Civil society, moral identity and the liberal public sphere: Manchester and Boston, 1810-40

Social History

Volumn 21, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 281-303

  Wach, Howard M ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 1542713347     PISSN: 03071022     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03071029608567977     Document Type: Review

References (152)

1. Arnold Thackray, 'Natural knowledge in cultural context: the Manchester model', American Historical Review, LXXIX (June 1974), 672-709; Robert Kargon, Science in Victorian Manchester: Enterprise and Expertise (Baltimore, 1977), 11-14, 27-35.
2. Arnold Thackray, 'Natural knowledge in cultural context: the Manchester model', American Historical Review, LXXIX (June 1974), 672-709; Robert Kargon, Science in Victorian Manchester: Enterprise and Expertise (Baltimore, 1977), 11-14, 27-35.
3. Alfred E. Watkin (ed.), Absalom Watkin, Extracts from his Journal, 1814-1856 (London, 1920), 97. This article employs three separate editions of Absalom Watkin's diaries. In addition to the 1920 edition cited above, Watkin's son Edward published an 1874 version (Absalom Watkin: Fragment No. 1, Extracts from his Diaries (Manchester, 1874)). A 1993 volume edited by Watkin's great-great-granddaughter, Magdalen Goffin, uses copious excerpts from the diaries to construct a biographical portrait (The Diaries of Absalom Watkin, A Manchester Man, 1787-1861 (Stroud, Gloucestershire and Dover, New Hampshire, 1993)).
4. Alfred E. Watkin (ed.), Absalom Watkin, Extracts from his Journal, 1814-1856 (London, 1920), 97. This article employs three separate editions of Absalom Watkin's diaries. In addition to the 1920 edition cited above, Watkin's son Edward published an 1874 version (Absalom Watkin: Fragment No. 1, Extracts from his Diaries (Manchester, 1874)). A 1993 volume edited by Watkin's great-great-granddaughter, Magdalen Goffin, uses copious excerpts from the diaries to construct a biographical portrait (The Diaries of Absalom Watkin, A Manchester Man, 1787-1861 (Stroud, Gloucestershire and Dover, New Hampshire, 1993)).
5. Alfred E. Watkin (ed.), Absalom Watkin, Extracts from his Journal, 1814-1856 (London, 1920), 97. This article employs three separate editions of Absalom Watkin's diaries. In addition to the 1920 edition cited above, Watkin's son Edward published an 1874 version (Absalom Watkin: Fragment No. 1, Extracts from his Diaries (Manchester, 1874)). A 1993 volume edited by Watkin's great-great-granddaughter, Magdalen Goffin, uses copious excerpts from the diaries to construct a biographical portrait (The Diaries of Absalom Watkin, A Manchester Man, 1787-1861 (Stroud, Gloucestershire and Dover, New Hampshire, 1993)).
6. Journals, op. cit., 115.
7. Massachusetts Historical Society, John Gallison Papers, Journal, 23 March 1813. All citations from Gallison's journals are drawn from this manuscript collection.
8. ibid., 12 March 1820.
9. Peter Dobkin Hall, The Organization of American Culture: Private Institutions, Elites, and the Origins of American Nationality (New York, 1984), 185.
10. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. by Thomas Burger (Cambridge, Mass., 1989). I predicate my use of 'bourgeois' in this essay on two grounds. First, in English usage this rendering of 'bürgerlich' helpfully denotes urban citizenship, property ownership, and a claim to the sort of non-corporate 'notable' status appropriate to the Anglo-American context under discussion. Second, 'middle class', the logical Anglo-American alternative, had not yet acquired a sufficiently stable social meaning. The borrowed (if somewhat artificial) precision of 'bourgeois' better suits this article's conceptual purposes. For good discussions of these questions, see Geoffrey Crossick, 'From gentlemen to the residuum: languages of social description in Victorian Britain', in Penelope Corfield (ed.), Language, History and Class (Oxford, 1991), 150-78, and Daniel T. Rodgers and Sean Wilentz, 'Languages of power in the United States' in ibid., 240-63.
11. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. by Thomas Burger (Cambridge, Mass., 1989). I predicate my use of 'bourgeois' in this essay on two grounds. First, in English usage this rendering of 'bürgerlich' helpfully denotes urban citizenship, property ownership, and a claim to the sort of non-corporate 'notable' status appropriate to the Anglo-American context under discussion. Second, 'middle class', the logical Anglo-American alternative, had not yet acquired a sufficiently stable social meaning. The borrowed (if somewhat artificial) precision of 'bourgeois' better suits this article's conceptual purposes. For good discussions of these questions, see Geoffrey Crossick, 'From gentlemen to the residuum: languages of social description in Victorian Britain', in Penelope Corfield (ed.), Language, History and Class (Oxford, 1991), 150-78, and Daniel T. Rodgers and Sean Wilentz, 'Languages of power in the United States' in ibid., 240-63.
12. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. by Thomas Burger (Cambridge, Mass., 1989). I predicate my use of 'bourgeois' in this essay on two grounds. First, in English usage this rendering of 'bürgerlich' helpfully denotes urban citizenship, property ownership, and a claim to the sort of non-corporate 'notable' status appropriate to the Anglo-American context under discussion. Second, 'middle class', the logical Anglo-American alternative, had not yet acquired a sufficiently stable social meaning. The borrowed (if somewhat artificial) precision of 'bourgeois' better suits this article's conceptual purposes. For good discussions of these questions, see Geoffrey Crossick, 'From gentlemen to the residuum: languages of social description in Victorian Britain', in Penelope Corfield (ed.), Language, History and Class (Oxford, 1991), 150-78, and Daniel T. Rodgers and Sean Wilentz, 'Languages of power in the United States' in ibid., 240-63.
13. Geoff Eley, 'Nations, publics, and political cultures: placing Habermas in the nineteenth century', in Craig Calhoun (ed.), Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), 310; Peter Uwe Hohendahl, 'Critical theory, public sphere, and culture: Jürgen Habermas and his critics' in his The Institution of Criticism (Ithaca, 1982), esp. 246.
14. Geoff Eley, 'Nations, publics, and political cultures: placing Habermas in the nineteenth century', in Craig Calhoun (ed.), Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), 310; Peter Uwe Hohendahl, 'Critical theory, public sphere, and culture: Jürgen Habermas and his critics' in his The Institution of Criticism (Ithaca, 1982), esp. 246.
15. See Habermas, 'Further reflections on the public sphere' in Calhoun (ed.), op. cit., esp. 421-36, for his acknowledgement and response to the critique summarized in this paragraph.
16. Theodore Koditschek has defined voluntarist association in industrializing Bradford as a key principle for achieving social consensus around the psychic structures of capitalism and individualism so deeply embedded in urban bourgeois experience. See Koditschek, Class Formation and Urban Industrial Society: Bradford, 1780-1850 (New York, 1990), 249-51. See also R. J. Morris, Class, Sect, and Party: The Making of the British Middle Class, Leeds, 1820-1850 (Manchester, 1990), 250.
17. Theodore Koditschek has defined voluntarist association in industrializing Bradford as a key principle for achieving social consensus around the psychic structures of capitalism and individualism so deeply embedded in urban bourgeois experience. See Koditschek, Class Formation and Urban Industrial Society: Bradford, 1780-1850 (New York, 1990), 249-51. See also R. J. Morris, Class, Sect, and Party: The Making of the British Middle Class, Leeds, 1820-1850 (Manchester, 1990), 250.
18. For a discussion of 'social networks' ranging across boundaries of work, leisure and consumption, and of their agency in nineteenth-century American class formation, see Stuart Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 1760-1900 (New York, 1989), 230-40. For codes of class behaviour, see Jonas Frykman and Orvar Löfgren, Culture Builders: A Historical Anthropology of Middle-Class Life, trans. by Alan Crozier (New Brunswick, 1987), esp. 270-1.
19. For a discussion of 'social networks' ranging across boundaries of work, leisure and consumption, and of their agency in nineteenth-century American class formation, see Stuart Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 1760-1900 (New York, 1989), 230-40. For codes of class behaviour, see Jonas Frykman and Orvar Löfgren, Culture Builders: A Historical Anthropology of Middle-Class Life, trans. by Alan Crozier (New Brunswick, 1987), esp. 270-1.
20. Joyce Appleby, Liberalism and Republicanism in the Historical Imagination (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), 160. Generally, see 140-60 for a convenient summary of the scholarship behind this assertion.
21. Isaac Kramnick, Republicanism and Bourgeois Radicalism: Political Ideology in Late Eighteenth-Century England and America (Ithaca, 1990), 196.
22. Studies which situate evangelicalism in the contexts under discussion here include Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (Chicago, 1987), esp. Part I; Boyd Hilton, The Age of Atonement: The Influence of Evangelicalism on Social and Economic Thought, 1795-1865 (Oxford, 1988); Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Religion and the Rise of the American City: The New York City Mission Movement, 1812-1870 (New York, 1971); and Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846 (New York, 1991).
23. Studies which situate evangelicalism in the contexts under discussion here include Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (Chicago, 1987), esp. Part I; Boyd Hilton, The Age of Atonement: The Influence of Evangelicalism on Social and Economic Thought, 1795-1865 (Oxford, 1988); Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Religion and the Rise of the American City: The New York City Mission Movement, 1812-1870 (New York, 1971); and Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846 (New York, 1991).
24. Studies which situate evangelicalism in the contexts under discussion here include Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (Chicago, 1987), esp. Part I; Boyd Hilton, The Age of Atonement: The Influence of Evangelicalism on Social and Economic Thought, 1795-1865 (Oxford, 1988); Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Religion and the Rise of the American City: The New York City Mission Movement, 1812-1870 (New York, 1971); and Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846 (New York, 1991).
25. Studies which situate evangelicalism in the contexts under discussion here include Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (Chicago, 1987), esp. Part I; Boyd Hilton, The Age of Atonement: The Influence of Evangelicalism on Social and Economic Thought, 1795-1865 (Oxford, 1988); Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Religion and the Rise of the American City: The New York City Mission Movement, 1812-1870 (New York, 1971); and Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846 (New York, 1991).
26. Studies which situate evangelicalism in the contexts under discussion here include Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (Chicago, 1987), esp. Part I; Boyd Hilton, The Age of Atonement: The Influence of Evangelicalism on Social and Economic Thought, 1795-1865 (Oxford, 1988); Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Religion and the Rise of the American City: The New York City Mission Movement, 1812-1870 (New York, 1971); and Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846 (New York, 1991).
27. Anthony La Vopa, 'Conceiving a public: ideas and society in eighteenth-century Europe', Journal of Modern History, LXIV (March 1992), 100.
28. Religion played no analytical role whatever for Habermas, either as faith or social practice. In the Anglo-American context, omitting the religious dimension clearly violates the historical record. The amendment to his formulation is my own.
29. Eley, op. cit., 323; Habermas, Structural Transformation, op. cit., 46-8, 160; Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature (Oxford, 1977), 55-71.
30. Eley, op. cit., 323; Habermas, Structural Transformation, op. cit., 46-8, 160; Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature (Oxford, 1977), 55-71.
31. For examples of the many portentous descriptions of Manchester that proliferated after 1815, see Steven Marcus, Engels, Manchester, and the Working Class (New York, 1974), 28-66. The best short introduction to nineteenth-century Manchester's history is Asa Briggs, Victorian Cities (London, 1963; reprinted Harmondsworth, 1982), 88-138.
32. For examples of the many portentous descriptions of Manchester that proliferated after 1815, see Steven Marcus, Engels, Manchester, and the Working Class (New York, 1974), 28-66. The best short introduction to nineteenth-century Manchester's history is Asa Briggs, Victorian Cities (London, 1963; reprinted Harmondsworth, 1982), 88-138.
33. Roger Lloyd-Jones and M. J. Lewis, Manchester and the Age of the Factory: The Business Structure of Cottonopolis in the Industrial Revolution (London, 1988), 30, 105 and passim; Alan J. Kidd, 'Introduction: the middle class in nineteenth-century Manchester' in Kidd and K. W. Roberts (eds), City, Class, and Culture: Studies of Cultural Production and Social Policy in Victorian Manchester (Manchester, 1985), 4-10; Briggs, op. cit., 105-6.
34. Roger Lloyd-Jones and M. J. Lewis, Manchester and the Age of the Factory: The Business Structure of Cottonopolis in the Industrial Revolution (London, 1988), 30, 105 and passim; Alan J. Kidd, 'Introduction: the middle class in nineteenth-century Manchester' in Kidd and K. W. Roberts (eds), City, Class, and Culture: Studies of Cultural Production and Social Policy in Victorian Manchester (Manchester, 1985), 4-10; Briggs, op. cit., 105-6.
35. Roger Lloyd-Jones and M. J. Lewis, Manchester and the Age of the Factory: The Business Structure of Cottonopolis in the Industrial Revolution (London, 1988), 30, 105 and passim; Alan J. Kidd, 'Introduction: the middle class in nineteenth-century Manchester' in Kidd and K. W. Roberts (eds), City, Class, and Culture: Studies of Cultural Production and Social Policy in Victorian Manchester (Manchester, 1985), 4-10; Briggs, op. cit., 105-6.
36. For a concise description of Boston's economy, see William H. Pease and Jane H. Pease, The Web of Progress: Private Values and Public Styles in Boston and Charleston, 1828-1843 (New York, 1985), 23-39, 62-9.
37. Andrew R. L. Cayton, 'The fragmentation of "a great family": the panic of 1819 and the rise of the middling interest in Boston, 1818-1822', Journal of the Early Republic, II (Summer 1982), 143-67; Ronald P. Formisano, The Transformation of Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, 1790s-1840s (New York, 1983), 181-7.
38. Andrew R. L. Cayton, 'The fragmentation of "a great family": the panic of 1819 and the rise of the middling interest in Boston, 1818-1822', Journal of the Early Republic, II (Summer 1982), 143-67; Ronald P. Formisano, The Transformation of Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, 1790s-1840s (New York, 1983), 181-7.
39. V. A. C. Gattrell, 'Incorporation and the pursuit of liberal hegemony in Manchester, 1790-1839' in Derek Fraser (ed.), Municipal Reform and the Industrial City (New York, 1982), 16-60; Lloyd-Jones and Lewis, op. cit., 135-7.
40. V. A. C. Gattrell, 'Incorporation and the pursuit of liberal hegemony in Manchester, 1790-1839' in Derek Fraser (ed.), Municipal Reform and the Industrial City (New York, 1982), 16-60; Lloyd-Jones and Lewis, op. cit., 135-7.
41. Edward Watkin (ed.), op. cit., 1-10.
42. ibid., 15, 18.
43. ibid., 169-70.
44. He did enlist in several major cultural institutions aside from the Lit. and Phil. He gave papers to select audiences in 'conversazioni' held at the Royal Manchester Institution and enrolled himself and his children in the Manchester Athenaeum on its establishment in 1836. Watkin was regularly elected to the Athenaeum's board of directors in the 1840s. For discussions of both institutions, see Howard M. Wach, 'Culture and the middle classes: popular knowledge in industrial Manchester', Journal of British Studies, XXVII (October 1988), 375-404.
45. Edward Watkin (ed.), op. cit., 39.
46. ibid., 36, 45-6.
47. E. M. Brockbank, Honorary Medical Staff of the Manchester Infirmary 1752-1830 (Manehester, 1904), 257-62.
48. Edward Watkin (ed.), op. cit., 34-5, 37.
49. Manchester Iris, 9 February 1822.
50. ibid., 9 March 1822.
51. ibid., 29 June 1822.
52. ibid., 18 May 1822; 5 April 1823.
53. For more fully elaborated versions of this important argument, see Terry Eagleton, The Function of Criticism (London, 1984), esp. 10-55, and Michael Warner, The Letters of the Republic: Publication and the Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century America (Cambridge, Mass., 1990), esp. 38-43. Generically, Watkin's Iris articles descend more or less directly from the eighteenth-century essayists and pamphleteers discussed by Eagleton and Warner.
54. For more fully elaborated versions of this important argument, see Terry Eagleton, The Function of Criticism (London, 1984), esp. 10-55, and Michael Warner, The Letters of the Republic: Publication and the Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century America (Cambridge, Mass., 1990), esp. 38-43. Generically, Watkin's Iris articles descend more or less directly from the eighteenth-century essayists and pamphleteers discussed by Eagleton and Warner.
55. Ian Inkster, 'Introduction: aspects of the history of science and science culture in Britain, 1780-1850 and beyond', in Inkster and Jack Morrell (eds), Metropolis and Province: Science in British Culture, 1780-1850 (Philadelphia, 1983), 11-54.
56. My use of 'consensus' follows the Gramscian reading of Habermas employed by Geoff Eley. The various dimensions of Watkin's narratives - gender, class and culture - symbolically reproduce a specific social position during a key moment of its consolidation into hegemonic form. See Eley, op. cit., 321-5.
57. Ronald Story, The Forging of an Aristocracy: Harvard and the Boston Upper Class, 1800-1870 (Middletown, Conn., 1980), 62. Gallison's Marblehead origins conformed to a more general migratory pattern. Many of Boston's nineteenth-century elite families traced their roots to Salem, Newburyport and other Essex County port towns. See E. Digby Baltzell, Puritan Boston and Quaker Philadelphia: Two Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Class Authority and Leadership (Boston, 1979), 197-201.
58. Ronald Story, The Forging of an Aristocracy: Harvard and the Boston Upper Class, 1800-1870 (Middletown, Conn., 1980), 62. Gallison's Marblehead origins conformed to a more general migratory pattern. Many of Boston's nineteenth-century elite families traced their roots to Salem, Newburyport and other Essex County port towns. See E. Digby Baltzell, Puritan Boston and Quaker Philadelphia: Two Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Class Authority and Leadership (Boston, 1979), 197-201.
59. Gallison Journal, 25 February 1807; 30 June 1807; 13 August 1807; 29 February 1808; 25 May 1809. For the intersection of post-revolutionary legal and literary culture, see Robert A. Ferguson, Law and Letters in American Culture (London and Cambridge, Mass., 1984).
60. Gallison Journal, 25 February 1807; 30 June 1807; 13 August 1807; 29 February 1808; 25 May 1809. For the intersection of post-revolutionary legal and literary culture, see Robert A. Ferguson, Law and Letters in American Culture (London and Cambridge, Mass., 1984).
61. Gallison Journal, 3 January 1813; 8 March 1813; 11 January 1814. Judge Story's patronage secured Gallison the position of court reporter for the US Circuit Court; ibid., 22 October 1815.
62. Gallison Journal, 3 January 1813; 8 March 1813; 11 January 1814. Judge Story's patronage secured Gallison the position of court reporter for the US Circuit Court; ibid., 22 October 1815.
63. ibid., 21 January 1813; 4 February 1813; 8 March 1813. Gallison fretted over his $12 annual expense, but the Athenaeum's first subscription, in 1807, raised $45,000, much of it held in 8300 perpetual shares or $100 life subscriptions. See Robert F. Dalzell Jnr, Enterprising Elite: The Boston Associates and the World They Made (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), 125.
64. ibid., 21 January 1813; 4 February 1813; 8 March 1813. Gallison fretted over his $12 annual expense, but the Athenaeum's first subscription, in 1807, raised $45,000, much of it held in 8300 perpetual shares or $100 life subscriptions. See Robert F. Dalzell Jnr, Enterprising Elite: The Boston Associates and the World They Made (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), 125.
65. Ferguson, op. cit., 66-7; see Baltzell, op. cit., 285, for a 'reading and writing people'. For the library's role in consolidating Boston's elite, see Ronald Story, 'Class and culture in Boston: the Athenaeum, 1807-1860', American Quarterly, XXVII (1975), 178-99 and The Forging of an Aristocracy, op. cit., 13-19 and passim; Dalzell, op. cit., 122-6.
66. Ferguson, op. cit., 66-7; see Baltzell, op. cit., 285, for a 'reading and writing people'. For the library's role in consolidating Boston's elite, see Ronald Story, 'Class and culture in Boston: the Athenaeum, 1807-1860', American Quarterly, XXVII (1975), 178-99 and The Forging of an Aristocracy, op. cit., 13-19 and passim; Dalzell, op. cit., 122-6.
67. Ferguson, op. cit., 66-7; see Baltzell, op. cit., 285, for a 'reading and writing people'. For the library's role in consolidating Boston's elite, see Ronald Story, 'Class and culture in Boston: the Athenaeum, 1807-1860', American Quarterly, XXVII (1975), 178-99 and The Forging of an Aristocracy, op. cit., 13-19 and passim; Dalzell, op. cit., 122-6.
68. Ferguson, op. cit., 66-7; see Baltzell, op. cit., 285, for a 'reading and writing people'. For the library's role in consolidating Boston's elite, see Ronald Story, 'Class and culture in Boston: the Athenaeum, 1807-1860', American Quarterly, XXVII (1975), 178-99 and The Forging of an Aristocracy, op. cit., 13-19 and passim; Dalzell, op. cit., 122-6.
69. Ferguson, op. cit., 66-7; see Baltzell, op. cit., 285, for a 'reading and writing people'. For the library's role in consolidating Boston's elite, see Ronald Story, 'Class and culture in Boston: the Athenaeum, 1807-1860', American Quarterly, XXVII (1975), 178-99 and The Forging of an Aristocracy, op. cit., 13-19 and passim; Dalzell, op. cit., 122-6.
70. For closely analogous processes of opinion formation among non-elite antebellum New Englanders, see Karen Hansen, A Very Social Time: Crafting Community in Antebellum New England (Berkeley, 1994), esp. 79-82.
71. Gallison Journal, 8 January 1810; 9 January 1810.
72. ibid., 1 May 1812.
73. ibid., 18 July 1819; 31 October 1819; Pease and Pease, op. cit., 96; Robert McCaughey, 'From town to city: Boston in the 1820s', Political Science Quarterly, LXXXVIII (1973), 191-213.
74. ibid., 18 July 1819; 31 October 1819; Pease and Pease, op. cit., 96; Robert McCaughey, 'From town to city: Boston in the 1820s', Political Science Quarterly, LXXXVIII (1973), 191-213.
75. ibid., 18 July 1819; 31 October 1819; Pease and Pease, op. cit., 96; Robert McCaughey, 'From town to city: Boston in the 1820s', Political Science Quarterly, LXXXVIII (1973), 191-213.
76. Gallison Journal, 13 June 1819; 17 April 1819. For the Penitent Females Refuge, see Anne M. Boylan, 'Women in groups: an analysis of women's benevolent organizations in New York and Boston, 1797-1840', Journal of American History, LXXI (1984), 505.
77. Gallison Journal, 13 June 1819; 17 April 1819. For the Penitent Females Refuge, see Anne M. Boylan, 'Women in groups: an analysis of women's benevolent organizations in New York and Boston, 1797-1840', Journal of American History, LXXI (1984), 505.
78. [Willard Phillips], 'Semi-centenary of the North American Review', North American Review, c (1865), 319.
79. See, for example, Gallison Journal, 18 May 1817; 10 August 1817; 10 April 1819; 24 April 1819; Ferguson, op. cit., 64. One historian has described the Review both as the intellectual equivalent of the Edinburgh Review in Great Britain, and as 'the house organ of both Harvard and Boston's ruling class'. See Baltzell, op. cit., 286. See also Frank Luther Mott, A History of American Magazines, 1850-1865 (Cambridge, Mass., 1938), 224.
80. See, for example, Gallison Journal, 18 May 1817; 10 August 1817; 10 April 1819; 24 April 1819; Ferguson, op. cit., 64. One historian has described the Review both as the intellectual equivalent of the Edinburgh Review in Great Britain, and as 'the house organ of both Harvard and Boston's ruling class'. See Baltzell, op. cit., 286. See also Frank Luther Mott, A History of American Magazines, 1850-1865 (Cambridge, Mass., 1938), 224.
81. See, for example, Gallison Journal, 18 May 1817; 10 August 1817; 10 April 1819; 24 April 1819; Ferguson, op. cit., 64. One historian has described the Review both as the intellectual equivalent of the Edinburgh Review in Great Britain, and as 'the house organ of both Harvard and Boston's ruling class'. See Baltzell, op. cit., 286. See also Frank Luther Mott, A History of American Magazines, 1850-1865 (Cambridge, Mass., 1938), 224.
82. See, for example, Gallison Journal, 18 May 1817; 10 August 1817; 10 April 1819; 24 April 1819; Ferguson, op. cit., 64. One historian has described the Review both as the intellectual equivalent of the Edinburgh Review in Great Britain, and as 'the house organ of both Harvard and Boston's ruling class'. See Baltzell, op. cit., 286. See also Frank Luther Mott, A History of American Magazines, 1850-1865 (Cambridge, Mass., 1938), 224.
83. Gallison Journal, 8 June 1819; 15 July 1819; 16 December 1819.
84. ibid., 17 November 1819; 3 December 1819.
85. ibid., 18 April 1819; 6 June 1819; 13 June 1819. For evangelical self-improvement among Boston Unitarians, see Ann C. Rose, Transcendentalism as a Social Movement, 1830-1850 (New Haven, 1981), 30-1.
86. ibid., 18 April 1819; 6 June 1819; 13 June 1819. For evangelical self-improvement among Boston Unitarians, see Ann C. Rose, Transcendentalism as a Social Movement, 1830-1850 (New Haven, 1981), 30-1.
87. Gallison Journal, 12 March 1820. For the Unitarian charities established several years later by Channing's disciple Joseph Tuckerman, see Howard M. Wach, 'Unitarian philanthropy and cultural hegemony in comparative perspective: Manchester and Boston, 1821-1843', Journal of Social History, XXVI (Spring 1993), 547-8.
88. Gallison Journal, 12 March 1820. For the Unitarian charities established several years later by Channing's disciple Joseph Tuckerman, see Howard M. Wach, 'Unitarian philanthropy and cultural hegemony in comparative perspective: Manchester and Boston, 1821-1843', Journal of Social History, XXVI (Spring 1993), 547-8.
89. For a clear exposition of the doctrine Channing called 'self-culture', see David Robinson, Apostle of Culture: Emerson as Preacher and Lecturer (Philadelphia, 1982), 7-29. For the convergence of secular and spiritual discourses of self-culture, see Susan Roberson, Emerson in His Sermons: A Man-Made Self (Columbia, Missouri, 1995), 108-18.
90. For a clear exposition of the doctrine Channing called 'self-culture', see David Robinson, Apostle of Culture: Emerson as Preacher and Lecturer (Philadelphia, 1982), 7-29. For the convergence of secular and spiritual discourses of self-culture, see Susan Roberson, Emerson in His Sermons: A Man-Made Self (Columbia, Missouri, 1995), 108-18.
91. See Koditschek, op. cit., 294, for Bradford's chapel-based networks of Nonconformists, whose associational purposes effaced secular/ religious boundaries.
92. For 'arminian moralism' and evangelical reform, see Sellers, op. cit., 30-1, 202-17 and, more generally, Boyer, op. cit., 3-64.
93. For 'arminian moralism' and evangelical reform, see Sellers, op. cit., 30-1, 202-17 and, more generally, Boyer, op. cit., 3-64.
94. Habermas, Structural Transformation, op. cit., 45; Frykman and Löfgren, op. cit., 131-2.
95. Habermas, Structural Transformation, op. cit., 45; Frykman and Löfgren, op. cit., 131-2.
96. Story, The Forging of an Aristocracy, op. cit., 89-134; Hall, op. cit., 190-1.
97. Story, The Forging of an Aristocracy, op. cit., 89-134; Hall, op. cit., 190-1.
98. Karen Hansen characterizes the 'social sphere' of antebellum New England working people as linking 'the private sphere to a larger entity and ground[ing] the public sphere in human relationships'. Hansen, op. cit., 169.
99. Willard Phillips explicitly described Gallison's early demise as a public loss for those 'who feel the absence of any one, who could really help to move on the ponderous wheels of society'. See Phillips, 'Character of Mr Gallison', North American Review, in, new series (April 1821), 498. See also Channing's effusive obituary, 'Memoir of John Gallison', first published in the Christian Disciple and reprinted in his Works (11th edn, Boston, 1849), v, 343-60.
100. Willard Phillips explicitly described Gallison's early demise as a public loss for those 'who feel the absence of any one, who could really help to move on the ponderous wheels of society'. See Phillips, 'Character of Mr Gallison', North American Review, in, new series (April 1821), 498. See also Channing's effusive obituary, 'Memoir of John Gallison', first published in the Christian Disciple and reprinted in his Works (11th edn, Boston, 1849), v, 343-60.
101. Willard Phillips explicitly described Gallison's early demise as a public loss for those 'who feel the absence of any one, who could really help to move on the ponderous wheels of society'. See Phillips, 'Character of Mr Gallison', North American Review, in, new series (April 1821), 498. See also Channing's effusive obituary, 'Memoir of John Gallison', first published in the Christian Disciple and reprinted in his Works (11th edn, Boston, 1849), v, 343-60.
102. Gallison Journal, 8 March 1813. For Gentz, see R. R. Palmer, The Age of Democratic Revolution (Princeton, 1970), 1, 187-8; 11, 451-2.
103. Gallison Journal, 8 March 1813. For Gentz, see R. R. Palmer, The Age of Democratic Revolution (Princeton, 1970), 1, 187-8; 11, 451-2.
104. Gallison Journal, 8 March 1813. For Gentz, see R. R. Palmer, The Age of Democratic Revolution (Princeton, 1970), 1, 187-8; 11, 451-2.
105. Gallison Journal, 7 April 1813.
106. See Habermas, Structural Transformation, op. cit., 79-83, for a discussion of rationally derived legal norms. For Joseph Story and the remaking of common law for American capitalism, see Sellers, op. cit., 48-54.
107. See Habermas, Structural Transformation, op. cit., 79-83, for a discussion of rationally derived legal norms. For Joseph Story and the remaking of common law for American capitalism, see Sellers, op. cit., 48-54.
108. For Federalism, the constitutional convention and the roles played by Gallison's patrons Joseph Story (a nominal Republican) and William Prescott, see Harlow Walker Sheidley, 'Preserving "The Old Fabrick": the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of 1820-1821', Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, CIII (1991), 114-37; Formisano, op. cit., 128-48.
109. For Federalism, the constitutional convention and the roles played by Gallison's patrons Joseph Story (a nominal Republican) and William Prescott, see Harlow Walker Sheidley, 'Preserving "The Old Fabrick": the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of 1820-1821', Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, CIII (1991), 114-37; Formisano, op. cit., 128-48.
110. Alfred E. Watkin (ed.), op. cit., 136, 197-8.
111. ibid., 130-1. Potter worked alongside Richard Cobden in getting Manchester's Charter of Incorporation under the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835. He was knighted in 1840. See Thomas Baker, Memorials of a Dissenting Chapel (Manchester, 1884) 117-18.
112. ibid., 130-1. Potter worked alongside Richard Cobden in getting Manchester's Charter of Incorporation under the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835. He was knighted in 1840. See Thomas Baker, Memorials of a Dissenting Chapel (Manchester, 1884) 117-18.
113. Watkin starchily disapproved when Cobden attributed S. J. Loyd's failed 1837 parliamentary campaign to his inability to win over Archibald Prentice, publisher of the Manchester Times. He judged such manoeuvring faintly unsavoury: 'In this manner,' he concluded, 'reputation is maintained, and the way to distinction is smoothed.' Alfred E. Watkin (ed.), op. cit., 192.
114. Watkin starchily disapproved when Cobden attributed S. J. Loyd's failed 1837 parliamentary campaign to his inability to win over Archibald Prentice, publisher of the Manchester Times. He judged such manoeuvring faintly unsavoury: 'In this manner,' he concluded, 'reputation is maintained, and the way to distinction is smoothed.' Alfred E. Watkin (ed.), op. cit., 192.
115. Morris, op. cit., 265-77; David Nicholls, 'The English middle class and the ideological significance of radicalism', Journal of British Studies, XXIV (October 1985), 415-33.
116. Morris, op. cit., 265-77; David Nicholls, 'The English middle class and the ideological significance of radicalism', Journal of British Studies, XXIV (October 1985), 415-33.
117. Alfred E. Watkin (ed.), op. cit., 122.
118. Habermas emphasizes a chief antecedent of this mentality, the Enlightenment critique of absolutism which 'interpreted itself as unpolitical: public opinion aimed at rationalizing politics in the name of morality'; Structural Transformation, op. cit., 102.
119. Manchester Central Reference Library Archives Department (subsequently MCRL), Manchester Literary Society Minute Book, Vol. 1, 1826-37, 11 November 1826. MSF 062.M3; Sir Edward Watkin, Bart, MP, Alderman Cobden of Manchester: Letters and Reminiscences of Richard Cobden (n.d.), 59.
120. Manchester Central Reference Library Archives Department (subsequently MCRL), Manchester Literary Society Minute Book, Vol. 1, 1826-37, 11 November 1826. MSF 062.M3; Sir Edward Watkin, Bart, MP, Alderman Cobden of Manchester: Letters and Reminiscences of Richard Cobden (n.d.), 59.
121. MCRL, Thomas Baker, 'An account of the Manchester Literary Society', MS. 373.4273CI; Archibald Prentice, Historical Sketches and Personal Recollections of Manchester, Intended to Illustrate the Rise of Public Opinion from 1792 to 1832 (2nd edn, Manchester, 1851), 73-4. Baker, better known as the chronicler of Cross Street Unitarian chapel (see n. 66 above), wrote this short unpublished history in about 1868.
122. MCRL, Thomas Baker, 'An account of the Manchester Literary Society', MS. 373.4273CI; Archibald Prentice, Historical Sketches and Personal Recollections of Manchester, Intended to Illustrate the Rise of Public Opinion from 1792 to 1832 (2nd edn, Manchester, 1851), 73-4. Baker, better known as the chronicler of Cross Street Unitarian chapel (see n. 66 above), wrote this short unpublished history in about 1868.
123. Watkin helped to write an 1840 report on the society which counted jurisprudence, law, government, statistics and political economy under the rubric 'Politics and History', accounting for just under half (95 out of 191) of all topics debated between 1826 and 1840. Literary Society Minute Book, vol. II, 29 September 1840. For Watkin's contributions, see Literary Society Book of Proposed Questions, 18 February 1834; 13 November 1832; 9 October 1838; 20 January 1829; 8 November 1836; 30 November 1830; 17 January 1832. Minute Book, vol. II, 25 February 1840.
124. Watkin helped to write an 1840 report on the society which counted jurisprudence, law, government, statistics and political economy under the rubric 'Politics and History', accounting for just under half (95 out of 191) of all topics debated between 1826 and 1840. Literary Society Minute Book, vol. II, 29 September 1840. For Watkin's contributions, see Literary Society Book of Proposed Questions, 18 February 1834; 13 November 1832; 9 October 1838; 20 January 1829; 8 November 1836; 30 November 1830; 17 January 1832. Minute Book, vol. II, 25 February 1840.
125. Watkin helped to write an 1840 report on the society which counted jurisprudence, law, government, statistics and political economy under the rubric 'Politics and History', accounting for just under half (95 out of 191) of all topics debated between 1826 and 1840. Literary Society Minute Book, vol. II, 29 September 1840. For Watkin's contributions, see Literary Society Book of Proposed Questions, 18 February 1834; 13 November 1832; 9 October 1838; 20 January 1829; 8 November 1836; 30 November 1830; 17 January 1832. Minute Book, vol. II, 25 February 1840.
126. Habermas, Structural Transformation, op. cit., 55-6.
127. Goffin (ed.), op. cit., 36, 64, 73-4, 118-19, 134.
128. For a succinct generalization applicable to Elizabeth's predicament, see Catherine Hall, 'Private persons versus public someones: class, gender, and politics in England, 1780-1850' in Carolyn Steedman, Cathy Unwin and Valerie Walkerdine (eds), Language, Gender, and Childhood (London, 1985), 10-33.
129. Koditschek, op. cit., 221-7. For an excellent description of normative expectations attached to early nineteenth-century bourgeois marriages, see Davidoff and Hall, op. cit., 322-9.
130. Koditschek, op. cit., 221-7. For an excellent description of normative expectations attached to early nineteenth-century bourgeois marriages, see Davidoff and Hall, op. cit., 322-9.
131. See Michael Warner's description of '[T]he citizen who brackets the particularities of his life in order to make entry into political discourse . . .'; Warner, op. cit., 72.
132. Goffin (ed.), op. cit., 136-7.
133. ibid., 147. For Dixon, whose radical credentials traced back to an 1817 imprisonment and who ultimately became a successful match manufacturer, see Dorothy Thompson, The Chartists: Popular Politics in the Industrial Revolution (New York, 1984), 219.
134. ibid., 147. For Dixon, whose radical credentials traced back to an 1817 imprisonment and who ultimately became a successful match manufacturer, see Dorothy Thompson, The Chartists: Popular Politics in the Industrial Revolution (New York, 1984), 219.
135. See, for example, his account of helping to supervise the borough's policing responses to Chartist disorders in the summer of 1842. Alfred E. Watkin (ed.), op. cit., 204-7.
136. Literary Society Minute Book, vol. II, 9 April 1839.
137. See, for example, James Epstein, 'Radical dining, toasting, and symbolic expression in early nineteenth-century Lancashire: rituals of solidarity', Albion, XX (Summer 1988), 271-91, and Geoff Eley, 'Rethinking the political: social history and political culture in 18th and 19th century Britain', Archiv für Sozialgeschichte, XXI (1980), esp. 450-1, for a discussion of the independent working-class public sphere created by Chartism.
138. See, for example, James Epstein, 'Radical dining, toasting, and symbolic expression in early nineteenth-century Lancashire: rituals of solidarity', Albion, XX (Summer 1988), 271-91, and Geoff Eley, 'Rethinking the political: social history and political culture in 18th and 19th century Britain', Archiv für Sozialgeschichte, XXI (1980), esp. 450-1, for a discussion of the independent working-class public sphere created by Chartism.
139. Alfred E. Watkin (ed.), op. cit., 167. See Nicholls, op. cit., 418-19, for a good discussion of these internal bourgeois divisions.
140. Alfred E. Watkin (ed.), op. cit., 167. See Nicholls, op. cit., 418-19, for a good discussion of these internal bourgeois divisions.
141. Sellers, op. cit., 282-5; James R. Green and Hugh Carter Donahue, Boston's Workers: A Labor History (Boston, 1979), 18-20; Edward Pessen, Uncommon Jacksonians: The Radical Leaders of the Early Labor Movement (Albany, 1967), esp. 17-24, 87-92.
142. Sellers, op. cit., 282-5; James R. Green and Hugh Carter Donahue, Boston's Workers: A Labor History (Boston, 1979), 18-20; Edward Pessen, Uncommon Jacksonians: The Radical Leaders of the Early Labor Movement (Albany, 1967), esp. 17-24, 87-92.
143. Sellers, op. cit., 282-5; James R. Green and Hugh Carter Donahue, Boston's Workers: A Labor History (Boston, 1979), 18-20; Edward Pessen, Uncommon Jacksonians: The Radical Leaders of the Early Labor Movement (Albany, 1967), esp. 17-24, 87-92.
144. Sellers, op. cit., 215.
145. For the American version of this argument, see Mary P. Ryan, 'Gender and public access: women's politics in nineteenth-century America' in Calhoun (ed.), op. cit., 259-88, and Ryan's Women in Public: Between Ranners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore, 1990). For the British context, see Davidoff and Hall, op. cit., 416-29. See also Habermas's acknowledgement of the 'structuring significance' of women's exclusion from the bourgeois public; Habermas, 'Further reflections', op. cit., 428.
146. For the American version of this argument, see Mary P. Ryan, 'Gender and public access: women's politics in nineteenth-century America' in Calhoun (ed.), op. cit., 259-88, and Ryan's Women in Public: Between Ranners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore, 1990). For the British context, see Davidoff and Hall, op. cit., 416-29. See also Habermas's acknowledgement of the 'structuring significance' of women's exclusion from the bourgeois public; Habermas, 'Further reflections', op. cit., 428.
147. For the American version of this argument, see Mary P. Ryan, 'Gender and public access: women's politics in nineteenth-century America' in Calhoun (ed.), op. cit., 259-88, and Ryan's Women in Public: Between Ranners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore, 1990). For the British context, see Davidoff and Hall, op. cit., 416-29. See also Habermas's acknowledgement of the 'structuring significance' of women's exclusion from the bourgeois public; Habermas, 'Further reflections', op. cit., 428.
148. For the American version of this argument, see Mary P. Ryan, 'Gender and public access: women's politics in nineteenth-century America' in Calhoun (ed.), op. cit., 259-88, and Ryan's Women in Public: Between Ranners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore, 1990). For the British context, see Davidoff and Hall, op. cit., 416-29. See also Habermas's acknowledgement of the 'structuring significance' of women's exclusion from the bourgeois public; Habermas, 'Further reflections', op. cit., 428.
149. See Warner, The Letters of the Republic, op. cit., 42, for a discussion of 'the negation of persons' as a political assumption of republican discourse.
150. Compare Warner's argument for the mechanisms linking textuality and political authority: ibid., 115.
151. Habermas, Structural Transformation, op. cit., 79-88. See also Dieter Langewiesche, 'Liberalism and the middle classes in Europe' in Jürgen Kocka and Allan Mitchell (eds), Bourgeois Society in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Oxford and Providence, 1993), 41-2.
152. Habermas, Structural Transformation, op. cit., 79-88. See also Dieter Langewiesche, 'Liberalism and the middle classes in Europe' in Jürgen Kocka and Allan Mitchell (eds), Bourgeois Society in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Oxford and Providence, 1993), 41-2.