Genocide Next Door: The Good Neighbor Policy, the Trujillo Regime, and the Haitian Massacre of 1937

Diplomatic History

Volumn 20, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 301-319

  Roorda, Eric Paul ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 1542639825     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7709.1996.tb00269.x     Document Type: Review

References (108)

1. Minister R. Henry Norweb to the secretary of state, 11 October 1937, and Undersecretary of State Sumner Welles to Franklin Roosevelt, 19 October 1937, in Franklin D. Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs, ed. Edgar Nixon (Cambridge, MA, 1969), 7:121-25. News of the massacre was first reported on 7 October 1937 by the American customs inspector in the Dominican border town of Dajabón and by the United States legation in Port-au-Prince, which reported the arrival of twelve hundred Haitian refugees in the city during the preceding days. General Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59, 738.39/23-24, National Archives, Washington, DC (hereafter RG, 59 with filing information). Bernardo Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 1930-1937 [Trujillo and Haiti, 1930-1937] (Santo Domingo, 1988), 386-87, lists fifty-four estimates of the death toll made between 1937 and 1987. These estimates range between five hundred and thirty-five thousand.
2. Minister R. Henry Norweb to the secretary of state, 11 October 1937, and Undersecretary of State Sumner Welles to Franklin Roosevelt, 19 October 1937, in Franklin D. Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs, ed. Edgar Nixon (Cambridge, MA, 1969), 7:121-25. News of the massacre was first reported on 7 October 1937 by the American customs inspector in the Dominican border town of Dajabón and by the United States legation in Port-au-Prince, which reported the arrival of twelve hundred Haitian refugees in the city during the preceding days. General Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59, 738.39/23-24, National Archives, Washington, DC (hereafter RG, 59 with filing information). Bernardo Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 1930-1937 [Trujillo and Haiti, 1930-1937] (Santo Domingo, 1988), 386-87, lists fifty-four estimates of the death toll made between 1937 and 1987. These estimates range between five hundred and thirty-five thousand.
3. Besides Trujillo (1930-1961), who was the first and most durable among them, Good Neighbor-era dictators included Fulgencio Batista in Cuba (1933-1944, 1952-1959), Anastasio Somoza in Nicaragua (1934-1956), Jorge Ubico in Guatemala (1931-1949), and Maximiliano Hernández Martínez in El Salvador (1931-1944). Irwin Gellman, Roosevelt and Batista: Good Neighbor Diplomacy in Cuba, 1933-1945 (Albuquerque, 1973); J. O. Baylen, "American Intervention in Nicaragua, 1909-1933: An Appraisal of Objectives and Results," Southwest Social Science Quarterly 35 (September 1954): 128-54; Kenneth Grieb, "American Involvement in the Rise of Jorge Ubico," Caribbean Studies 10 (April 1970): 5-21; idem, "The United States and General Jorge Ubico's Retention of Power," Revista de Historia de America 71 (January-June 1971): 119-35; idem, "The United States and the Rise of General Maximiliano Hernändez Martínez," Journal of Latin American Studies 3 (November 1971): 151-72. Hernández Martínez carried out a massacre of his own against leftists and Indians soon after coming to power. See Thomas P. Anderson, Matanza: El Salvador's Communist Revolt of 1932 (Lincoln, NE, 1971). For the Marine occupation and the Dominican military see Bruce Calder, The Impact of Intervention: The Dominican Republic during the United States Occupation of 1916-1924 (Austin, 1984); Marvin Goldwert, The Constabulary in the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua: Progeny of United States Intervention (Gainesville, 1962); Valentina Paguero, "Trujillo and the Military: Organization, Modernization, and Control of the Dominican Armed Forces, 1916-1961" (Ph. D. diss., Columbia University, 1993). A U.S. Army study concluded that the Guardia Nacional "was bound later to play into the hands of a dictator." "The United States Military Government in the Dominican Republic, 1916-1922: A Case History," U.S. Army School for Military Government and Administration, New York, 2d section, group 5, 14 August 1943, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
4. Besides Trujillo (1930-1961), who was the first and most durable among them, Good Neighbor-era dictators included Fulgencio Batista in Cuba (1933-1944, 1952-1959), Anastasio Somoza in Nicaragua (1934-1956), Jorge Ubico in Guatemala (1931-1949), and Maximiliano Hernández Martínez in El Salvador (1931-1944). Irwin Gellman, Roosevelt and Batista: Good Neighbor Diplomacy in Cuba, 1933-1945 (Albuquerque, 1973); J. O. Baylen, "American Intervention in Nicaragua, 1909-1933: An Appraisal of Objectives and Results," Southwest Social Science Quarterly 35 (September 1954): 128-54; Kenneth Grieb, "American Involvement in the Rise of Jorge Ubico," Caribbean Studies 10 (April 1970): 5-21; idem, "The United States and General Jorge Ubico's Retention of Power," Revista de Historia de America 71 (January-June 1971): 119-35; idem, "The United States and the Rise of General Maximiliano Hernändez Martínez," Journal of Latin American Studies 3 (November 1971): 151-72. Hernández Martínez carried out a massacre of his own against leftists and Indians soon after coming to power. See Thomas P. Anderson, Matanza: El Salvador's Communist Revolt of 1932 (Lincoln, NE, 1971). For the Marine occupation and the Dominican military see Bruce Calder, The Impact of Intervention: The Dominican Republic during the United States Occupation of 1916-1924 (Austin, 1984); Marvin Goldwert, The Constabulary in the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua: Progeny of United States Intervention (Gainesville, 1962); Valentina Paguero, "Trujillo and the Military: Organization, Modernization, and Control of the Dominican Armed Forces, 1916-1961" (Ph. D. diss., Columbia University, 1993). A U.S. Army study concluded that the Guardia Nacional "was bound later to play into the hands of a dictator." "The United States Military Government in the Dominican Republic, 1916-1922: A Case History," U.S. Army School for Military Government and Administration, New York, 2d section, group 5, 14 August 1943, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
5. Besides Trujillo (1930-1961), who was the first and most durable among them, Good Neighbor-era dictators included Fulgencio Batista in Cuba (1933-1944, 1952-1959), Anastasio Somoza in Nicaragua (1934-1956), Jorge Ubico in Guatemala (1931-1949), and Maximiliano Hernández Martínez in El Salvador (1931-1944). Irwin Gellman, Roosevelt and Batista: Good Neighbor Diplomacy in Cuba, 1933-1945 (Albuquerque, 1973); J. O. Baylen, "American Intervention in Nicaragua, 1909-1933: An Appraisal of Objectives and Results," Southwest Social Science Quarterly 35 (September 1954): 128-54; Kenneth Grieb, "American Involvement in the Rise of Jorge Ubico," Caribbean Studies 10 (April 1970): 5-21; idem, "The United States and General Jorge Ubico's Retention of Power," Revista de Historia de America 71 (January-June 1971): 119-35; idem, "The United States and the Rise of General Maximiliano Hernändez Martínez," Journal of Latin American Studies 3 (November 1971): 151-72. Hernández Martínez carried out a massacre of his own against leftists and Indians soon after coming to power. See Thomas P. Anderson, Matanza: El Salvador's Communist Revolt of 1932 (Lincoln, NE, 1971). For the Marine occupation and the Dominican military see Bruce Calder, The Impact of Intervention: The Dominican Republic during the United States Occupation of 1916-1924 (Austin, 1984); Marvin Goldwert, The Constabulary in the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua: Progeny of United States Intervention (Gainesville, 1962); Valentina Paguero, "Trujillo and the Military: Organization, Modernization, and Control of the Dominican Armed Forces, 1916-1961" (Ph. D. diss., Columbia University, 1993). A U.S. Army study concluded that the Guardia Nacional "was bound later to play into the hands of a dictator." "The United States Military Government in the Dominican Republic, 1916-1922: A Case History," U.S. Army School for Military Government and Administration, New York, 2d section, group 5, 14 August 1943, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
6. Besides Trujillo (1930-1961), who was the first and most durable among them, Good Neighbor-era dictators included Fulgencio Batista in Cuba (1933-1944, 1952-1959), Anastasio Somoza in Nicaragua (1934-1956), Jorge Ubico in Guatemala (1931-1949), and Maximiliano Hernández Martínez in El Salvador (1931-1944). Irwin Gellman, Roosevelt and Batista: Good Neighbor Diplomacy in Cuba, 1933-1945 (Albuquerque, 1973); J. O. Baylen, "American Intervention in Nicaragua, 1909-1933: An Appraisal of Objectives and Results," Southwest Social Science Quarterly 35 (September 1954): 128-54; Kenneth Grieb, "American Involvement in the Rise of Jorge Ubico," Caribbean Studies 10 (April 1970): 5-21; idem, "The United States and General Jorge Ubico's Retention of Power," Revista de Historia de America 71 (January-June 1971): 119-35; idem, "The United States and the Rise of General Maximiliano Hernändez Martínez," Journal of Latin American Studies 3 (November 1971): 151-72. Hernández Martínez carried out a massacre of his own against leftists and Indians soon after coming to power. See Thomas P. Anderson, Matanza: El Salvador's Communist Revolt of 1932 (Lincoln, NE, 1971). For the Marine occupation and the Dominican military see Bruce Calder, The Impact of Intervention: The Dominican Republic during the United States Occupation of 1916-1924 (Austin, 1984); Marvin Goldwert, The Constabulary in the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua: Progeny of United States Intervention (Gainesville, 1962); Valentina Paguero, "Trujillo and the Military: Organization, Modernization, and Control of the Dominican Armed Forces, 1916-1961" (Ph. D. diss., Columbia University, 1993). A U.S. Army study concluded that the Guardia Nacional "was bound later to play into the hands of a dictator." "The United States Military Government in the Dominican Republic, 1916-1922: A Case History," U.S. Army School for Military Government and Administration, New York, 2d section, group 5, 14 August 1943, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
7. Besides Trujillo (1930-1961), who was the first and most durable among them, Good Neighbor-era dictators included Fulgencio Batista in Cuba (1933-1944, 1952-1959), Anastasio Somoza in Nicaragua (1934-1956), Jorge Ubico in Guatemala (1931-1949), and Maximiliano Hernández Martínez in El Salvador (1931-1944). Irwin Gellman, Roosevelt and Batista: Good Neighbor Diplomacy in Cuba, 1933-1945 (Albuquerque, 1973); J. O. Baylen, "American Intervention in Nicaragua, 1909-1933: An Appraisal of Objectives and Results," Southwest Social Science Quarterly 35 (September 1954): 128-54; Kenneth Grieb, "American Involvement in the Rise of Jorge Ubico," Caribbean Studies 10 (April 1970): 5-21; idem, "The United States and General Jorge Ubico's Retention of Power," Revista de Historia de America 71 (January-June 1971): 119-35; idem, "The United States and the Rise of General Maximiliano Hernändez Martínez," Journal of Latin American Studies 3 (November 1971): 151-72. Hernández Martínez carried out a massacre of his own against leftists and Indians soon after coming to power. See Thomas P. Anderson, Matanza: El Salvador's Communist Revolt of 1932 (Lincoln, NE, 1971). For the Marine occupation and the Dominican military see Bruce Calder, The Impact of Intervention: The Dominican Republic during the United States Occupation of 1916-1924 (Austin, 1984); Marvin Goldwert, The Constabulary in the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua: Progeny of United States Intervention (Gainesville, 1962); Valentina Paguero, "Trujillo and the Military: Organization, Modernization, and Control of the Dominican Armed Forces, 1916-1961" (Ph. D. diss., Columbia University, 1993). A U.S. Army study concluded that the Guardia Nacional "was bound later to play into the hands of a dictator." "The United States Military Government in the Dominican Republic, 1916-1922: A Case History," U.S. Army School for Military Government and Administration, New York, 2d section, group 5, 14 August 1943, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
8. Besides Trujillo (1930-1961), who was the first and most durable among them, Good Neighbor-era dictators included Fulgencio Batista in Cuba (1933-1944, 1952-1959), Anastasio Somoza in Nicaragua (1934-1956), Jorge Ubico in Guatemala (1931-1949), and Maximiliano Hernández Martínez in El Salvador (1931-1944). Irwin Gellman, Roosevelt and Batista: Good Neighbor Diplomacy in Cuba, 1933-1945 (Albuquerque, 1973); J. O. Baylen, "American Intervention in Nicaragua, 1909-1933: An Appraisal of Objectives and Results," Southwest Social Science Quarterly 35 (September 1954): 128-54; Kenneth Grieb, "American Involvement in the Rise of Jorge Ubico," Caribbean Studies 10 (April 1970): 5-21; idem, "The United States and General Jorge Ubico's Retention of Power," Revista de Historia de America 71 (January-June 1971): 119-35; idem, "The United States and the Rise of General Maximiliano Hernändez Martínez," Journal of Latin American Studies 3 (November 1971): 151-72. Hernández Martínez carried out a massacre of his own against leftists and Indians soon after coming to power. See Thomas P. Anderson, Matanza: El Salvador's Communist Revolt of 1932 (Lincoln, NE, 1971). For the Marine occupation and the Dominican military see Bruce Calder, The Impact of Intervention: The Dominican Republic during the United States Occupation of 1916-1924 (Austin, 1984); Marvin Goldwert, The Constabulary in the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua: Progeny of United States Intervention (Gainesville, 1962); Valentina Paguero, "Trujillo and the Military: Organization, Modernization, and Control of the Dominican Armed Forces, 1916-1961" (Ph. D. diss., Columbia University, 1993). A U.S. Army study concluded that the Guardia Nacional "was bound later to play into the hands of a dictator." "The United States Military Government in the Dominican Republic, 1916-1922: A Case History," U.S. Army School for Military Government and Administration, New York, 2d section, group 5, 14 August 1943, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
9. Besides Trujillo (1930-1961), who was the first and most durable among them, Good Neighbor-era dictators included Fulgencio Batista in Cuba (1933-1944, 1952-1959), Anastasio Somoza in Nicaragua (1934-1956), Jorge Ubico in Guatemala (1931-1949), and Maximiliano Hernández Martínez in El Salvador (1931-1944). Irwin Gellman, Roosevelt and Batista: Good Neighbor Diplomacy in Cuba, 1933-1945 (Albuquerque, 1973); J. O. Baylen, "American Intervention in Nicaragua, 1909-1933: An Appraisal of Objectives and Results," Southwest Social Science Quarterly 35 (September 1954): 128-54; Kenneth Grieb, "American Involvement in the Rise of Jorge Ubico," Caribbean Studies 10 (April 1970): 5-21; idem, "The United States and General Jorge Ubico's Retention of Power," Revista de Historia de America 71 (January-June 1971): 119-35; idem, "The United States and the Rise of General Maximiliano Hernändez Martínez," Journal of Latin American Studies 3 (November 1971): 151-72. Hernández Martínez carried out a massacre of his own against leftists and Indians soon after coming to power. See Thomas P. Anderson, Matanza: El Salvador's Communist Revolt of 1932 (Lincoln, NE, 1971). For the Marine occupation and the Dominican military see Bruce Calder, The Impact of Intervention: The Dominican Republic during the United States Occupation of 1916-1924 (Austin, 1984); Marvin Goldwert, The Constabulary in the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua: Progeny of United States Intervention (Gainesville, 1962); Valentina Paguero, "Trujillo and the Military: Organization, Modernization, and Control of the Dominican Armed Forces, 1916-1961" (Ph. D. diss., Columbia University, 1993). A U.S. Army study concluded that the Guardia Nacional "was bound later to play into the hands of a dictator." "The United States Military Government in the Dominican Republic, 1916-1922: A Case History," U.S. Army School for Military Government and Administration, New York, 2d section, group 5, 14 August 1943, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
10. Besides Trujillo (1930-1961), who was the first and most durable among them, Good Neighbor-era dictators included Fulgencio Batista in Cuba (1933-1944, 1952-1959), Anastasio Somoza in Nicaragua (1934-1956), Jorge Ubico in Guatemala (1931-1949), and Maximiliano Hernández Martínez in El Salvador (1931-1944). Irwin Gellman, Roosevelt and Batista: Good Neighbor Diplomacy in Cuba, 1933-1945 (Albuquerque, 1973); J. O. Baylen, "American Intervention in Nicaragua, 1909-1933: An Appraisal of Objectives and Results," Southwest Social Science Quarterly 35 (September 1954): 128-54; Kenneth Grieb, "American Involvement in the Rise of Jorge Ubico," Caribbean Studies 10 (April 1970): 5-21; idem, "The United States and General Jorge Ubico's Retention of Power," Revista de Historia de America 71 (January-June 1971): 119-35; idem, "The United States and the Rise of General Maximiliano Hernändez Martínez," Journal of Latin American Studies 3 (November 1971): 151-72. Hernández Martínez carried out a massacre of his own against leftists and Indians soon after coming to power. See Thomas P. Anderson, Matanza: El Salvador's Communist Revolt of 1932 (Lincoln, NE, 1971). For the Marine occupation and the Dominican military see Bruce Calder, The Impact of Intervention: The Dominican Republic during the United States Occupation of 1916-1924 (Austin, 1984); Marvin Goldwert, The Constabulary in the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua: Progeny of United States Intervention (Gainesville, 1962); Valentina Paguero, "Trujillo and the Military: Organization, Modernization, and Control of the Dominican Armed Forces, 1916-1961" (Ph. D. diss., Columbia University, 1993). A U.S. Army study concluded that the Guardia Nacional "was bound later to play into the hands of a dictator." "The United States Military Government in the Dominican Republic, 1916-1922: A Case History," U.S. Army School for Military Government and Administration, New York, 2d section, group 5, 14 August 1943, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
11. Besides Trujillo (1930-1961), who was the first and most durable among them, Good Neighbor-era dictators included Fulgencio Batista in Cuba (1933-1944, 1952-1959), Anastasio Somoza in Nicaragua (1934-1956), Jorge Ubico in Guatemala (1931-1949), and Maximiliano Hernández Martínez in El Salvador (1931-1944). Irwin Gellman, Roosevelt and Batista: Good Neighbor Diplomacy in Cuba, 1933-1945 (Albuquerque, 1973); J. O. Baylen, "American Intervention in Nicaragua, 1909-1933: An Appraisal of Objectives and Results," Southwest Social Science Quarterly 35 (September 1954): 128-54; Kenneth Grieb, "American Involvement in the Rise of Jorge Ubico," Caribbean Studies 10 (April 1970): 5-21; idem, "The United States and General Jorge Ubico's Retention of Power," Revista de Historia de America 71 (January-June 1971): 119-35; idem, "The United States and the Rise of General Maximiliano Hernändez Martínez," Journal of Latin American Studies 3 (November 1971): 151-72. Hernández Martínez carried out a massacre of his own against leftists and Indians soon after coming to power. See Thomas P. Anderson, Matanza: El Salvador's Communist Revolt of 1932 (Lincoln, NE, 1971). For the Marine occupation and the Dominican military see Bruce Calder, The Impact of Intervention: The Dominican Republic during the United States Occupation of 1916-1924 (Austin, 1984); Marvin Goldwert, The Constabulary in the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua: Progeny of United States Intervention (Gainesville, 1962); Valentina Paguero, "Trujillo and the Military: Organization, Modernization, and Control of the Dominican Armed Forces, 1916-1961" (Ph. D. diss., Columbia University, 1993). A U.S. Army study concluded that the Guardia Nacional "was bound later to play into the hands of a dictator." "The United States Military Government in the Dominican Republic, 1916-1922: A Case History," U.S. Army School for Military Government and Administration, New York, 2d section, group 5, 14 August 1943, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
12. Besides Trujillo (1930-1961), who was the first and most durable among them, Good Neighbor-era dictators included Fulgencio Batista in Cuba (1933-1944, 1952-1959), Anastasio Somoza in Nicaragua (1934-1956), Jorge Ubico in Guatemala (1931-1949), and Maximiliano Hernández Martínez in El Salvador (1931-1944). Irwin Gellman, Roosevelt and Batista: Good Neighbor Diplomacy in Cuba, 1933-1945 (Albuquerque, 1973); J. O. Baylen, "American Intervention in Nicaragua, 1909-1933: An Appraisal of Objectives and Results," Southwest Social Science Quarterly 35 (September 1954): 128-54; Kenneth Grieb, "American Involvement in the Rise of Jorge Ubico," Caribbean Studies 10 (April 1970): 5-21; idem, "The United States and General Jorge Ubico's Retention of Power," Revista de Historia de America 71 (January-June 1971): 119-35; idem, "The United States and the Rise of General Maximiliano Hernändez Martínez," Journal of Latin American Studies 3 (November 1971): 151-72. Hernández Martínez carried out a massacre of his own against leftists and Indians soon after coming to power. See Thomas P. Anderson, Matanza: El Salvador's Communist Revolt of 1932 (Lincoln, NE, 1971). For the Marine occupation and the Dominican military see Bruce Calder, The Impact of Intervention: The Dominican Republic during the United States Occupation of 1916-1924 (Austin, 1984); Marvin Goldwert, The Constabulary in the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua: Progeny of United States Intervention (Gainesville, 1962); Valentina Paguero, "Trujillo and the Military: Organization, Modernization, and Control of the Dominican Armed Forces, 1916-1961" (Ph. D. diss., Columbia University, 1993). A U.S. Army study concluded that the Guardia Nacional "was bound later to play into the hands of a dictator." "The United States Military Government in the Dominican Republic, 1916-1922: A Case History," U.S. Army School for Military Government and Administration, New York, 2d section, group 5, 14 August 1943, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
13. The most thorough critique of the Good Neighbor policy's objectives and its tendency to "entrench" dictators is David Green, The Containment of Latin America: A History of the Myths and Realities of the Good Neighbor Policy (Chicago, 1971).
14. See also Bryce Wood, The Making of the Good Neighbor Policy (New York, 1961);
15. Michael Grow, The Good Neighbor Policy and Authoritarianism in Paraguay: United States Economic Expansion and Great-Power Rivalry in Latin America during World War II (Lawrence, KS, 1981); Irwin F. Gellman, Good Neighbor Diplomacy: United States Policies in Latin America, 1933-1945 (Baltimore, 1979); Gerald K. Haines, "Under the Eagle's Wing: The Franklin Roosevelt Administration Forges an American Hemisphere," Diplomatic History 1 (Fall 1977): 373-88; Lloyd C. Gardner, Economic Aspects of New Deal Diplomacy (Madison, 1956); and Frederick C. Adams, Economic Diplomacy: The Export-Import Bank and American Foreign Policy, 1934-1939 (New York, 1976). This thesis supports the contention that the ability of states "to resist external exploitation has been considerably more varied and extensive" than students of U.S. foreign relations have recognized. Thomas J. McCormick, "Something Old, Something New: John Lewis Gaddis's 'New Conceptual Approaches,'" Diplomatic History 14 (Summer 1990): 427.
16. Michael Grow, The Good Neighbor Policy and Authoritarianism in Paraguay: United States Economic Expansion and Great-Power Rivalry in Latin America during World War II (Lawrence, KS, 1981); Irwin F. Gellman, Good Neighbor Diplomacy: United States Policies in Latin America, 1933-1945 (Baltimore, 1979); Gerald K. Haines, "Under the Eagle's Wing: The Franklin Roosevelt Administration Forges an American Hemisphere," Diplomatic History 1 (Fall 1977): 373-88; Lloyd C. Gardner, Economic Aspects of New Deal Diplomacy (Madison, 1956); and Frederick C. Adams, Economic Diplomacy: The Export-Import Bank and American Foreign Policy, 1934-1939 (New York, 1976). This thesis supports the contention that the ability of states "to resist external exploitation has been considerably more varied and extensive" than students of U.S. foreign relations have recognized. Thomas J. McCormick, "Something Old, Something New: John Lewis Gaddis's 'New Conceptual Approaches,'" Diplomatic History 14 (Summer 1990): 427.
17. Michael Grow, The Good Neighbor Policy and Authoritarianism in Paraguay: United States Economic Expansion and Great-Power Rivalry in Latin America during World War II (Lawrence, KS, 1981); Irwin F. Gellman, Good Neighbor Diplomacy: United States Policies in Latin America, 1933-1945 (Baltimore, 1979); Gerald K. Haines, "Under the Eagle's Wing: The Franklin Roosevelt Administration Forges an American Hemisphere," Diplomatic History 1 (Fall 1977): 373-88; Lloyd C. Gardner, Economic Aspects of New Deal Diplomacy (Madison, 1956); and Frederick C. Adams, Economic Diplomacy: The Export-Import Bank and American Foreign Policy, 1934-1939 (New York, 1976). This thesis supports the contention that the ability of states "to resist external exploitation has been considerably more varied and extensive" than students of U.S. foreign relations have recognized. Thomas J. McCormick, "Something Old, Something New: John Lewis Gaddis's 'New Conceptual Approaches,'" Diplomatic History 14 (Summer 1990): 427.
18. Michael Grow, The Good Neighbor Policy and Authoritarianism in Paraguay: United States Economic Expansion and Great-Power Rivalry in Latin America during World War II (Lawrence, KS, 1981); Irwin F. Gellman, Good Neighbor Diplomacy: United States Policies in Latin America, 1933-1945 (Baltimore, 1979); Gerald K. Haines, "Under the Eagle's Wing: The Franklin Roosevelt Administration Forges an American Hemisphere," Diplomatic History 1 (Fall 1977): 373-88; Lloyd C. Gardner, Economic Aspects of New Deal Diplomacy (Madison, 1956); and Frederick C. Adams, Economic Diplomacy: The Export-Import Bank and American Foreign Policy, 1934-1939 (New York, 1976). This thesis supports the contention that the ability of states "to resist external exploitation has been considerably more varied and extensive" than students of U.S. foreign relations have recognized. Thomas J. McCormick, "Something Old, Something New: John Lewis Gaddis's 'New Conceptual Approaches,'" Diplomatic History 14 (Summer 1990): 427.
19. Michael Grow, The Good Neighbor Policy and Authoritarianism in Paraguay: United States Economic Expansion and Great-Power Rivalry in Latin America during World War II (Lawrence, KS, 1981); Irwin F. Gellman, Good Neighbor Diplomacy: United States Policies in Latin America, 1933-1945 (Baltimore, 1979); Gerald K. Haines, "Under the Eagle's Wing: The Franklin Roosevelt Administration Forges an American Hemisphere," Diplomatic History 1 (Fall 1977): 373-88; Lloyd C. Gardner, Economic Aspects of New Deal Diplomacy (Madison, 1956); and Frederick C. Adams, Economic Diplomacy: The Export-Import Bank and American Foreign Policy, 1934-1939 (New York, 1976). This thesis supports the contention that the ability of states "to resist external exploitation has been considerably more varied and extensive" than students of U.S. foreign relations have recognized. Thomas J. McCormick, "Something Old, Something New: John Lewis Gaddis's 'New Conceptual Approaches,'" Diplomatic History 14 (Summer 1990): 427.
20. Michael Grow, The Good Neighbor Policy and Authoritarianism in Paraguay: United States Economic Expansion and Great-Power Rivalry in Latin America during World War II (Lawrence, KS, 1981); Irwin F. Gellman, Good Neighbor Diplomacy: United States Policies in Latin America, 1933-1945 (Baltimore, 1979); Gerald K. Haines, "Under the Eagle's Wing: The Franklin Roosevelt Administration Forges an American Hemisphere," Diplomatic History 1 (Fall 1977): 373-88; Lloyd C. Gardner, Economic Aspects of New Deal Diplomacy (Madison, 1956); and Frederick C. Adams, Economic Diplomacy: The Export-Import Bank and American Foreign Policy, 1934-1939 (New York, 1976). This thesis supports the contention that the ability of states "to resist external exploitation has been considerably more varied and extensive" than students of U.S. foreign relations have recognized. Thomas J. McCormick, "Something Old, Something New: John Lewis Gaddis's 'New Conceptual Approaches,'" Diplomatic History 14 (Summer 1990): 427.
21. Gellman, Good Neighbor Diplomacy, 73; Fred Fejes, Imperialism, Media, and the Good Neighbor (Norwood, NJ, 1986); Graham White, FDR and the Press (Chicago, 1979).
22. Gellman, Good Neighbor Diplomacy, 73; Fred Fejes, Imperialism, Media, and the Good Neighbor (Norwood, NJ, 1986); Graham White, FDR and the Press (Chicago, 1979).
23. Gellman, Good Neighbor Diplomacy, 73; Fred Fejes, Imperialism, Media, and the Good Neighbor (Norwood, NJ, 1986); Graham White, FDR and the Press (Chicago, 1979).
24. Of particular use to the historian of the Trujillo years are the collections of currently classified Dominican government documents compiled by Bernardo Vega: Control y represión en la dictadura trujillista [Control and repression in the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1986); Nazismo, fascismo, y falangismo en la República Dominicana [Nazism, fascism, and felangism in the Dominican Republic] (Santo Domingo, 1985); La vida cotidiana dominicana: a traves del archivo particular del Generalísimo [Dominican daily life: From the Special Archive of the Generalissimo] (Santo Domingo, 1986); and Unos desafectos y otros en desgracia: sufrimientos bajo la dictadura trujillista [Some dissidents and others in disgrace: Sufferings under the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1985). These collections offer substantiated details about the nature of Trujillo's regime. Also see Andrés Mateo, Mito y cultura en la era de Trujillo [Myth and culture in the era of Trujillo] (Santo Domingo, 1993); Franklin J. Franco, La Era de Trujillo (Santo Domingo, 1992); G. Pope Atkins and Larman C. Wilson, The United States and the Trujillo Regime (New Brunswick, NJ, 1972); Howard J. Wiarda, Dictatorship and Development: The Methods of Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic (Gainesville, 1969); Robert D. Crassweller, Trujillo: The Life and Times of a Caribbean Dictator (New York, 1966); Arturo R. Espaillat, The Last Caesar (Chicago, 1963); Juan Bosch, Causas de una tiranía sin ejemplo [Causes of a dictatorship without parallel] (Carcacas, 1959); German E. Ornes, Trujillo: Little Caesar of the Caribbean (New York, 1958); Jesus de Galíndez, La Era de Trujillo: Un estudio casuístico de dictadura latinoamericana [The era of Trujillo: A causal study of Latin-American dictatorship] (Santiago, Chile, 1956); and Albert Hicks, Blood in the Streets (New York, 1946).
25. Of particular use to the historian of the Trujillo years are the collections of currently classified Dominican government documents compiled by Bernardo Vega: Control y represión en la dictadura trujillista [Control and repression in the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1986); Nazismo, fascismo, y falangismo en la República Dominicana [Nazism, fascism, and felangism in the Dominican Republic] (Santo Domingo, 1985); La vida cotidiana dominicana: a traves del archivo particular del Generalísimo [Dominican daily life: From the Special Archive of the Generalissimo] (Santo Domingo, 1986); and Unos desafectos y otros en desgracia: sufrimientos bajo la dictadura trujillista [Some dissidents and others in disgrace: Sufferings under the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1985). These collections offer substantiated details about the nature of Trujillo's regime. Also see Andrés Mateo, Mito y cultura en la era de Trujillo [Myth and culture in the era of Trujillo] (Santo Domingo, 1993); Franklin J. Franco, La Era de Trujillo (Santo Domingo, 1992); G. Pope Atkins and Larman C. Wilson, The United States and the Trujillo Regime (New Brunswick, NJ, 1972); Howard J. Wiarda, Dictatorship and Development: The Methods of Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic (Gainesville, 1969); Robert D. Crassweller, Trujillo: The Life and Times of a Caribbean Dictator (New York, 1966); Arturo R. Espaillat, The Last Caesar (Chicago, 1963); Juan Bosch, Causas de una tiranía sin ejemplo [Causes of a dictatorship without parallel] (Carcacas, 1959); German E. Ornes, Trujillo: Little Caesar of the Caribbean (New York, 1958); Jesus de Galíndez, La Era de Trujillo: Un estudio casuístico de dictadura latinoamericana [The era of Trujillo: A causal study of Latin-American dictatorship] (Santiago, Chile, 1956); and Albert Hicks, Blood in the Streets (New York, 1946).
26. Of particular use to the historian of the Trujillo years are the collections of currently classified Dominican government documents compiled by Bernardo Vega: Control y represión en la dictadura trujillista [Control and repression in the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1986); Nazismo, fascismo, y falangismo en la República Dominicana [Nazism, fascism, and felangism in the Dominican Republic] (Santo Domingo, 1985); La vida cotidiana dominicana: a traves del archivo particular del Generalísimo [Dominican daily life: From the Special Archive of the Generalissimo] (Santo Domingo, 1986); and Unos desafectos y otros en desgracia: sufrimientos bajo la dictadura trujillista [Some dissidents and others in disgrace: Sufferings under the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1985). These collections offer substantiated details about the nature of Trujillo's regime. Also see Andrés Mateo, Mito y cultura en la era de Trujillo [Myth and culture in the era of Trujillo] (Santo Domingo, 1993); Franklin J. Franco, La Era de Trujillo (Santo Domingo, 1992); G. Pope Atkins and Larman C. Wilson, The United States and the Trujillo Regime (New Brunswick, NJ, 1972); Howard J. Wiarda, Dictatorship and Development: The Methods of Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic (Gainesville, 1969); Robert D. Crassweller, Trujillo: The Life and Times of a Caribbean Dictator (New York, 1966); Arturo R. Espaillat, The Last Caesar (Chicago, 1963); Juan Bosch, Causas de una tiranía sin ejemplo [Causes of a dictatorship without parallel] (Carcacas, 1959); German E. Ornes, Trujillo: Little Caesar of the Caribbean (New York, 1958); Jesus de Galíndez, La Era de Trujillo: Un estudio casuístico de dictadura latinoamericana [The era of Trujillo: A causal study of Latin-American dictatorship] (Santiago, Chile, 1956); and Albert Hicks, Blood in the Streets (New York, 1946).
27. Of particular use to the historian of the Trujillo years are the collections of currently classified Dominican government documents compiled by Bernardo Vega: Control y represión en la dictadura trujillista [Control and repression in the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1986); Nazismo, fascismo, y falangismo en la República Dominicana [Nazism, fascism, and felangism in the Dominican Republic] (Santo Domingo, 1985); La vida cotidiana dominicana: a traves del archivo particular del Generalísimo [Dominican daily life: From the Special Archive of the Generalissimo] (Santo Domingo, 1986); and Unos desafectos y otros en desgracia: sufrimientos bajo la dictadura trujillista [Some dissidents and others in disgrace: Sufferings under the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1985). These collections offer substantiated details about the nature of Trujillo's regime. Also see Andrés Mateo, Mito y cultura en la era de Trujillo [Myth and culture in the era of Trujillo] (Santo Domingo, 1993); Franklin J. Franco, La Era de Trujillo (Santo Domingo, 1992); G. Pope Atkins and Larman C. Wilson, The United States and the Trujillo Regime (New Brunswick, NJ, 1972); Howard J. Wiarda, Dictatorship and Development: The Methods of Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic (Gainesville, 1969); Robert D. Crassweller, Trujillo: The Life and Times of a Caribbean Dictator (New York, 1966); Arturo R. Espaillat, The Last Caesar (Chicago, 1963); Juan Bosch, Causas de una tiranía sin ejemplo [Causes of a dictatorship without parallel] (Carcacas, 1959); German E. Ornes, Trujillo: Little Caesar of the Caribbean (New York, 1958); Jesus de Galíndez, La Era de Trujillo: Un estudio casuístico de dictadura latinoamericana [The era of Trujillo: A causal study of Latin-American dictatorship] (Santiago, Chile, 1956); and Albert Hicks, Blood in the Streets (New York, 1946).
28. Of particular use to the historian of the Trujillo years are the collections of currently classified Dominican government documents compiled by Bernardo Vega: Control y represión en la dictadura trujillista [Control and repression in the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1986); Nazismo, fascismo, y falangismo en la República Dominicana [Nazism, fascism, and felangism in the Dominican Republic] (Santo Domingo, 1985); La vida cotidiana dominicana: a traves del archivo particular del Generalísimo [Dominican daily life: From the Special Archive of the Generalissimo] (Santo Domingo, 1986); and Unos desafectos y otros en desgracia: sufrimientos bajo la dictadura trujillista [Some dissidents and others in disgrace: Sufferings under the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1985). These collections offer substantiated details about the nature of Trujillo's regime. Also see Andrés Mateo, Mito y cultura en la era de Trujillo [Myth and culture in the era of Trujillo] (Santo Domingo, 1993); Franklin J. Franco, La Era de Trujillo (Santo Domingo, 1992); G. Pope Atkins and Larman C. Wilson, The United States and the Trujillo Regime (New Brunswick, NJ, 1972); Howard J. Wiarda, Dictatorship and Development: The Methods of Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic (Gainesville, 1969); Robert D. Crassweller, Trujillo: The Life and Times of a Caribbean Dictator (New York, 1966); Arturo R. Espaillat, The Last Caesar (Chicago, 1963); Juan Bosch, Causas de una tiranía sin ejemplo [Causes of a dictatorship without parallel] (Carcacas, 1959); German E. Ornes, Trujillo: Little Caesar of the Caribbean (New York, 1958); Jesus de Galíndez, La Era de Trujillo: Un estudio casuístico de dictadura latinoamericana [The era of Trujillo: A causal study of Latin-American dictatorship] (Santiago, Chile, 1956); and Albert Hicks, Blood in the Streets (New York, 1946).
29. Of particular use to the historian of the Trujillo years are the collections of currently classified Dominican government documents compiled by Bernardo Vega: Control y represión en la dictadura trujillista [Control and repression in the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1986); Nazismo, fascismo, y falangismo en la República Dominicana [Nazism, fascism, and felangism in the Dominican Republic] (Santo Domingo, 1985); La vida cotidiana dominicana: a traves del archivo particular del Generalísimo [Dominican daily life: From the Special Archive of the Generalissimo] (Santo Domingo, 1986); and Unos desafectos y otros en desgracia: sufrimientos bajo la dictadura trujillista [Some dissidents and others in disgrace: Sufferings under the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1985). These collections offer substantiated details about the nature of Trujillo's regime. Also see Andrés Mateo, Mito y cultura en la era de Trujillo [Myth and culture in the era of Trujillo] (Santo Domingo, 1993); Franklin J. Franco, La Era de Trujillo (Santo Domingo, 1992); G. Pope Atkins and Larman C. Wilson, The United States and the Trujillo Regime (New Brunswick, NJ, 1972); Howard J. Wiarda, Dictatorship and Development: The Methods of Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic (Gainesville, 1969); Robert D. Crassweller, Trujillo: The Life and Times of a Caribbean Dictator (New York, 1966); Arturo R. Espaillat, The Last Caesar (Chicago, 1963); Juan Bosch, Causas de una tiranía sin ejemplo [Causes of a dictatorship without parallel] (Carcacas, 1959); German E. Ornes, Trujillo: Little Caesar of the Caribbean (New York, 1958); Jesus de Galíndez, La Era de Trujillo: Un estudio casuístico de dictadura latinoamericana [The era of Trujillo: A causal study of Latin-American dictatorship] (Santiago, Chile, 1956); and Albert Hicks, Blood in the Streets (New York, 1946).
30. Of particular use to the historian of the Trujillo years are the collections of currently classified Dominican government documents compiled by Bernardo Vega: Control y represión en la dictadura trujillista [Control and repression in the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1986); Nazismo, fascismo, y falangismo en la República Dominicana [Nazism, fascism, and felangism in the Dominican Republic] (Santo Domingo, 1985); La vida cotidiana dominicana: a traves del archivo particular del Generalísimo [Dominican daily life: From the Special Archive of the Generalissimo] (Santo Domingo, 1986); and Unos desafectos y otros en desgracia: sufrimientos bajo la dictadura trujillista [Some dissidents and others in disgrace: Sufferings under the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1985). These collections offer substantiated details about the nature of Trujillo's regime. Also see Andrés Mateo, Mito y cultura en la era de Trujillo [Myth and culture in the era of Trujillo] (Santo Domingo, 1993); Franklin J. Franco, La Era de Trujillo (Santo Domingo, 1992); G. Pope Atkins and Larman C. Wilson, The United States and the Trujillo Regime (New Brunswick, NJ, 1972); Howard J. Wiarda, Dictatorship and Development: The Methods of Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic (Gainesville, 1969); Robert D. Crassweller, Trujillo: The Life and Times of a Caribbean Dictator (New York, 1966); Arturo R. Espaillat, The Last Caesar (Chicago, 1963); Juan Bosch, Causas de una tiranía sin ejemplo [Causes of a dictatorship without parallel] (Carcacas, 1959); German E. Ornes, Trujillo: Little Caesar of the Caribbean (New York, 1958); Jesus de Galíndez, La Era de Trujillo: Un estudio casuístico de dictadura latinoamericana [The era of Trujillo: A causal study of Latin-American dictatorship] (Santiago, Chile, 1956); and Albert Hicks, Blood in the Streets (New York, 1946).
31. Of particular use to the historian of the Trujillo years are the collections of currently classified Dominican government documents compiled by Bernardo Vega: Control y represión en la dictadura trujillista [Control and repression in the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1986); Nazismo, fascismo, y falangismo en la República Dominicana [Nazism, fascism, and felangism in the Dominican Republic] (Santo Domingo, 1985); La vida cotidiana dominicana: a traves del archivo particular del Generalísimo [Dominican daily life: From the Special Archive of the Generalissimo] (Santo Domingo, 1986); and Unos desafectos y otros en desgracia: sufrimientos bajo la dictadura trujillista [Some dissidents and others in disgrace: Sufferings under the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1985). These collections offer substantiated details about the nature of Trujillo's regime. Also see Andrés Mateo, Mito y cultura en la era de Trujillo [Myth and culture in the era of Trujillo] (Santo Domingo, 1993); Franklin J. Franco, La Era de Trujillo (Santo Domingo, 1992); G. Pope Atkins and Larman C. Wilson, The United States and the Trujillo Regime (New Brunswick, NJ, 1972); Howard J. Wiarda, Dictatorship and Development: The Methods of Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic (Gainesville, 1969); Robert D. Crassweller, Trujillo: The Life and Times of a Caribbean Dictator (New York, 1966); Arturo R. Espaillat, The Last Caesar (Chicago, 1963); Juan Bosch, Causas de una tiranía sin ejemplo [Causes of a dictatorship without parallel] (Carcacas, 1959); German E. Ornes, Trujillo: Little Caesar of the Caribbean (New York, 1958); Jesus de Galíndez, La Era de Trujillo: Un estudio casuístico de dictadura latinoamericana [The era of Trujillo: A causal study of Latin-American dictatorship] (Santiago, Chile, 1956); and Albert Hicks, Blood in the Streets (New York, 1946).
32. Of particular use to the historian of the Trujillo years are the collections of currently classified Dominican government documents compiled by Bernardo Vega: Control y represión en la dictadura trujillista [Control and repression in the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1986); Nazismo, fascismo, y falangismo en la República Dominicana [Nazism, fascism, and felangism in the Dominican Republic] (Santo Domingo, 1985); La vida cotidiana dominicana: a traves del archivo particular del Generalísimo [Dominican daily life: From the Special Archive of the Generalissimo] (Santo Domingo, 1986); and Unos desafectos y otros en desgracia: sufrimientos bajo la dictadura trujillista [Some dissidents and others in disgrace: Sufferings under the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1985). These collections offer substantiated details about the nature of Trujillo's regime. Also see Andrés Mateo, Mito y cultura en la era de Trujillo [Myth and culture in the era of Trujillo] (Santo Domingo, 1993); Franklin J. Franco, La Era de Trujillo (Santo Domingo, 1992); G. Pope Atkins and Larman C. Wilson, The United States and the Trujillo Regime (New Brunswick, NJ, 1972); Howard J. Wiarda, Dictatorship and Development: The Methods of Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic (Gainesville, 1969); Robert D. Crassweller, Trujillo: The Life and Times of a Caribbean Dictator (New York, 1966); Arturo R. Espaillat, The Last Caesar (Chicago, 1963); Juan Bosch, Causas de una tiranía sin ejemplo [Causes of a dictatorship without parallel] (Carcacas, 1959); German E. Ornes, Trujillo: Little Caesar of the Caribbean (New York, 1958); Jesus de Galíndez, La Era de Trujillo: Un estudio casuístico de dictadura latinoamericana [The era of Trujillo: A causal study of Latin-American dictatorship] (Santiago, Chile, 1956); and Albert Hicks, Blood in the Streets (New York, 1946).
33. Of particular use to the historian of the Trujillo years are the collections of currently classified Dominican government documents compiled by Bernardo Vega: Control y represión en la dictadura trujillista [Control and repression in the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1986); Nazismo, fascismo, y falangismo en la República Dominicana [Nazism, fascism, and felangism in the Dominican Republic] (Santo Domingo, 1985); La vida cotidiana dominicana: a traves del archivo particular del Generalísimo [Dominican daily life: From the Special Archive of the Generalissimo] (Santo Domingo, 1986); and Unos desafectos y otros en desgracia: sufrimientos bajo la dictadura trujillista [Some dissidents and others in disgrace: Sufferings under the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1985). These collections offer substantiated details about the nature of Trujillo's regime. Also see Andrés Mateo, Mito y cultura en la era de Trujillo [Myth and culture in the era of Trujillo] (Santo Domingo, 1993); Franklin J. Franco, La Era de Trujillo (Santo Domingo, 1992); G. Pope Atkins and Larman C. Wilson, The United States and the Trujillo Regime (New Brunswick, NJ, 1972); Howard J. Wiarda, Dictatorship and Development: The Methods of Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic (Gainesville, 1969); Robert D. Crassweller, Trujillo: The Life and Times of a Caribbean Dictator (New York, 1966); Arturo R. Espaillat, The Last Caesar (Chicago, 1963); Juan Bosch, Causas de una tiranía sin ejemplo [Causes of a dictatorship without parallel] (Carcacas, 1959); German E. Ornes, Trujillo: Little Caesar of the Caribbean (New York, 1958); Jesus de Galíndez, La Era de Trujillo: Un estudio casuístico de dictadura latinoamericana [The era of Trujillo: A causal study of Latin-American dictatorship] (Santiago, Chile, 1956); and Albert Hicks, Blood in the Streets (New York, 1946).
34. Of particular use to the historian of the Trujillo years are the collections of currently classified Dominican government documents compiled by Bernardo Vega: Control y represión en la dictadura trujillista [Control and repression in the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1986); Nazismo, fascismo, y falangismo en la República Dominicana [Nazism, fascism, and felangism in the Dominican Republic] (Santo Domingo, 1985); La vida cotidiana dominicana: a traves del archivo particular del Generalísimo [Dominican daily life: From the Special Archive of the Generalissimo] (Santo Domingo, 1986); and Unos desafectos y otros en desgracia: sufrimientos bajo la dictadura trujillista [Some dissidents and others in disgrace: Sufferings under the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1985). These collections offer substantiated details about the nature of Trujillo's regime. Also see Andrés Mateo, Mito y cultura en la era de Trujillo [Myth and culture in the era of Trujillo] (Santo Domingo, 1993); Franklin J. Franco, La Era de Trujillo (Santo Domingo, 1992); G. Pope Atkins and Larman C. Wilson, The United States and the Trujillo Regime (New Brunswick, NJ, 1972); Howard J. Wiarda, Dictatorship and Development: The Methods of Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic (Gainesville, 1969); Robert D. Crassweller, Trujillo: The Life and Times of a Caribbean Dictator (New York, 1966); Arturo R. Espaillat, The Last Caesar (Chicago, 1963); Juan Bosch, Causas de una tiranía sin ejemplo [Causes of a dictatorship without parallel] (Carcacas, 1959); German E. Ornes, Trujillo: Little Caesar of the Caribbean (New York, 1958); Jesus de Galíndez, La Era de Trujillo: Un estudio casuístico de dictadura latinoamericana [The era of Trujillo: A causal study of Latin-American dictatorship] (Santiago, Chile, 1956); and Albert Hicks, Blood in the Streets (New York, 1946).
35. Of particular use to the historian of the Trujillo years are the collections of currently classified Dominican government documents compiled by Bernardo Vega: Control y represión en la dictadura trujillista [Control and repression in the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1986); Nazismo, fascismo, y falangismo en la República Dominicana [Nazism, fascism, and felangism in the Dominican Republic] (Santo Domingo, 1985); La vida cotidiana dominicana: a traves del archivo particular del Generalísimo [Dominican daily life: From the Special Archive of the Generalissimo] (Santo Domingo, 1986); and Unos desafectos y otros en desgracia: sufrimientos bajo la dictadura trujillista [Some dissidents and others in disgrace: Sufferings under the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1985). These collections offer substantiated details about the nature of Trujillo's regime. Also see Andrés Mateo, Mito y cultura en la era de Trujillo [Myth and culture in the era of Trujillo] (Santo Domingo, 1993); Franklin J. Franco, La Era de Trujillo (Santo Domingo, 1992); G. Pope Atkins and Larman C. Wilson, The United States and the Trujillo Regime (New Brunswick, NJ, 1972); Howard J. Wiarda, Dictatorship and Development: The Methods of Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic (Gainesville, 1969); Robert D. Crassweller, Trujillo: The Life and Times of a Caribbean Dictator (New York, 1966); Arturo R. Espaillat, The Last Caesar (Chicago, 1963); Juan Bosch, Causas de una tiranía sin ejemplo [Causes of a dictatorship without parallel] (Carcacas, 1959); German E. Ornes, Trujillo: Little Caesar of the Caribbean (New York, 1958); Jesus de Galíndez, La Era de Trujillo: Un estudio casuístico de dictadura latinoamericana [The era of Trujillo: A causal study of Latin-American dictatorship] (Santiago, Chile, 1956); and Albert Hicks, Blood in the Streets (New York, 1946).
36. Of particular use to the historian of the Trujillo years are the collections of currently classified Dominican government documents compiled by Bernardo Vega: Control y represión en la dictadura trujillista [Control and repression in the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1986); Nazismo, fascismo, y falangismo en la República Dominicana [Nazism, fascism, and felangism in the Dominican Republic] (Santo Domingo, 1985); La vida cotidiana dominicana: a traves del archivo particular del Generalísimo [Dominican daily life: From the Special Archive of the Generalissimo] (Santo Domingo, 1986); and Unos desafectos y otros en desgracia: sufrimientos bajo la dictadura trujillista [Some dissidents and others in disgrace: Sufferings under the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1985). These collections offer substantiated details about the nature of Trujillo's regime. Also see Andrés Mateo, Mito y cultura en la era de Trujillo [Myth and culture in the era of Trujillo] (Santo Domingo, 1993); Franklin J. Franco, La Era de Trujillo (Santo Domingo, 1992); G. Pope Atkins and Larman C. Wilson, The United States and the Trujillo Regime (New Brunswick, NJ, 1972); Howard J. Wiarda, Dictatorship and Development: The Methods of Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic (Gainesville, 1969); Robert D. Crassweller, Trujillo: The Life and Times of a Caribbean Dictator (New York, 1966); Arturo R. Espaillat, The Last Caesar (Chicago, 1963); Juan Bosch, Causas de una tiranía sin ejemplo [Causes of a dictatorship without parallel] (Carcacas, 1959); German E. Ornes, Trujillo: Little Caesar of the Caribbean (New York, 1958); Jesus de Galíndez, La Era de Trujillo: Un estudio casuístico de dictadura latinoamericana [The era of Trujillo: A causal study of Latin-American dictatorship] (Santiago, Chile, 1956); and Albert Hicks, Blood in the Streets (New York, 1946).
37. Of particular use to the historian of the Trujillo years are the collections of currently classified Dominican government documents compiled by Bernardo Vega: Control y represión en la dictadura trujillista [Control and repression in the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1986); Nazismo, fascismo, y falangismo en la República Dominicana [Nazism, fascism, and felangism in the Dominican Republic] (Santo Domingo, 1985); La vida cotidiana dominicana: a traves del archivo particular del Generalísimo [Dominican daily life: From the Special Archive of the Generalissimo] (Santo Domingo, 1986); and Unos desafectos y otros en desgracia: sufrimientos bajo la dictadura trujillista [Some dissidents and others in disgrace: Sufferings under the Trujillo dictatorship] (Santo Domingo, 1985). These collections offer substantiated details about the nature of Trujillo's regime. Also see Andrés Mateo, Mito y cultura en la era de Trujillo [Myth and culture in the era of Trujillo] (Santo Domingo, 1993); Franklin J. Franco, La Era de Trujillo (Santo Domingo, 1992); G. Pope Atkins and Larman C. Wilson, The United States and the Trujillo Regime (New Brunswick, NJ, 1972); Howard J. Wiarda, Dictatorship and Development: The Methods of Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic (Gainesville, 1969); Robert D. Crassweller, Trujillo: The Life and Times of a Caribbean Dictator (New York, 1966); Arturo R. Espaillat, The Last Caesar (Chicago, 1963); Juan Bosch, Causas de una tiranía sin ejemplo [Causes of a dictatorship without parallel] (Carcacas, 1959); German E. Ornes, Trujillo: Little Caesar of the Caribbean (New York, 1958); Jesus de Galíndez, La Era de Trujillo: Un estudio casuístico de dictadura latinoamericana [The era of Trujillo: A causal study of Latin-American dictatorship] (Santiago, Chile, 1956); and Albert Hicks, Blood in the Streets (New York, 1946).
38. For a portrait of the society and culture of the frontier see Lauren H. Derby, "Haitians, Magic and Money: Raza and Society in the Haitian-Dominican Borderlands, 1900-1937," Comparative Studies in Society and History 36:3 (1994): 488-526. I am indebted to Ms. Derby for sharing her knowledge of the borderlands and the matanza so generously with me. The U.S. dollar was the official medium of exchange in the Dominican Republic until the removal of the U.S. general receivership of Dominican customs in 1941. Trujillo subsequently established the Dominican peso.
39. 5; Welles to Roosevelt, 13 October 1937, in Nixon, Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs 7:120.
40. The border incidents of 1931 are detailed in U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1931 (Washington, 1946), 1:771-92. U.S. diplomats also ameliorated "frontier episodes" in February 1932 and April 1933. "Outline of the First Term of the Trujillo Administration," 10 August 1934, RG 59, 839.00/3797; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 18, 87-09, 122-33, 167-72. The signing and ratification of the treaty were the occasions for another exchange of visits by the two presidents. Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 172-270. "Outline of the Sixth Year of the Trujillo Administration," 8 August 1936, RG 59, 839.00/4050. Trujillo had himself and Vincent nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize for the treaty, news of
41. 5; Welles to Roosevelt, 13 October 1937, in Nixon, Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs 7:120.
42. 5; Welles to Roosevelt, 13 October 1937, in Nixon, Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs 7:120.
43. 5; Welles to Roosevelt, 13 October 1937, in Nixon, Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs 7:120.
44. See Derby, "Haitians, Magic and Money"; and idem and Richard Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de historia: la massacre haitiana de 1937 en la República Dominicaná [Histories of terror and the terrors of history: The Haitian massacre of 1937 in the Dominican Republic] Estudios Sociales 26 (April-June 1992): 65-76.
45. See Derby, "Haitians, Magic and Money"; and idem and Richard Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de historia: la massacre haitiana de 1937 en la República Dominicaná [Histories of terror and the terrors of history: The Haitian massacre of 1937 in the Dominican Republic] Estudios Sociales 26 (April-June 1992): 65-76.
46. Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de historia"; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 275-76, 298-303, 314-15, 319-24, 384-87; memorandum of conversation between J. C. McClintock and Paul Rosenfeld, 17 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/133. Contemporary accounts of the massacre include Quentin Reynolds, "Murder in the Tropics," Collier's, 22 January 1938, 15-16; and Harold Courlander, "Not in the Cables: Massacre in Santo Domingo," The New Republic, 24 November 1937, 67. Secondary literature on the event includes Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de la historia"; Thomas Fiehrer, "Political Violence in the Periphery: The Haitian Massacre of 1937," Race and Class (October-December 1990): 1-20; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 325-87; R. Michael Malek, "Dominican Republic's General Rafael Trujillo and the Haitian Massacre of 1937: A Case of Subversion in Inter-Caribbean Relations," SECOLAS Annals: Journal of the Southeastern Conference on Latin American Studies (March 1980): 137-55; Juan Manuel Garcia, La matanza de los haitianos: genocidio de Trujillo, 1937 [The massacre of the Haitians: Trujillo's genocide] (Santo Domingo, 1983); Luís Arias Nuñez, La político exterior en la era de Trujillo [Foreign policy in the era of Trujillo] (Santiago, Dominican Republic, 1991), 31-126.
47. Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de historia"; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 275-76, 298-303, 314-15, 319-24, 384-87; memorandum of conversation between J. C. McClintock and Paul Rosenfeld, 17 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/133. Contemporary accounts of the massacre include Quentin Reynolds, "Murder in the Tropics," Collier's, 22 January 1938, 15-16; and Harold Courlander, "Not in the Cables: Massacre in Santo Domingo," The New Republic, 24 November 1937, 67. Secondary literature on the event includes Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de la historia"; Thomas Fiehrer, "Political Violence in the Periphery: The Haitian Massacre of 1937," Race and Class (October-December 1990): 1-20; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 325-87; R. Michael Malek, "Dominican Republic's General Rafael Trujillo and the Haitian Massacre of 1937: A Case of Subversion in Inter-Caribbean Relations," SECOLAS Annals: Journal of the Southeastern Conference on Latin American Studies (March 1980): 137-55; Juan Manuel Garcia, La matanza de los haitianos: genocidio de Trujillo, 1937 [The massacre of the Haitians: Trujillo's genocide] (Santo Domingo, 1983); Luís Arias Nuñez, La político exterior en la era de Trujillo [Foreign policy in the era of Trujillo] (Santiago, Dominican Republic, 1991), 31-126.
48. Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de historia"; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 275-76, 298-303, 314-15, 319-24, 384-87; memorandum of conversation between J. C. McClintock and Paul Rosenfeld, 17 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/133. Contemporary accounts of the massacre include Quentin Reynolds, "Murder in the Tropics," Collier's, 22 January 1938, 15-16; and Harold Courlander, "Not in the Cables: Massacre in Santo Domingo," The New Republic, 24 November 1937, 67. Secondary literature on the event includes Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de la historia"; Thomas Fiehrer, "Political Violence in the Periphery: The Haitian Massacre of 1937," Race and Class (October-December 1990): 1-20; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 325-87; R. Michael Malek, "Dominican Republic's General Rafael Trujillo and the Haitian Massacre of 1937: A Case of Subversion in Inter-Caribbean Relations," SECOLAS Annals: Journal of the Southeastern Conference on Latin American Studies (March 1980): 137-55; Juan Manuel Garcia, La matanza de los haitianos: genocidio de Trujillo, 1937 [The massacre of the Haitians: Trujillo's genocide] (Santo Domingo, 1983); Luís Arias Nuñez, La político exterior en la era de Trujillo [Foreign policy in the era of Trujillo] (Santiago, Dominican Republic, 1991), 31-126.
49. Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de historia"; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 275-76, 298-303, 314-15, 319-24, 384-87; memorandum of conversation between J. C. McClintock and Paul Rosenfeld, 17 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/133. Contemporary accounts of the massacre include Quentin Reynolds, "Murder in the Tropics," Collier's, 22 January 1938, 15-16; and Harold Courlander, "Not in the Cables: Massacre in Santo Domingo," The New Republic, 24 November 1937, 67. Secondary literature on the event includes Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de la historia"; Thomas Fiehrer, "Political Violence in the Periphery: The Haitian Massacre of 1937," Race and Class (October-December 1990): 1-20; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 325-87; R. Michael Malek, "Dominican Republic's General Rafael Trujillo and the Haitian Massacre of 1937: A Case of Subversion in Inter-Caribbean Relations," SECOLAS Annals: Journal of the Southeastern Conference on Latin American Studies (March 1980): 137-55; Juan Manuel Garcia, La matanza de los haitianos: genocidio de Trujillo, 1937 [The massacre of the Haitians: Trujillo's genocide] (Santo Domingo, 1983); Luís Arias Nuñez, La político exterior en la era de Trujillo [Foreign policy in the era of Trujillo] (Santiago, Dominican Republic, 1991), 31-126.
50. Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de historia"; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 275-76, 298-303, 314-15, 319-24, 384-87; memorandum of conversation between J. C. McClintock and Paul Rosenfeld, 17 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/133. Contemporary accounts of the massacre include Quentin Reynolds, "Murder in the Tropics," Collier's, 22 January 1938, 15-16; and Harold Courlander, "Not in the Cables: Massacre in Santo Domingo," The New Republic, 24 November 1937, 67. Secondary literature on the event includes Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de la historia"; Thomas Fiehrer, "Political Violence in the Periphery: The Haitian Massacre of 1937," Race and Class (October-December 1990): 1-20; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 325-87; R. Michael Malek, "Dominican Republic's General Rafael Trujillo and the Haitian Massacre of 1937: A Case of Subversion in Inter-Caribbean Relations," SECOLAS Annals: Journal of the Southeastern Conference on Latin American Studies (March 1980): 137-55; Juan Manuel Garcia, La matanza de los haitianos: genocidio de Trujillo, 1937 [The massacre of the Haitians: Trujillo's genocide] (Santo Domingo, 1983); Luís Arias Nuñez, La político exterior en la era de Trujillo [Foreign policy in the era of Trujillo] (Santiago, Dominican Republic, 1991), 31-126.
51. Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de historia"; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 275-76, 298-303, 314-15, 319-24, 384-87; memorandum of conversation between J. C. McClintock and Paul Rosenfeld, 17 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/133. Contemporary accounts of the massacre include Quentin Reynolds, "Murder in the Tropics," Collier's, 22 January 1938, 15-16; and Harold Courlander, "Not in the Cables: Massacre in Santo Domingo," The New Republic, 24 November 1937, 67. Secondary literature on the event includes Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de la historia"; Thomas Fiehrer, "Political Violence in the Periphery: The Haitian Massacre of 1937," Race and Class (October-December 1990): 1-20; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 325-87; R. Michael Malek, "Dominican Republic's General Rafael Trujillo and the Haitian Massacre of 1937: A Case of Subversion in Inter-Caribbean Relations," SECOLAS Annals: Journal of the Southeastern Conference on Latin American Studies (March 1980): 137-55; Juan Manuel Garcia, La matanza de los haitianos: genocidio de Trujillo, 1937 [The massacre of the Haitians: Trujillo's genocide] (Santo Domingo, 1983); Luís Arias Nuñez, La político exterior en la era de Trujillo [Foreign policy in the era of Trujillo] (Santiago, Dominican Republic, 1991), 31-126.
52. Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de historia"; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 275-76, 298-303, 314-15, 319-24, 384-87; memorandum of conversation between J. C. McClintock and Paul Rosenfeld, 17 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/133. Contemporary accounts of the massacre include Quentin Reynolds, "Murder in the Tropics," Collier's, 22 January 1938, 15-16; and Harold Courlander, "Not in the Cables: Massacre in Santo Domingo," The New Republic, 24 November 1937, 67. Secondary literature on the event includes Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de la historia"; Thomas Fiehrer, "Political Violence in the Periphery: The Haitian Massacre of 1937," Race and Class (October-December 1990): 1-20; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 325-87; R. Michael Malek, "Dominican Republic's General Rafael Trujillo and the Haitian Massacre of 1937: A Case of Subversion in Inter-Caribbean Relations," SECOLAS Annals: Journal of the Southeastern Conference on Latin American Studies (March 1980): 137-55; Juan Manuel Garcia, La matanza de los haitianos: genocidio de Trujillo, 1937 [The massacre of the Haitians: Trujillo's genocide] (Santo Domingo, 1983); Luís Arias Nuñez, La político exterior en la era de Trujillo [Foreign policy in the era of Trujillo] (Santiago, Dominican Republic, 1991), 31-126.
53. Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de historia"; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 275-76, 298-303, 314-15, 319-24, 384-87; memorandum of conversation between J. C. McClintock and Paul Rosenfeld, 17 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/133. Contemporary accounts of the massacre include Quentin Reynolds, "Murder in the Tropics," Collier's, 22 January 1938, 15-16; and Harold Courlander, "Not in the Cables: Massacre in Santo Domingo," The New Republic, 24 November 1937, 67. Secondary literature on the event includes Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de la historia"; Thomas Fiehrer, "Political Violence in the Periphery: The Haitian Massacre of 1937," Race and Class (October-December 1990): 1-20; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 325-87; R. Michael Malek, "Dominican Republic's General Rafael Trujillo and the Haitian Massacre of 1937: A Case of Subversion in Inter-Caribbean Relations," SECOLAS Annals: Journal of the Southeastern Conference on Latin American Studies (March 1980): 137-55; Juan Manuel Garcia, La matanza de los haitianos: genocidio de Trujillo, 1937 [The massacre of the Haitians: Trujillo's genocide] (Santo Domingo, 1983); Luís Arias Nuñez, La político exterior en la era de Trujillo [Foreign policy in the era of Trujillo] (Santiago, Dominican Republic, 1991), 31-126.
54. Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de historia"; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 275-76, 298-303, 314-15, 319-24, 384-87; memorandum of conversation between J. C. McClintock and Paul Rosenfeld, 17 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/133. Contemporary accounts of the massacre include Quentin Reynolds, "Murder in the Tropics," Collier's, 22 January 1938, 15-16; and Harold Courlander, "Not in the Cables: Massacre in Santo Domingo," The New Republic, 24 November 1937, 67. Secondary literature on the event includes Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de la historia"; Thomas Fiehrer, "Political Violence in the Periphery: The Haitian Massacre of 1937," Race and Class (October-December 1990): 1-20; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 325-87; R. Michael Malek, "Dominican Republic's General Rafael Trujillo and the Haitian Massacre of 1937: A Case of Subversion in Inter-Caribbean Relations," SECOLAS Annals: Journal of the Southeastern Conference on Latin American Studies (March 1980): 137-55; Juan Manuel Garcia, La matanza de los haitianos: genocidio de Trujillo, 1937 [The massacre of the Haitians: Trujillo's genocide] (Santo Domingo, 1983); Luís Arias Nuñez, La político exterior en la era de Trujillo [Foreign policy in the era of Trujillo] (Santiago, Dominican Republic, 1991), 31-126.
55. Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de historia"; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 275-76, 298-303, 314-15, 319-24, 384-87; memorandum of conversation between J. C. McClintock and Paul Rosenfeld, 17 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/133. Contemporary accounts of the massacre include Quentin Reynolds, "Murder in the Tropics," Collier's, 22 January 1938, 15-16; and Harold Courlander, "Not in the Cables: Massacre in Santo Domingo," The New Republic, 24 November 1937, 67. Secondary literature on the event includes Derby and Turits, "Historias de terror y los terrores de la historia"; Thomas Fiehrer, "Political Violence in the Periphery: The Haitian Massacre of 1937," Race and Class (October-December 1990): 1-20; Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 325-87; R. Michael Malek, "Dominican Republic's General Rafael Trujillo and the Haitian Massacre of 1937: A Case of Subversion in Inter-Caribbean Relations," SECOLAS Annals: Journal of the Southeastern Conference on Latin American Studies (March 1980): 137-55; Juan Manuel Garcia, La matanza de los haitianos: genocidio de Trujillo, 1937 [The massacre of the Haitians: Trujillo's genocide] (Santo Domingo, 1983); Luís Arias Nuñez, La político exterior en la era de Trujillo [Foreign policy in the era of Trujillo] (Santiago, Dominican Republic, 1991), 31-126.
56. Pertinent documents are compiled in José Israel Cuello H., Documentos del conflicto dominico-haitiano de 1937 [Documents from the Dominican-Haitian conflict of 1937] (Santo Domingo, 1985).
57. For a novel on the subject see Freddy Prestol Castillo, El masacre se pasa a pie [The massacre that went on foot] (Santo Domingo, 1973).
58. Memorandum of conversation, Norweb with Dominican Minister of Justice Julio Ortega Frier, 13 October 1937, RG 59, 839.5511/unnumbered. Norweb presented his credentials to Trujillo at his mansion in San Cristóbal on 8 October 1937, just as the massacre was drawing to a close. Welles to Roosevelt, 19 October 1937, Nixon, Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs 7:121-25.
59. Minister Ferdinand Mayer to secretary of state, 23 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/ 132. For photo see Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 294; for a description of the "Trujillo Salute" see Norweb to secretary of state, 30 September 1937, RG 59, 839.001 TRUJILLO/289; for an overview of ideological competition with National Socialism see Alton Frye, Nazi Germany and the American Hemisphere, 1933-1941 (New Haven, 1967). Mayer to secretary of state, 23 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/132. David G. Haglund, Latin America and the Transformation of United States Strategic Thought, 1936-1940 (Albuquerque, 1984); Lester Langley, "The World Crisis and the Good Neighbor Policy in Panama, 1936-1941," The Americas 24 (October 1967): 144-46.
60. Minister Ferdinand Mayer to secretary of state, 23 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/ 132. For photo see Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 294; for a description of the "Trujillo Salute" see Norweb to secretary of state, 30 September 1937, RG 59, 839.001 TRUJILLO/289; for an overview of ideological competition with National Socialism see Alton Frye, Nazi Germany and the American Hemisphere, 1933-1941 (New Haven, 1967). Mayer to secretary of state, 23 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/132. David G. Haglund, Latin America and the Transformation of United States Strategic Thought, 1936-1940 (Albuquerque, 1984); Lester Langley, "The World Crisis and the Good Neighbor Policy in Panama, 1936-1941," The Americas 24 (October 1967): 144-46.
61. Minister Ferdinand Mayer to secretary of state, 23 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/ 132. For photo see Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 294; for a description of the "Trujillo Salute" see Norweb to secretary of state, 30 September 1937, RG 59, 839.001 TRUJILLO/289; for an overview of ideological competition with National Socialism see Alton Frye, Nazi Germany and the American Hemisphere, 1933-1941 (New Haven, 1967). Mayer to secretary of state, 23 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/132. David G. Haglund, Latin America and the Transformation of United States Strategic Thought, 1936-1940 (Albuquerque, 1984); Lester Langley, "The World Crisis and the Good Neighbor Policy in Panama, 1936-1941," The Americas 24 (October 1967): 144-46.
62. Minister Ferdinand Mayer to secretary of state, 23 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/ 132. For photo see Vega, Trujillo y Haití, 294; for a description of the "Trujillo Salute" see Norweb to secretary of state, 30 September 1937, RG 59, 839.001 TRUJILLO/289; for an overview of ideological competition with National Socialism see Alton Frye, Nazi Germany and the American Hemisphere, 1933-1941 (New Haven, 1967). Mayer to secretary of state, 23 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/132. David G. Haglund, Latin America and the Transformation of United States Strategic Thought, 1936-1940 (Albuquerque, 1984); Lester Langley, "The World Crisis and the Good Neighbor Policy in Panama, 1936-1941," The Americas 24 (October 1967): 144-46.
63. Welles to Norweb, 4 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/67A. Dominican Minister Andrés Pastoriza to Ciudad Trujillo, 5 November 1937, caja 7, tomo 232, Archivo General de la Nación, Santo Domingo (hereafter AGN). All Dominican government documents cited hereafter are from the records of the Dominican Legation in Washington, caja 7. All translations are mine. New York Times, 7 November 1937; press conference, 9 November 1937, Nixon, Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs 7:197. For a description of this "tea visit," at which discussion of political affairs was apparently avoided, see the journal of Walter Woodson, Naval Aide to Roosevelt, 10 November 1937, Mss. 48, Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island. Welles to Norweb, 10 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/87A; New York Times, 10 November 1937; Acting Foreign Minister Ortega to Pastoriza, 6 November 1937, tomo 231, AGN.
64. Welles to Norweb, 4 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/67A. Dominican Minister Andrés Pastoriza to Ciudad Trujillo, 5 November 1937, caja 7, tomo 232, Archivo General de la Nación, Santo Domingo (hereafter AGN). All Dominican government documents cited hereafter are from the records of the Dominican Legation in Washington, caja 7. All translations are mine. New York Times, 7 November 1937; press conference, 9 November 1937, Nixon, Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs 7:197. For a description of this "tea visit," at which discussion of political affairs was apparently avoided, see the journal of Walter Woodson, Naval Aide to Roosevelt, 10 November 1937, Mss. 48, Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island. Welles to Norweb, 10 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/87A; New York Times, 10 November 1937; Acting Foreign Minister Ortega to Pastoriza, 6 November 1937, tomo 231, AGN.
65. Welles to Norweb, 4 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/67A. Dominican Minister Andrés Pastoriza to Ciudad Trujillo, 5 November 1937, caja 7, tomo 232, Archivo General de la Nación, Santo Domingo (hereafter AGN). All Dominican government documents cited hereafter are from the records of the Dominican Legation in Washington, caja 7. All translations are mine. New York Times, 7 November 1937; press conference, 9 November 1937, Nixon, Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs 7:197. For a description of this "tea visit," at which discussion of political affairs was apparently avoided, see the journal of Walter Woodson, Naval Aide to Roosevelt, 10 November 1937, Mss. 48, Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island. Welles to Norweb, 10 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/87A; New York Times, 10 November 1937; Acting Foreign Minister Ortega to Pastoriza, 6 November 1937, tomo 231, AGN.
66. Harold Finley (chargé d'affaires in Port-au-Prince) to secretary of state, 4 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/68. In 1937, the Dominican army had a standing force of three thousand, a reserve force often thousand, and eight airplanes. Paguero, "Trujillo and the Military," 230, 239. The relative strengths of the armies are suggested by the orders they placed with the Remington Arms Company on 29 October 1917; Haiti asked for two hundred thousand Springfield cartridges and the Dominican Republic for seven times as many Springfield and Colt cartridges. Seiden Chapin to Welles, 2 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/84; "Outline of the Eighth Year," 7 November 1938, RG 59, 839.00/4209; Norweb to secretary of state, 8 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/74; memorandum of conversation, Haitian Minister Elie Lescot with Welles, 10 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/83. Lescot himself had been on Trujillo's payroll since his days as Haitian minister to the Dominican Republic (June 1934-March 1937), which may have further weakened Haitian diplomacy. Lescot's actions in Washington are not an indication of that, however; it was his suggestion that third countries investigate and mediate the dispute. But Lescot later cooperated with Trujillo to destabilize Vincent's regime (with the help of General Démosthène Calixte, Marine-trained former head of the Garde d'Haiti in exile in the Dominican Republic) and was elected president himself in 1941. After their falling out, Trujillo publicized their damning correspondence just before Lescot was ousted in January 1946. Crassweller, Trujillo, 160-63; President Stenio Vincent to Roosevelt, 12 November 1937, Nixon, Roosevelt and Foreign Relations 7:213, 227.
67. Harold Finley (chargé d'affaires in Port-au-Prince) to secretary of state, 4 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/68. In 1937, the Dominican army had a standing force of three thousand, a reserve force often thousand, and eight airplanes. Paguero, "Trujillo and the Military," 230, 239. The relative strengths of the armies are suggested by the orders they placed with the Remington Arms Company on 29 October 1917; Haiti asked for two hundred thousand Springfield cartridges and the Dominican Republic for seven times as many Springfield and Colt cartridges. Seiden Chapin to Welles, 2 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/84; "Outline of the Eighth Year," 7 November 1938, RG 59, 839.00/4209; Norweb to secretary of state, 8 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/74; memorandum of conversation, Haitian Minister Elie Lescot with Welles, 10 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/83. Lescot himself had been on Trujillo's payroll since his days as Haitian minister to the Dominican Republic (June 1934-March 1937), which may have further weakened Haitian diplomacy. Lescot's actions in Washington are not an indication of that, however; it was his suggestion that third countries investigate and mediate the dispute. But Lescot later cooperated with Trujillo to destabilize Vincent's regime (with the help of General Démosthène Calixte, Marine-trained former head of the Garde d'Haiti in exile in the Dominican Republic) and was elected president himself in 1941. After their falling out, Trujillo publicized their damning correspondence just before Lescot was ousted in January 1946. Crassweller, Trujillo, 160-63; President Stenio Vincent to Roosevelt, 12 November 1937, Nixon, Roosevelt and Foreign Relations 7:213, 227.
68. Memorandum of conversation between Norweb and Ortega, 15 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/98; Subsecretary of Foreign Relations Ernesto Bonetti Burgos to Pastoriza, 9 November 1937, tomo 231, AGN; memorandum of conversation between Norweb and Ortega, 15 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/98; New York Times, 15 November 1937; Ortega to Pastoriza, 6 November 1937, tomo 231, AGN.
69. Welles to Norweb, 8 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/76A; Ortega to Pastoriza, 4 November 1937, tomo 231, AGN; Norweb to Welles, 9 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/81.
70. Pastoriza to Ortega, 15, 23 November 1957, tomo 252; Ortega to Pastoriza, 18 November 1937, tomo 231, AGN. For a description of the offending film, which was entitled "An American Dictator" and characterized Trujillo as "the dictatingest dictator who ever dictated," see Raymond Fielding, The March of Time, 1935-1951 (New York, 1978), 151-54; for the film itself, see March of Time (1936), VT 200 MT 2.7, Motion Picture Division, National Archives; for Hull's efforts to limit its distribution see memorandum of conversation between Hull and Pastoriza, 13 July 1936, Cordell Hull Papers, box 57, Library of Congress. Memorandum of conversation between Hull and Pastoriza, 23 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/140; Welles to Norweb, 23 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/136A.
71. Pastoriza to Ortega, 15, 23 November 1957, tomo 252; Ortega to Pastoriza, 18 November 1937, tomo 231, AGN. For a description of the offending film, which was entitled "An American Dictator" and characterized Trujillo as "the dictatingest dictator who ever dictated," see Raymond Fielding, The March of Time, 1935-1951 (New York, 1978), 151-54; for the film itself, see March of Time (1936), VT 200 MT 2.7, Motion Picture Division, National Archives; for Hull's efforts to limit its distribution see memorandum of conversation between Hull and Pastoriza, 13 July 1936, Cordell Hull Papers, box 57, Library of Congress. Memorandum of conversation between Hull and Pastoriza, 23 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/140; Welles to Norweb, 23 November 1937, RG 59, 738.39/136A.
72. Pastoriza and Manuel de Jesus Troncoso de la Concha to Ortega, 26 November 1937, Pastoriza to Ortega, 18 November 1937, Pastoriza and Troncoso to Ortega, 26 and 29 November 1937, tomo 232, AGN.
73. The meetings were also attended by Pastoriza, Troncoso, Haitian Foreign Minister Georges Leger and Minister to Washington Elie Lescot, Mexican Ambassador Francisco Castillo Najera, and the Cuban chargé d'affaires. Circular telegram from Hull to all diplomatic missions in the American republics, 14 December 1937, RG 59, 738.39/200A; Pastoriza and Troncoso to Ortega, 9 December 1937, tomo 232, AGN.
74. The Nation, 27 November 1937, 577-78; Life, 6 December 1937, 73-77; New York Times, 19 and 22 December 1937.
75. The Nation, 27 November 1937, 577-78; Life, 6 December 1937, 73-77; New York Times, 19 and 22 December 1937.
76. The Nation, 27 November 1937, 577-78; Life, 6 December 1937, 73-77; New York Times, 19 and 22 December 1937.
77. New York Times, 19 and 27 December 1937; memorandum of conversation between Francis White and Haitian Foreign Minister Georges Leger, 13 January 1938, Francis White Papers, box 18, Milton S. Eisenhower Library, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland.
78. New York Times, 21 December 1937; Welles to NAACP Secretary Walter White, 31 December 1937, Papers of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, box C-330, Library of Congress. The NAACP's publication, The Crisis, was silent on the issue, though an article by a Haitian dissident critical of Vincent appeared later, The Crisis (May 1939): 212. Pastoriza to Ortega, 15 December 1937, tomo 232, AGN.
79. New York Times, 21 December 1937; Welles to NAACP Secretary Walter White, 31 December 1937, Papers of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, box C-330, Library of Congress. The NAACP's publication, The Crisis, was silent on the issue, though an article by a Haitian dissident critical of Vincent appeared later, The Crisis (May 1939): 212. Pastoriza to Ortega, 15 December 1937, tomo 232, AGN.
80. Memorandum of conversation between Welles and Ortega, 10 February 1938, RG 59, 839.51/4594. Some $525,000 of the indemnity was paid. "Outline of the Ninth Year," 27 September 1939, RG 59, 839.00/4223. Roosevelt to Trujillo, 5 February 1938, Nixon, Roosevelt and Foreign Relations 7:240-41; The Nation, 5 February 1938, 146.
81. Memorandum of conversation between Welles and Ortega, 10 February 1938, RG 59, 839.51/4594. Some $525,000 of the indemnity was paid. "Outline of the Ninth Year," 27 September 1939, RG 59, 839.00/4223. Roosevelt to Trujillo, 5 February 1938, Nixon, Roosevelt and Foreign Relations 7:240-41; The Nation, 5 February 1938, 146.
82. The Nation, 1 January 1938, 730; "Outline of the Eighth Year," 7 November 1938, RG 59, 839.00/4209. This report came to different conclusions than Roosevelt on the efficacy of inter-American mediation in the case of the Haitian massacre: "The diplomatic negotiations attendant upon its settlement also emphasized certain weaknesses in the present treaty machinery for the settlement of controversies between the American states, especially when one party to an international controversy is almost wholly wrong and, therefore, extremely loath to come before the court either of public opinion or of juridical settlement." Secretary of the Legation Eugene Hinkle report on massacre, 9 September 1938, RG 59, 839.00/4206.
83. Welles to Roosevelt, 11 April 1938, OF 3186, FDR Library; Mark Wischnitzer, "The Historical Background of the Settlement of Jewish Refugees in Santo Domingo," Jewish Social Studies 4:1 (1942): 42-58. For Roosevelt's policy toward Jewish refugees see Leo V. Kanawada, Jr., Franklin D. Roosevelt's Diplomacy and American Catholics, Italians, and Jews (Ann Arbor, 1982), 103-11; David S. Wyman, Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1938-1941 (Amherst, MA, 1968); and Henry Feingold, The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1945 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1970). For a detailed examination of Trujillo's motives in establishing Sosua see Hyman J. Kisch, "The Jewish Settlement from Central Europe in the Dominican Republic" (Ph.D. diss., Jewish Theological Seminary, 1970); and idem, "Rafael Trujillo: Caribbean Cyrus," Judaism 29:3 (1980): 368-77. For the context of Jewish agricultural colonies in Latin America see Judith Laiken Elkin, Jews in the Latin American Republics (Chapel Hill, 1980), 125-55; and Haim Avni, "Latin America and the Jewish Refugees: Two Encounters, 1935 and 1938," in The Jewish Presence in Latin America, ed. Haim Avni and Gilbert W. Merkx (Boston, 1987), 45-68.
84. Welles to Roosevelt, 11 April 1938, OF 3186, FDR Library; Mark Wischnitzer, "The Historical Background of the Settlement of Jewish Refugees in Santo Domingo," Jewish Social Studies 4:1 (1942): 42-58. For Roosevelt's policy toward Jewish refugees see Leo V. Kanawada, Jr., Franklin D. Roosevelt's Diplomacy and American Catholics, Italians, and Jews (Ann Arbor, 1982), 103-11; David S. Wyman, Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1938-1941 (Amherst, MA, 1968); and Henry Feingold, The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1945 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1970). For a detailed examination of Trujillo's motives in establishing Sosua see Hyman J. Kisch, "The Jewish Settlement from Central Europe in the Dominican Republic" (Ph.D. diss., Jewish Theological Seminary, 1970); and idem, "Rafael Trujillo: Caribbean Cyrus," Judaism 29:3 (1980): 368-77. For the context of Jewish agricultural colonies in Latin America see Judith Laiken Elkin, Jews in the Latin American Republics (Chapel Hill, 1980), 125-55; and Haim Avni, "Latin America and the Jewish Refugees: Two Encounters, 1935 and 1938," in The Jewish Presence in Latin America, ed. Haim Avni and Gilbert W. Merkx (Boston, 1987), 45-68.
85. Welles to Roosevelt, 11 April 1938, OF 3186, FDR Library; Mark Wischnitzer, "The Historical Background of the Settlement of Jewish Refugees in Santo Domingo," Jewish Social Studies 4:1 (1942): 42-58. For Roosevelt's policy toward Jewish refugees see Leo V. Kanawada, Jr., Franklin D. Roosevelt's Diplomacy and American Catholics, Italians, and Jews (Ann Arbor, 1982), 103-11; David S. Wyman, Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1938-1941 (Amherst, MA, 1968); and Henry Feingold, The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1945 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1970). For a detailed examination of Trujillo's motives in establishing Sosua see Hyman J. Kisch, "The Jewish Settlement from Central Europe in the Dominican Republic" (Ph.D. diss., Jewish Theological Seminary, 1970); and idem, "Rafael Trujillo: Caribbean Cyrus," Judaism 29:3 (1980): 368-77. For the context of Jewish agricultural colonies in Latin America see Judith Laiken Elkin, Jews in the Latin American Republics (Chapel Hill, 1980), 125-55; and Haim Avni, "Latin America and the Jewish Refugees: Two Encounters, 1935 and 1938," in The Jewish Presence in Latin America, ed. Haim Avni and Gilbert W. Merkx (Boston, 1987), 45-68.
86. Welles to Roosevelt, 11 April 1938, OF 3186, FDR Library; Mark Wischnitzer, "The Historical Background of the Settlement of Jewish Refugees in Santo Domingo," Jewish Social Studies 4:1 (1942): 42-58. For Roosevelt's policy toward Jewish refugees see Leo V. Kanawada, Jr., Franklin D. Roosevelt's Diplomacy and American Catholics, Italians, and Jews (Ann Arbor, 1982), 103-11; David S. Wyman, Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1938-1941 (Amherst, MA, 1968); and Henry Feingold, The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1945 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1970). For a detailed examination of Trujillo's motives in establishing Sosua see Hyman J. Kisch, "The Jewish Settlement from Central Europe in the Dominican Republic" (Ph.D. diss., Jewish Theological Seminary, 1970); and idem, "Rafael Trujillo: Caribbean Cyrus," Judaism 29:3 (1980): 368-77. For the context of Jewish agricultural colonies in Latin America see Judith Laiken Elkin, Jews in the Latin American Republics (Chapel Hill, 1980), 125-55; and Haim Avni, "Latin America and the Jewish Refugees: Two Encounters, 1935 and 1938," in The Jewish Presence in Latin America, ed. Haim Avni and Gilbert W. Merkx (Boston, 1987), 45-68.
87. Welles to Roosevelt, 11 April 1938, OF 3186, FDR Library; Mark Wischnitzer, "The Historical Background of the Settlement of Jewish Refugees in Santo Domingo," Jewish Social Studies 4:1 (1942): 42-58. For Roosevelt's policy toward Jewish refugees see Leo V. Kanawada, Jr., Franklin D. Roosevelt's Diplomacy and American Catholics, Italians, and Jews (Ann Arbor, 1982), 103-11; David S. Wyman, Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1938-1941 (Amherst, MA, 1968); and Henry Feingold, The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1945 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1970). For a detailed examination of Trujillo's motives in establishing Sosua see Hyman J. Kisch, "The Jewish Settlement from Central Europe in the Dominican Republic" (Ph.D. diss., Jewish Theological Seminary, 1970); and idem, "Rafael Trujillo: Caribbean Cyrus," Judaism 29:3 (1980): 368-77. For the context of Jewish agricultural colonies in Latin America see Judith Laiken Elkin, Jews in the Latin American Republics (Chapel Hill, 1980), 125-55; and Haim Avni, "Latin America and the Jewish Refugees: Two Encounters, 1935 and 1938," in The Jewish Presence in Latin America, ed. Haim Avni and Gilbert W. Merkx (Boston, 1987), 45-68.
88. Welles to Roosevelt, 11 April 1938, OF 3186, FDR Library; Mark Wischnitzer, "The Historical Background of the Settlement of Jewish Refugees in Santo Domingo," Jewish Social Studies 4:1 (1942): 42-58. For Roosevelt's policy toward Jewish refugees see Leo V. Kanawada, Jr., Franklin D. Roosevelt's Diplomacy and American Catholics, Italians, and Jews (Ann Arbor, 1982), 103-11; David S. Wyman, Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1938-1941 (Amherst, MA, 1968); and Henry Feingold, The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1945 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1970). For a detailed examination of Trujillo's motives in establishing Sosua see Hyman J. Kisch, "The Jewish Settlement from Central Europe in the Dominican Republic" (Ph.D. diss., Jewish Theological Seminary, 1970); and idem, "Rafael Trujillo: Caribbean Cyrus," Judaism 29:3 (1980): 368-77. For the context of Jewish agricultural colonies in Latin America see Judith Laiken Elkin, Jews in the Latin American Republics (Chapel Hill, 1980), 125-55; and Haim Avni, "Latin America and the Jewish Refugees: Two Encounters, 1935 and 1938," in The Jewish Presence in Latin America, ed. Haim Avni and Gilbert W. Merkx (Boston, 1987), 45-68.
89. Welles to Roosevelt, 11 April 1938, OF 3186, FDR Library; Mark Wischnitzer, "The Historical Background of the Settlement of Jewish Refugees in Santo Domingo," Jewish Social Studies 4:1 (1942): 42-58. For Roosevelt's policy toward Jewish refugees see Leo V. Kanawada, Jr., Franklin D. Roosevelt's Diplomacy and American Catholics, Italians, and Jews (Ann Arbor, 1982), 103-11; David S. Wyman, Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1938-1941 (Amherst, MA, 1968); and Henry Feingold, The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1945 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1970). For a detailed examination of Trujillo's motives in establishing Sosua see Hyman J. Kisch, "The Jewish Settlement from Central Europe in the Dominican Republic" (Ph.D. diss., Jewish Theological Seminary, 1970); and idem, "Rafael Trujillo: Caribbean Cyrus," Judaism 29:3 (1980): 368-77. For the context of Jewish agricultural colonies in Latin America see Judith Laiken Elkin, Jews in the Latin American Republics (Chapel Hill, 1980), 125-55; and Haim Avni, "Latin America and the Jewish Refugees: Two Encounters, 1935 and 1938," in The Jewish Presence in Latin America, ed. Haim Avni and Gilbert W. Merkx (Boston, 1987), 45-68.
90. Welles to Roosevelt, 11 April 1938, OF 3186, FDR Library; Mark Wischnitzer, "The Historical Background of the Settlement of Jewish Refugees in Santo Domingo," Jewish Social Studies 4:1 (1942): 42-58. For Roosevelt's policy toward Jewish refugees see Leo V. Kanawada, Jr., Franklin D. Roosevelt's Diplomacy and American Catholics, Italians, and Jews (Ann Arbor, 1982), 103-11; David S. Wyman, Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1938-1941 (Amherst, MA, 1968); and Henry Feingold, The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1945 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1970). For a detailed examination of Trujillo's motives in establishing Sosua see Hyman J. Kisch, "The Jewish Settlement from Central Europe in the Dominican Republic" (Ph.D. diss., Jewish Theological Seminary, 1970); and idem, "Rafael Trujillo: Caribbean Cyrus," Judaism 29:3 (1980): 368-77. For the context of Jewish agricultural colonies in Latin America see Judith Laiken Elkin, Jews in the Latin American Republics (Chapel Hill, 1980), 125-55; and Haim Avni, "Latin America and the Jewish Refugees: Two Encounters, 1935 and 1938," in The Jewish Presence in Latin America, ed. Haim Avni and Gilbert W. Merkx (Boston, 1987), 45-68.
91. Dr. Howard Blake to Trujillo, 5 January 1937, RG 59, 839.52 JEWISH COLONIZATION/1.
92. Laurence Duggan (chief of the State Department Latin American Division) analysis of Dominican immigration policy, 29 January 1938, RG 59, 839.51/4570; Chief of Visa Division Avra Warren to Norweb, 29 April and 12 October 1938, RG 59, 839.55/75 and 87; memorandum by Hull, 27 July 1938, RG 59, 839.55/83; memorandum by Warren, 2 May 1939, RG 59, 839.55/85; Legation report, 18 August 1939, RG 59, 839.5552/2. For a detailed study of these efforts see C. Harvey Gardiner, La política de inmigración del dictador Trujillo [Immigration policy under the dictator Trujillo] (Santo Domingo, 1980), 33-92.
93. Memorandum on Jewish colonization by Welles, 28 November 1938, Nixon, Roosevelt and Foreign Relations 8:204; Hinkle report on Jewish immigration offer, 3 December 1938, RG 59, 840.48 REFUGEES/1046; "Outline of the Eighth Year," 7 November 1938, RG 59, 839.00/4209. Welles to Roosevelt, 12 and 5 January 1939, OF 3186.
94. Welles to Roosevelt, 27 February and 29 April 1939, OF 3186; "Minutes of Meeting of the Officers of the Intergovernmental Committee on Political Refugees," 18 October 1939, 107-8, OF 3186; Assistant Secretary of State Adolph Berle to James Rosenberg, 29 September 1939, Myron C. Taylor Papers, FDR Library; Legation report, 1 July 1939, RG 59, 839.55/108; Rosenberg to General Myron C. Taylor, 17 October 1939, Taylor Papers; "Minutes of Meeting of the Officers of the Intergovernmental Committee on Political Refugees," 26 October 1939, 144-45, OF 3186; Jewish Telegraphic Agency news dispatch, 27 October 1939, Taylor Papers.
95. Trujillo himself donated the "magnificent" twenty-six-thousand-acre tract of land at Sosua on the north coast, once a banana plantation owned by United Fruit. Accounts of the settlement never failed to mention the donation. Rosenberg to Taylor, 13 February 1940, Taylor Papers. See also Gardiner, Inmigración [Immigration], 93-140, 228-37; clipping from New York Herald-Tribune, 31 January 1940, Taylor Papers; Rosenberg to Trujillo, 17 February 1940, W. P. Montague (assignment editor of Paramount News) to Rosenberg, 30 December 1940, tomo 279, AGN. The films made about Sosua downplayed the Jewish ethnicity of its population, calling it a "non-sectarian venture" with "settlers drawn from Europe's heterogeneous stocks." Paramount News, 20 February 1941, v. 41, no. 51, Sosua: Haven in the Caribbean, DORSA 1941, Paramount Pictures, both in the Motion Pictures Division, RG 59; Pastoriza to Roberto Despradel, 4 March 1940, tomo 279, AGN. Trujillo's cooperation with the refugee settlement was deemed an "act of mercy [and] . . . of statesmanship," though somewhat "ironical" in light of his past record. The Nation, 25 November 1939, 569; Roosevelt to Rosenberg, 6 March 1940, President's Personal File (hereafter PPF) 6364, FDR Library; Elkin, Jews in Latin America, 146.
96. Trujillo himself donated the "magnificent" twenty-six-thousand-acre tract of land at Sosua on the north coast, once a banana plantation owned by United Fruit. Accounts of the settlement never failed to mention the donation. Rosenberg to Taylor, 13 February 1940, Taylor Papers. See also Gardiner, Inmigración [Immigration], 93-140, 228-37; clipping from New York Herald-Tribune, 31 January 1940, Taylor Papers; Rosenberg to Trujillo, 17 February 1940, W. P. Montague (assignment editor of Paramount News) to Rosenberg, 30 December 1940, tomo 279, AGN. The films made about Sosua downplayed the Jewish ethnicity of its population, calling it a "non-sectarian venture" with "settlers drawn from Europe's heterogeneous stocks." Paramount News, 20 February 1941, v. 41, no. 51, Sosua: Haven in the Caribbean, DORSA 1941, Paramount Pictures, both in the Motion Pictures Division, RG 59; Pastoriza to Roberto Despradel, 4 March 1940, tomo 279, AGN. Trujillo's cooperation with the refugee settlement was deemed an "act of mercy [and] . . . of statesmanship," though somewhat "ironical" in light of his past record. The Nation, 25 November 1939, 569; Roosevelt to Rosenberg, 6 March 1940, President's Personal File (hereafter PPF) 6364, FDR Library; Elkin, Jews in Latin America, 146.
97. Trujillo himself donated the "magnificent" twenty-six-thousand-acre tract of land at Sosua on the north coast, once a banana plantation owned by United Fruit. Accounts of the settlement never failed to mention the donation. Rosenberg to Taylor, 13 February 1940, Taylor Papers. See also Gardiner, Inmigración [Immigration], 93-140, 228-37; clipping from New York Herald-Tribune, 31 January 1940, Taylor Papers; Rosenberg to Trujillo, 17 February 1940, W. P. Montague (assignment editor of Paramount News) to Rosenberg, 30 December 1940, tomo 279, AGN. The films made about Sosua downplayed the Jewish ethnicity of its population, calling it a "non-sectarian venture" with "settlers drawn from Europe's heterogeneous stocks." Paramount News, 20 February 1941, v. 41, no. 51, Sosua: Haven in the Caribbean, DORSA 1941, Paramount Pictures, both in the Motion Pictures Division, RG 59; Pastoriza to Roberto Despradel, 4 March 1940, tomo 279, AGN. Trujillo's cooperation with the refugee settlement was deemed an "act of mercy [and] . . . of statesmanship," though somewhat "ironical" in light of his past record. The Nation, 25 November 1939, 569; Roosevelt to Rosenberg, 6 March 1940, President's Personal File (hereafter PPF) 6364, FDR Library; Elkin, Jews in Latin America, 146.
98. Trujillo himself donated the "magnificent" twenty-six-thousand-acre tract of land at Sosua on the north coast, once a banana plantation owned by United Fruit. Accounts of the settlement never failed to mention the donation. Rosenberg to Taylor, 13 February 1940, Taylor Papers. See also Gardiner, Inmigración [Immigration], 93-140, 228-37; clipping from New York Herald-Tribune, 31 January 1940, Taylor Papers; Rosenberg to Trujillo, 17 February 1940, W. P. Montague (assignment editor of Paramount News) to Rosenberg, 30 December 1940, tomo 279, AGN. The films made about Sosua downplayed the Jewish ethnicity of its population, calling it a "non-sectarian venture" with "settlers drawn from Europe's heterogeneous stocks." Paramount News, 20 February 1941, v. 41, no. 51, Sosua: Haven in the Caribbean, DORSA 1941, Paramount Pictures, both in the Motion Pictures Division, RG 59; Pastoriza to Roberto Despradel, 4 March 1940, tomo 279, AGN. Trujillo's cooperation with the refugee settlement was deemed an "act of mercy [and] . . . of statesmanship," though somewhat "ironical" in light of his past record. The Nation, 25 November 1939, 569; Roosevelt to Rosenberg, 6 March 1940, President's Personal File (hereafter PPF) 6364, FDR Library; Elkin, Jews in Latin America, 146.
99. Trujillo himself donated the "magnificent" twenty-six-thousand-acre tract of land at Sosua on the north coast, once a banana plantation owned by United Fruit. Accounts of the settlement never failed to mention the donation. Rosenberg to Taylor, 13 February 1940, Taylor Papers. See also Gardiner, Inmigración [Immigration], 93-140, 228-37; clipping from New York Herald-Tribune, 31 January 1940, Taylor Papers; Rosenberg to Trujillo, 17 February 1940, W. P. Montague (assignment editor of Paramount News) to Rosenberg, 30 December 1940, tomo 279, AGN. The films made about Sosua downplayed the Jewish ethnicity of its population, calling it a "non-sectarian venture" with "settlers drawn from Europe's heterogeneous stocks." Paramount News, 20 February 1941, v. 41, no. 51, Sosua: Haven in the Caribbean, DORSA 1941, Paramount Pictures, both in the Motion Pictures Division, RG 59; Pastoriza to Roberto Despradel, 4 March 1940, tomo 279, AGN. Trujillo's cooperation with the refugee settlement was deemed an "act of mercy [and] . . . of statesmanship," though somewhat "ironical" in light of his past record. The Nation, 25 November 1939, 569; Roosevelt to Rosenberg, 6 March 1940, President's Personal File (hereafter PPF) 6364, FDR Library; Elkin, Jews in Latin America, 146.
100. Trujillo himself donated the "magnificent" twenty-six-thousand-acre tract of land at Sosua on the north coast, once a banana plantation owned by United Fruit. Accounts of the settlement never failed to mention the donation. Rosenberg to Taylor, 13 February 1940, Taylor Papers. See also Gardiner, Inmigración [Immigration], 93-140, 228-37; clipping from New York Herald-Tribune, 31 January 1940, Taylor Papers; Rosenberg to Trujillo, 17 February 1940, W. P. Montague (assignment editor of Paramount News) to Rosenberg, 30 December 1940, tomo 279, AGN. The films made about Sosua downplayed the Jewish ethnicity of its population, calling it a "non-sectarian venture" with "settlers drawn from Europe's heterogeneous stocks." Paramount News, 20 February 1941, v. 41, no. 51, Sosua: Haven in the Caribbean, DORSA 1941, Paramount Pictures, both in the Motion Pictures Division, RG 59; Pastoriza to Roberto Despradel, 4 March 1940, tomo 279, AGN. Trujillo's cooperation with the refugee settlement was deemed an "act of mercy [and] . . . of statesmanship," though somewhat "ironical" in light of his past record. The Nation, 25 November 1939, 569; Roosevelt to Rosenberg, 6 March 1940, President's Personal File (hereafter PPF) 6364, FDR Library; Elkin, Jews in Latin America, 146.
101. Interview with Felix Koch, Sosua, Dominican Republic, 12 May 1989. Roseate views of the settlement are found in Joseph Rosen, "New Neighbors in Sosua," Survey Graphic (September 1941); and Julius Moritzen, "Santo Domingo: A Haven for European Refugees," Dominican Republic (March-April 1941): 10-13 (this magazine was published by the Dominican Chamber of Commerce in New York). The Dominican daily newspaper Listín Diario extolled Sosua for the domestic audience, 24 December 1940. A full-page article and photo spread included the caption, "Note the expression of well-being on all the faces" of the refugees. Legation report, 15 June 1940, RG 59, 839.55/119. Rosenberg to Pastoriza, 26 June 1940, Rosenberg to Pastoriza, 24 April 1940, DORSA to Siegfried Weil, 2 May 1940, tomo 279, AGN. Clipping from New York Herald-Tribune, 16 February 1941, Taylor Papers.
102. Interview with Felix Koch, Sosua, Dominican Republic, 12 May 1989. Roseate views of the settlement are found in Joseph Rosen, "New Neighbors in Sosua," Survey Graphic (September 1941); and Julius Moritzen, "Santo Domingo: A Haven for European Refugees," Dominican Republic (March-April 1941): 10-13 (this magazine was published by the Dominican Chamber of Commerce in New York). The Dominican daily newspaper Listín Diario extolled Sosua for the domestic audience, 24 December 1940. A full-page article and photo spread included the caption, "Note the expression of well-being on all the faces" of the refugees. Legation report, 15 June 1940, RG 59, 839.55/119. Rosenberg to Pastoriza, 26 June 1940, Rosenberg to Pastoriza, 24 April 1940, DORSA to Siegfried Weil, 2 May 1940, tomo 279, AGN. Clipping from New York Herald-Tribune, 16 February 1941, Taylor Papers.
103. Interview with Felix Koch, Sosua, Dominican Republic, 12 May 1989. Roseate views of the settlement are found in Joseph Rosen, "New Neighbors in Sosua," Survey Graphic (September 1941); and Julius Moritzen, "Santo Domingo: A Haven for European Refugees," Dominican Republic (March-April 1941): 10-13 (this magazine was published by the Dominican Chamber of Commerce in New York). The Dominican daily newspaper Listín Diario extolled Sosua for the domestic audience, 24 December 1940. A full-page article and photo spread included the caption, "Note the expression of well-being on all the faces" of the refugees. Legation report, 15 June 1940, RG 59, 839.55/119. Rosenberg to Pastoriza, 26 June 1940, Rosenberg to Pastoriza, 24 April 1940, DORSA to Siegfried Weil, 2 May 1940, tomo 279, AGN. Clipping from New York Herald-Tribune, 16 February 1941, Taylor Papers.
104. Interview with Felix Koch, Sosua, Dominican Republic, 12 May 1989. Roseate views of the settlement are found in Joseph Rosen, "New Neighbors in Sosua," Survey Graphic (September 1941); and Julius Moritzen, "Santo Domingo: A Haven for European Refugees," Dominican Republic (March-April 1941): 10-13 (this magazine was published by the Dominican Chamber of Commerce in New York). The Dominican daily newspaper Listín Diario extolled Sosua for the domestic audience, 24 December 1940. A full-page article and photo spread included the caption, "Note the expression of well-being on all the faces" of the refugees. Legation report, 15 June 1940, RG 59, 839.55/119. Rosenberg to Pastoriza, 26 June 1940, Rosenberg to Pastoriza, 24 April 1940, DORSA to Siegfried Weil, 2 May 1940, tomo 279, AGN. Clipping from New York Herald-Tribune, 16 February 1941, Taylor Papers.
105. Roosevelt's silence on the Haitian massacre and the realities of Jewish settlement in the Dominican Republic is especially significant in the context of his keen understanding of the power of rhetoric in foreign relations, as he characterized it in April 1937: "I believe in the effectiveness of preaching and preaching again. That is the method I have used in our Latin American relationships and it seems to have succeeded." To Nicholas Murray Butler, president of Columbia University and occasional lobbyist for Trujillo, he contended that "much can be accomplished by the iteration of moralities." Frederick W. Marks, Wind Over Sand: The Diplomacy of Franklin D. Roosevelt (Athens, GA, 1988), 234.
106. In fact, Hamilton Fish visited Ciudad Trujillo in 1939 as part of a "Good Will Committee" and subsequently became a vocal, and apparently well-remunerated, booster of Trujillo. Listín Diario, 13-22 March 1939. For evidence of payoffs to Fish see Welles to Roosevelt, 1 July 1942, PPF 6012; memorandum to Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau from Mr. Gaston, 15 April 1942, Morgenthau Diaries 516:386, FDR Library. New York Times, 11 February 1940.
107. In fact, Hamilton Fish visited Ciudad Trujillo in 1939 as part of a "Good Will Committee" and subsequently became a vocal, and apparently well-remunerated, booster of Trujillo. Listín Diario, 13-22 March 1939. For evidence of payoffs to Fish see Welles to Roosevelt, 1 July 1942, PPF 6012; memorandum to Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau from Mr. Gaston, 15 April 1942, Morgenthau Diaries 516:386, FDR Library. New York Times, 11 February 1940.
108. In fact, Hamilton Fish visited Ciudad Trujillo in 1939 as part of a "Good Will Committee" and subsequently became a vocal, and apparently well-remunerated, booster of Trujillo. Listín Diario, 13-22 March 1939. For evidence of payoffs to Fish see Welles to Roosevelt, 1 July 1942, PPF 6012; memorandum to Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau from Mr. Gaston, 15 April 1942, Morgenthau Diaries 516:386, FDR Library. New York Times, 11 February 1940.