers, box 6, folder 125.
76. There was a token appointment in 1964 to the Advisory Committee on Private Enterprise and Foreign Aid. Sampson speech, Conference Honoring Eleanor Roosevelt, 2 May 1964, Sampson Papers, box 6, folder 126; Sampson speech, "A Death in Los Angeles," Eureka College commencement ceremony, 9 June 1968, Sampson Papers, box 6, folder 129.
77. Sampson speech, YMCA Job Opportunities through Better Skills graduation, 17 September 1965, reprinteil in New City-Man in Metropolis: A Christian Response, November 1965, Sampson Papers, box 6, folder 127. A second address in 1965, given at North Central College and reprinted in Vital Speeches, avoided direct criticism of the movement but condemned conformity, cliques, and extremists, be they in "the company of their Birchite brothers or their Communist comrades." The solution remained in the power of personality, for the ideal graduate would "hang loose and be vibrantly alive." Sampson speech, "Choose One of Five," North Central College commencement, 30 May 1965, Sampson Papers, box 6, dolder 127.
78. Sampson speech, YMCA Job Opportunities through Better Skills graduation, 17 September 1965, reprinteil in New City-Man in Metropolis: A Christian Response, November 1965, Sampson Papers, box 6, folder 127. A second address in 1965, given at North Central College and reprinted in Vital Speeches, avoided direct criticism of the movement but condemned conformity, cliques, and extremists, be they in "the company of their Birchite brothers or their Communist comrades." The solution remained in the power of personality, for the ideal graduate would "hang loose and be vibrantly alive." Sampson speech, "Choose One of Five," North Central College commencement, 30 May 1965, Sampson Papers, box 6, dolder 127.
79. Sampson speech, "Do Your Own Thing," George Williams College commencement, 8 June 1969, Sampson Papers, box 6, folder 130.
80. See Jim Goodman, Stories of Scottsboro (New York, 1994).
81. See, for example, board of directors meetings, 10 September 1945 and 8 September 1947, Records of the NAACP, pt. 1, reel 3; Crisis, April 1946, 118; Horne, Black and Red, 24; White column, "The Issue in Greece," 20 March 1947, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 7, Foreign Affairs: Grecce and Turkey.
82. Board of directors meeting, 10 November 1947, Records of the NAACP, pt. 1. reel 3. For information on the Citizens' Committee for Support of the Marshall Plan see Dean Acheson Papers, box 3, Harry S. Truman Library, Independence, Missouri.
83. See Roark, "American Black Leaders," 268. 1948 Declaration of Negro Voters, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 10.
84. Roosevelt to White, 8 December 1947, and subsequent correspondence, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 14, United Nations General Assembly; Aptheker, ed., W. E. B. DuBois, 243-45; board of directors meeting, 13 September 1948, Records of the NAACP, pt. 1, reel 3;
85. W. E. B. DuBois, The Autobiography of W. E. B. Dubois: A Soliloquy on Viewing My Life from the Last Decade of Its First Century (New York, 1968), 326-35.
86. Board of directors meetings, 9 May and to October 1949 and 14 February 1950, Records of the NAACP, pt. 1, reel 3. White was also abroad in the fall of 1948, observing the UN Commission on Human Rights in Geneva and visiting American bases in West Germany.
87. Roy Wilkins with Tom Mathews, Standing Fast: The Autobiography of Roy Wilkins (New York, 1982), 157; Crisis, April 1948, 105, and December 1948, 361. This was a sharp contrast to an editorial in February 1948 that had asserted, "Tagging Mr. Wallace with the 'Red' label will not demolish (many blacks') faith or cool their ardor." Crisis, February 1948, 41.
88. Roy Wilkins with Tom Mathews, Standing Fast: The Autobiography of Roy Wilkins (New York, 1982), 157; Crisis, April 1948, 105, and December 1948, 361. This was a sharp contrast to an editorial in February 1948 that had asserted, "Tagging Mr. Wallace with the 'Red' label will not demolish (many blacks') faith or cool their ardor." Crisis, February 1948, 41.
89. Roy Wilkins with Tom Mathews, Standing Fast: The Autobiography of Roy Wilkins (New York, 1982), 157; Crisis, April 1948, 105, and December 1948, 361. This was a sharp contrast to an editorial in February 1948 that had asserted, "Tagging Mr. Wallace with the 'Red' label will not demolish (many blacks') faith or cool their ardor." Crisis, February 1948, 41.
90. Crisis, March 1949, 72, June 1949, 185, and August/September 1949, 246; Wilkins, Standing Fast, 204; Crisis, August/September 1950, 512.
91. Crisis, March 1949, 72, June 1949, 185, and August/September 1949, 246; Wilkins, Standing Fast, 204; Crisis, August/September 1950, 512.
92. Crisis, March 1949, 72, June 1949, 185, and August/September 1949, 246; Wilkins, Standing Fast, 204; Crisis, August/September 1950, 512.
93. Board of directors meeting, 11 September 1950, Records of the NAACP, pt. 1, reel 3; Levin to Moon, 11 October 1951, ibid., pt. 14, reel 13, State Department 1951; Wilkins to Committee of Administration, 20 November 1951, and subsequent correspondence and columns, ibid., pt. 14, reel 16, United Nations: Genocide, 1947-1951.
94. Board of directors meeting, 14 February 1950, Records of the NAACP, pt. 1, reel 3.
95. Neal in Barbour, ed., The Black Power Revolt, 136-37; Crisis, August/September 1949, 246, August/September 1950, 512, August/September 1951, 475, August/September 1952, 445, and August/September 1953, 426.
96. Neal in Barbour, ed., The Black Power Revolt, 136-37; Crisis, August/September 1949, 246, August/September 1950, 512, August/September 1951, 475, August/September 1952, 445, and August/September 1953, 426.
97. White to DuBois, 12 March 1948, and subsequent memorandums, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 14, United Nations General Assembly; Logan to Jones, 9 April 1950, and subsequent memorandums, ibid., pt. 14, reel 15, United Nations: General, 1950-1951; Mitchell to White, 18 December 1950, ibid., pt. 14, reel 6, Asia 1950-1952.
98. NAACP press releases, 9 September 1948 and 6 January 1949, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 6, Foreign Affairs: General, 1946-1949; board of directors meeting, 14 May 1951, ibid., pt. 1, supplement 1951-1955, reel 1.
99. White to Lodge, 2 December 1953, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 5, Africa: South Africa; Crisis, June/July 1951, 365, November 1951, 569, and April 1953, 228-29; Hill to Wilkins, 9 December 1954, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 9, Foreign Affairs: General, 1951-1955. See also the following Crisis articles: "The Bataka Movement in Uganda," January 1950, 15; "Smearing Negro Gls in Korea," December 1950, 715; "The Struggle for Asia," January 1951, 25; "Foreigners React to American Prejudice," February 1951, 103; and "Canal Zone Discrimination," April 1951, 235.
100. White to Lodge, 2 December 1953, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 5, Africa: South Africa; Crisis, June/July 1951, 365, November 1951, 569, and April 1953, 228-29; Hill to Wilkins, 9 December 1954, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 9, Foreign Affairs: General, 1951-1955. See also the following Crisis articles: "The Bataka Movement in Uganda," January 1950, 15; "Smearing Negro Gls in Korea," December 1950, 715; "The Struggle for Asia," January 1951, 25; "Foreigners React to American Prejudice," February 1951, 103; and "Canal Zone Discrimination," April 1951, 235.
101. White to Lodge, 2 December 1953, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 5, Africa: South Africa; Crisis, June/July 1951, 365, November 1951, 569, and April 1953, 228-29; Hill to Wilkins, 9 December 1954, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 9, Foreign Affairs: General, 1951-1955. See also the following Crisis articles: "The Bataka Movement in Uganda," January 1950, 15; "Smearing Negro Gls in Korea," December 1950, 715; "The Struggle for Asia," January 1951, 25; "Foreigners React to American Prejudice," February 1951, 103; and "Canal Zone Discrimination," April 1951, 235.
102. White to Lodge, 2 December 1953, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 5, Africa: South Africa; Crisis, June/July 1951, 365, November 1951, 569, and April 1953, 228-29; Hill to Wilkins, 9 December 1954, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 9, Foreign Affairs: General, 1951-1955. See also the following Crisis articles: "The Bataka Movement in Uganda," January 1950, 15; "Smearing Negro Gls in Korea," December 1950, 715; "The Struggle for Asia," January 1951, 25; "Foreigners React to American Prejudice," February 1951, 103; and "Canal Zone Discrimination," April 1951, 235.
103. White to Lodge, 2 December 1953, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 5, Africa: South Africa; Crisis, June/July 1951, 365, November 1951, 569, and April 1953, 228-29; Hill to Wilkins, 9 December 1954, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 9, Foreign Affairs: General, 1951-1955. See also the following Crisis articles: "The Bataka Movement in Uganda," January 1950, 15; "Smearing Negro Gls in Korea," December 1950, 715; "The Struggle for Asia," January 1951, 25; "Foreigners React to American Prejudice," February 1951, 103; and "Canal Zone Discrimination," April 1951, 235.
104. White to Lodge, 2 December 1953, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 5, Africa: South Africa; Crisis, June/July 1951, 365, November 1951, 569, and April 1953, 228-29; Hill to Wilkins, 9 December 1954, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 9, Foreign Affairs: General, 1951-1955. See also the following Crisis articles: "The Bataka Movement in Uganda," January 1950, 15; "Smearing Negro Gls in Korea," December 1950, 715; "The Struggle for Asia," January 1951, 25; "Foreigners React to American Prejudice," February 1951, 103; and "Canal Zone Discrimination," April 1951, 235.
105. White to Lodge, 2 December 1953, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 5, Africa: South Africa; Crisis, June/July 1951, 365, November 1951, 569, and April 1953, 228-29; Hill to Wilkins, 9 December 1954, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 9, Foreign Affairs: General, 1951-1955. See also the following Crisis articles: "The Bataka Movement in Uganda," January 1950, 15; "Smearing Negro Gls in Korea," December 1950, 715; "The Struggle for Asia," January 1951, 25; "Foreigners React to American Prejudice," February 1951, 103; and "Canal Zone Discrimination," April 1951, 235.
106. White to Lodge, 2 December 1953, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 5, Africa: South Africa; Crisis, June/July 1951, 365, November 1951, 569, and April 1953, 228-29; Hill to Wilkins, 9 December 1954, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 9, Foreign Affairs: General, 1951-1955. See also the following Crisis articles: "The Bataka Movement in Uganda," January 1950, 15; "Smearing Negro Gls in Korea," December 1950, 715; "The Struggle for Asia," January 1951, 25; "Foreigners React to American Prejudice," February 1951, 103; and "Canal Zone Discrimination," April 1951, 235.
107. Crisis, July 1947, 200. Truman's statement was echoed by State Department officials like Dean Acheson and by the President's Committee on Civil Rights: "Our foreign policy is designed to make the U.S. an enormous, positive influence for peace and progress throughout the world. We have tried to let nothing, not even extreme political differences between ourselves and foreign nations, stand in the way of this goal, but our domestic civil rights shortcomings are a serious obstacle." Dudziak, "Desegregation," 100-102.
108. Crisis, July 1947, 200. Truman's statement was echoed by State Department officials like Dean Acheson and by the President's Committee on Civil Rights: "Our foreign policy is designed to make the U.S. an enormous, positive influence for peace and progress throughout the world. We have tried to let nothing, not even extreme political differences between ourselves and foreign nations, stand in the way of this goal, but our domestic civil rights shortcomings are a serious obstacle." Dudziak, "Desegregation," 100-102.
109. Myrdal, American Dilemma, 852, 927, 1021; Harold Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual (New York, 1967), 8.
110. Myrdal, American Dilemma, 852, 927, 1021; Harold Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual (New York, 1967), 8.
111. Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion, 33; Rowan, Breaking Barriers, 121; Dudziak, "Desegregation," 99.
112. Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion, 33; Rowan, Breaking Barriers, 121; Dudziak, "Desegregation," 99.
113. Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion, 33; Rowan, Breaking Barriers, 121; Dudziak, "Desegregation," 99.
114. Wilkins to Bandung prime ministers, 15 April 1955, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 6, Bandung; Keller to White, 5 February 1952, and subsequent memorandums, ibid., pt. 14, reel 11, Committee for a Free Asia, 1951-1952. White asked Ralph Bunche, "Do you know the real source of [the CFA's] funds?" It is unlikely that he discovered that it was the Central Intelligence Agency. William Worthy's February 1954 article, "Our Disgrace in Indochina," lambasted American support of the French position and contrasted the nationalist ideals of Ho Chi Minh with the corruption of pro-Western leaders like Emperor Bao Dai. Worthy concluded that: "Among informed persons of liberal bent, there almost seems to be a conspiracy of silence about not only the internal slavery to which our witchhunters are leading us step by step but also about the slavery's external counterpart, namely, the counterrevolutionary direction of America's policies among the darker peoples." Crisis, February 1954, 77.
115. Wilkins to Bandung prime ministers, 15 April 1955, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 6, Bandung; Keller to White, 5 February 1952, and subsequent memorandums, ibid., pt. 14, reel 11, Committee for a Free Asia, 1951-1952. White asked Ralph Bunche, "Do you know the real source of [the CFA's] funds?" It is unlikely that he discovered that it was the Central Intelligence Agency. William Worthy's February 1954 article, "Our Disgrace in Indochina," lambasted American support of the French position and contrasted the nationalist ideals of Ho Chi Minh with the corruption of pro-Western leaders like Emperor Bao Dai. Worthy concluded that: "Among informed persons of liberal bent, there almost seems to be a conspiracy of silence about not only the internal slavery to which our witchhunters are leading us step by step but also about the slavery's external counterpart, namely, the counterrevolutionary direction of America's policies among the darker peoples." Crisis, February 1954, 77.
116. Wilkins to Bandung prime ministers, 15 April 1955, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 6, Bandung; Keller to White, 5 February 1952, and subsequent memorandums, ibid., pt. 14, reel 11, Committee for a Free Asia, 1951-1952. White asked Ralph Bunche, "Do you know the real source of [the CFA's] funds?" It is unlikely that he discovered that it was the Central Intelligence Agency. William Worthy's February 1954 article, "Our Disgrace in Indochina," lambasted American support of the French position and contrasted the nationalist ideals of Ho Chi Minh with the corruption of pro-Western leaders like Emperor Bao Dai. Worthy concluded that: "Among informed persons of liberal bent, there almost seems to be a conspiracy of silence about not only the internal slavery to which our witchhunters are leading us step by step but also about the slavery's external counterpart, namely, the counterrevolutionary direction of America's policies among the darker peoples." Crisis, February 1954, 77.
117. Wilkins to Bandung prime ministers, 15 April 1955, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 6, Bandung; Keller to White, 5 February 1952, and subsequent memorandums, ibid., pt. 14, reel 11, Committee for a Free Asia, 1951-1952. White asked Ralph Bunche, "Do you know the real source of [the CFA's] funds?" It is unlikely that he discovered that it was the Central Intelligence Agency. William Worthy's February 1954 article, "Our Disgrace in Indochina," lambasted American support of the French position and contrasted the nationalist ideals of Ho Chi Minh with the corruption of pro-Western leaders like Emperor Bao Dai. Worthy concluded that: "Among informed persons of liberal bent, there almost seems to be a conspiracy of silence about not only the internal slavery to which our witchhunters are leading us step by step but also about the slavery's external counterpart, namely, the counterrevolutionary direction of America's policies among the darker peoples." Crisis, February 1954, 77.
118. Charles Hamilton, Adam Clayton Powell, Jr.: The Political Biography of an American Dilemma (New York, 1991), 242; Baltimore Afro-American, 30 April 1955, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 6, Bandung.
119. Charles Hamilton, Adam Clayton Powell, Jr.: The Political Biography of an American Dilemma (New York, 1991), 242; Baltimore Afro-American, 30 April 1955, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 6, Bandung.
120. For an evaluation of the different meanings of "freedom" in the domestic context of race relations in the 1960s see Richard King, Civil Rights and the Idea of Freedom (New York, 1992).
121. Pittsburgh Courier, 2 September 1950; Crisis, April 1952, 226. The criticism was echoed by a letter to the Chicago Defender in January 1951 from Nelson Willis, the president of the Chicago branch of the NAACP, evoking a "biting reply" from Sampson: We will never be satisfied until racial barriers arc lifted and we have full and complete integration, but we know that under a democracy we have freedom and opportunity to better existing conditions." Chicago Defender, 13 and 27 January 1951.
122. Pittsburgh Courier, 2 September 1950; Crisis, April 1952, 226. The criticism was echoed by a letter to the Chicago Defender in January 1951 from Nelson Willis, the president of the Chicago branch of the NAACP, evoking a "biting reply" from Sampson: We will never be satisfied until racial barriers arc lifted and we have full and complete integration, but we know that under a democracy we have freedom and opportunity to better existing conditions." Chicago Defender, 13 and 27 January 1951.
123. Pittsburgh Courier, 2 September 1950; Crisis, April 1952, 226. The criticism was echoed by a letter to the Chicago Defender in January 1951 from Nelson Willis, the president of the Chicago branch of the NAACP, evoking a "biting reply" from Sampson: We will never be satisfied until racial barriers arc lifted and we have full and complete integration, but we know that under a democracy we have freedom and opportunity to better existing conditions." Chicago Defender, 13 and 27 January 1951.
124. State Department press release, 15 January 1951, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 13, State Department 1951; Crisis, August/September 1949, 246. See also Walter White's summation in his memoirs: "In a democratic society where there is freedom of the right to protest against even the government itself, some progress toward abolition of the color line in jobs, voting, the armed services, and education is being made. Not enough of course. But with all its shortcomings, a democracy does permit dissent, which is not possible in dictatorship of either left or right." White, Promised Land, 7.
125. State Department press release, 15 January 1951, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 13, State Department 1951; Crisis, August/September 1949, 246. See also Walter White's summation in his memoirs: "In a democratic society where there is freedom of the right to protest against even the government itself, some progress toward abolition of the color line in jobs, voting, the armed services, and education is being made. Not enough of course. But with all its shortcomings, a democracy does permit dissent, which is not possible in dictatorship of either left or right." White, Promised Land, 7.
126. State Department press release, 15 January 1951, Records of the NAACP, pt. 14, reel 13, State Department 1951; Crisis, August/September 1949, 246. See also Walter White's summation in his memoirs: "In a democratic society where there is freedom of the right to protest against even the government itself, some progress toward abolition of the color line in jobs, voting, the armed services, and education is being made. Not enough of course. But with all its shortcomings, a democracy does permit dissent, which is not possible in dictatorship of either left or right." White, Promised Land, 7.
127. Carson et al., eds., Eyes on the Prize, 389-90.