A Rural View of Mothers' Pensions: The Allegan County, Michigan, Mothers' Pension Program, 1913-1928

Social Service Review

Volumn 70, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 83-119

  Ofman, Kay Walters ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 1542533557     PISSN: 00377961     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/604167     Document Type: Article

References (113)

1. Samantha Andrews is not the actual name of any recipient. The date of death did not appear in the records.
2. Allegan County, Michigan, Probate Court Clerical Office, Probate Records Microfiche (Mothers' Pension Case Records). Unless otherwise noted, this and all subsequent references to mothers' pension documents are to microfiche found in a filing cabinet in the clerk's office of the Probate Court of Allegan County, Michigan. These records are not organized, and they are not in archives. Although the microfiche records are titled "Mothers' Pensions," they are not identified as mothers' pension records in the Probate Court Indexes. There, they are referenced by a child's name, a designation as "delinquent" or "delinquent and neglected," and a reference to "account." Eighty-one mothers' pension records were found for Allegan County, but only 79 were usable for most calculations. No records were discovered in which aid was refused, although there is evidence (cited below) that petitions were denied. Although published statistics indicate that pensions were granted in the county from 1913 to 1928, the unpublished Allegan County mothers' pension records cover awards made only from 1915 to 1925. Pensions continued to be paid long after new grants were no longer made, however; 20 were paid into the 1930s - one until 1938. Allegan County was chosen because it has accessible mothers' pension case records. In Michigan, many counties have destroyed these records.
3. See, e.g., Mark H. Leff, "Consensus for Reform: The Mothers' Pension Movement in the Progressive Era," Social Service Review 47, no. 3 (September 1973): 397-417; Linda Gordon, Pitied but Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994); Molly Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work: Women, Child Welfare, and the State, 1890-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994); Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); and Joanne Goodwin, "Gender, Politics, and Welfare Reform: Mothers' Pensions in Chicago, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1991).
4. See, e.g., Mark H. Leff, "Consensus for Reform: The Mothers' Pension Movement in the Progressive Era," Social Service Review 47, no. 3 (September 1973): 397-417; Linda Gordon, Pitied but Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994); Molly Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work: Women, Child Welfare, and the State, 1890-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994); Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); and Joanne Goodwin, "Gender, Politics, and Welfare Reform: Mothers' Pensions in Chicago, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1991).
5. See, e.g., Mark H. Leff, "Consensus for Reform: The Mothers' Pension Movement in the Progressive Era," Social Service Review 47, no. 3 (September 1973): 397-417; Linda Gordon, Pitied but Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994); Molly Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work: Women, Child Welfare, and the State, 1890-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994); Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); and Joanne Goodwin, "Gender, Politics, and Welfare Reform: Mothers' Pensions in Chicago, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1991).
6. See, e.g., Mark H. Leff, "Consensus for Reform: The Mothers' Pension Movement in the Progressive Era," Social Service Review 47, no. 3 (September 1973): 397-417; Linda Gordon, Pitied but Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994); Molly Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work: Women, Child Welfare, and the State, 1890-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994); Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); and Joanne Goodwin, "Gender, Politics, and Welfare Reform: Mothers' Pensions in Chicago, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1991).
7. See, e.g., Mark H. Leff, "Consensus for Reform: The Mothers' Pension Movement in the Progressive Era," Social Service Review 47, no. 3 (September 1973): 397-417; Linda Gordon, Pitied but Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994); Molly Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work: Women, Child Welfare, and the State, 1890-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994); Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); and Joanne Goodwin, "Gender, Politics, and Welfare Reform: Mothers' Pensions in Chicago, 1900-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1991).
8. Some frequently cited studies are U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Administration of Mothers' Aid in Ten Localities with Special Reference to Health, Housing, Education, and Recreation, publication no. 184, by Mary F. Bogue (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1928); U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931, publication no. 220 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1933); U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Public Aid to Mothers with Dependent Children, publication no. 162, by Emma O. Lundberg (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1926); U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid to Children in Their Own Homes, publication no. 118, by Florence Nesbitt (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1923); and U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, The Administration of the Aid-to-Mothers' Law in Illinois, publication no. 82, by Edith Abbott and Sophonisba P. Breckinridge (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1921).
9. Some frequently cited studies are U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Administration of Mothers' Aid in Ten Localities with Special Reference to Health, Housing, Education, and Recreation, publication no. 184, by Mary F. Bogue (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1928); U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931, publication no. 220 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1933); U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Public Aid to Mothers with Dependent Children, publication no. 162, by Emma O. Lundberg (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1926); U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid to Children in Their Own Homes, publication no. 118, by Florence Nesbitt (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1923); and U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, The Administration of the Aid-to-Mothers' Law in Illinois, publication no. 82, by Edith Abbott and Sophonisba P. Breckinridge (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1921).
10. Some frequently cited studies are U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Administration of Mothers' Aid in Ten Localities with Special Reference to Health, Housing, Education, and Recreation, publication no. 184, by Mary F. Bogue (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1928); U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931, publication no. 220 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1933); U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Public Aid to Mothers with Dependent Children, publication no. 162, by Emma O. Lundberg (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1926); U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid to Children in Their Own Homes, publication no. 118, by Florence Nesbitt (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1923); and U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, The Administration of the Aid-to-Mothers' Law in Illinois, publication no. 82, by Edith Abbott and Sophonisba P. Breckinridge (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1921).
11. Some frequently cited studies are U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Administration of Mothers' Aid in Ten Localities with Special Reference to Health, Housing, Education, and Recreation, publication no. 184, by Mary F. Bogue (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1928); U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931, publication no. 220 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1933); U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Public Aid to Mothers with Dependent Children, publication no. 162, by Emma O. Lundberg (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1926); U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid to Children in Their Own Homes, publication no. 118, by Florence Nesbitt (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1923); and U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, The Administration of the Aid-to-Mothers' Law in Illinois, publication no. 82, by Edith Abbott and Sophonisba P. Breckinridge (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1921).
12. Some frequently cited studies are U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Administration of Mothers' Aid in Ten Localities with Special Reference to Health, Housing, Education, and Recreation, publication no. 184, by Mary F. Bogue (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1928); U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931, publication no. 220 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1933); U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Public Aid to Mothers with Dependent Children, publication no. 162, by Emma O. Lundberg (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1926); U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid to Children in Their Own Homes, publication no. 118, by Florence Nesbitt (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1923); and U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, The Administration of the Aid-to-Mothers' Law in Illinois, publication no. 82, by Edith Abbott and Sophonisba P. Breckinridge (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1921).
13. See n. 4 above.
14. Social work experts often deplored the activities of those outside the discipline, both in the formulation and the administration of pension laws. They were especially critical of officials in small towns and rural areas. See, e.g., Ada J. Davis, "The Evolution of the Institution of Mothers' Pensions in the United States," American Journal of Sociology 35 (January 1930): 573-87; C. C. Carstens, "Public Pensions to Women with Children," Survey 29, no. 14 (January 1913): 459-66; Emma O. Lundberg, The Present Status of Mothers' Pensions Administration, National Conference of Social Work (NCSW), 1921 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1921), pp. 237-40; U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Proceedings of Conference on Mothers' Pensions, publication no. 109 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922); Edith Abbott, The Experimental Period of Widows' Pension Legislation, Proceedings of the NCSW, 1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1917), pp. 154-64; and Proceedings of the NCSW, 1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1914), p. 451.
15. Social work experts often deplored the activities of those outside the discipline, both in the formulation and the administration of pension laws. They were especially critical of officials in small towns and rural areas. See, e.g., Ada J. Davis, "The Evolution of the Institution of Mothers' Pensions in the United States," American Journal of Sociology 35 (January 1930): 573-87; C. C. Carstens, "Public Pensions to Women with Children," Survey 29, no. 14 (January 1913): 459-66; Emma O. Lundberg, The Present Status of Mothers' Pensions Administration, National Conference of Social Work (NCSW), 1921 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1921), pp. 237-40; U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Proceedings of Conference on Mothers' Pensions, publication no. 109 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922); Edith Abbott, The Experimental Period of Widows' Pension Legislation, Proceedings of the NCSW, 1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1917), pp. 154-64; and Proceedings of the NCSW, 1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1914), p. 451.
16. Social work experts often deplored the activities of those outside the discipline, both in the formulation and the administration of pension laws. They were especially critical of officials in small towns and rural areas. See, e.g., Ada J. Davis, "The Evolution of the Institution of Mothers' Pensions in the United States," American Journal of Sociology 35 (January 1930): 573-87; C. C. Carstens, "Public Pensions to Women with Children," Survey 29, no. 14 (January 1913): 459-66; Emma O. Lundberg, The Present Status of Mothers' Pensions Administration, National Conference of Social Work (NCSW), 1921 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1921), pp. 237-40; U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Proceedings of Conference on Mothers' Pensions, publication no. 109 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922); Edith Abbott, The Experimental Period of Widows' Pension Legislation, Proceedings of the NCSW, 1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1917), pp. 154-64; and Proceedings of the NCSW, 1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1914), p. 451.
17. Social work experts often deplored the activities of those outside the discipline, both in the formulation and the administration of pension laws. They were especially critical of officials in small towns and rural areas. See, e.g., Ada J. Davis, "The Evolution of the Institution of Mothers' Pensions in the United States," American Journal of Sociology 35 (January 1930): 573-87; C. C. Carstens, "Public Pensions to Women with Children," Survey 29, no. 14 (January 1913): 459-66; Emma O. Lundberg, The Present Status of Mothers' Pensions Administration, National Conference of Social Work (NCSW), 1921 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1921), pp. 237-40; U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Proceedings of Conference on Mothers' Pensions, publication no. 109 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922); Edith Abbott, The Experimental Period of Widows' Pension Legislation, Proceedings of the NCSW, 1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1917), pp. 154-64; and Proceedings of the NCSW, 1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1914), p. 451.
18. Social work experts often deplored the activities of those outside the discipline, both in the formulation and the administration of pension laws. They were especially critical of officials in small towns and rural areas. See, e.g., Ada J. Davis, "The Evolution of the Institution of Mothers' Pensions in the United States," American Journal of Sociology 35 (January 1930): 573-87; C. C. Carstens, "Public Pensions to Women with Children," Survey 29, no. 14 (January 1913): 459-66; Emma O. Lundberg, The Present Status of Mothers' Pensions Administration, National Conference of Social Work (NCSW), 1921 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1921), pp. 237-40; U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Proceedings of Conference on Mothers' Pensions, publication no. 109 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922); Edith Abbott, The Experimental Period of Widows' Pension Legislation, Proceedings of the NCSW, 1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1917), pp. 154-64; and Proceedings of the NCSW, 1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1914), p. 451.
19. Social work experts often deplored the activities of those outside the discipline, both in the formulation and the administration of pension laws. They were especially critical of officials in small towns and rural areas. See, e.g., Ada J. Davis, "The Evolution of the Institution of Mothers' Pensions in the United States," American Journal of Sociology 35 (January 1930): 573-87; C. C. Carstens, "Public Pensions to Women with Children," Survey 29, no. 14 (January 1913): 459-66; Emma O. Lundberg, The Present Status of Mothers' Pensions Administration, National Conference of Social Work (NCSW), 1921 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1921), pp. 237-40; U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Proceedings of Conference on Mothers' Pensions, publication no. 109 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922); Edith Abbott, The Experimental Period of Widows' Pension Legislation, Proceedings of the NCSW, 1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1917), pp. 154-64; and Proceedings of the NCSW, 1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1914), p. 451.
20. Children's Bureau, Conference on Mothers' Pensions (n. 6 above), p. 12.
21. Abbott (n. 6 above), pp. 162-63. For other examples, see Davis (n. 6 above), p. 580; Carstens (n. 6 above), p. 462; Lundberg (n. 6 above), p. 239; and Proceedings of the NCSW, 1914 (n. 6 above), p. 451.
22. Children's Bureau, The Aid-to-Mothers' Law in Illinois (n. 4 above).
23. Ibid., p. 142.
24. Ibid., p. 144.
25. Ibid., p. 157.
26. Ibid., pp. 144-45.
27. Ibid., p. 156.
28. See, e.g., Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest? Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982), pp. 130-34; Winifred Bell, Aid to Dependent Children (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), pp. 3-19;
29. See, e.g., Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest? Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982), pp. 130-34; Winifred Bell, Aid to Dependent Children (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), pp. 3-19;
30. Leff (n. 3 above), pp. 413-14; Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present (Boston: South End, 1988), pp. 3-4;
31. Roy Lubove, The Struggle for Social Security 1900-1935 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968), pp. 109-12;
32. Michael B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York: Basic, 1986), p. 129; and Skocpol (n. 3 above), pp. 465-77.
33. See n. 15 above. On patriarchy, see Abramovitz (n. 15 above); Carole Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State," in Democracy and the Welfare State, ed. Amy Gutman (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988), pp. 231-60; Eileen Boris and Peter Bardaglio, "The Transformation of Patriarchy: The Historic Role of the State," in Families, Politics and Public Policy: A Feminist Dialogue on Women and the State, ed. Irene Diamond (New York: Longman, 1983), pp. 70-93. On racism and ethnocentrism, see Gwendolyn Mink, "The Lady and the Tramp: Gender, Race, and the Origins of the American Welfare State," in Women, the State, and Welfare, ed. Linda Gordon (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), pp. 92-122; Bell (n. 15 above), pp. 9-10; and Leff (n. 3 above), p. 414.
34. See n. 15 above. On patriarchy, see Abramovitz (n. 15 above); Carole Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State," in Democracy and the Welfare State, ed. Amy Gutman (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988), pp. 231-60; Eileen Boris and Peter Bardaglio, "The Transformation of Patriarchy: The Historic Role of the State," in Families, Politics and Public Policy: A Feminist Dialogue on Women and the State, ed. Irene Diamond (New York: Longman, 1983), pp. 70-93. On racism and ethnocentrism, see Gwendolyn Mink, "The Lady and the Tramp: Gender, Race, and the Origins of the American Welfare State," in Women, the State, and Welfare, ed. Linda Gordon (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), pp. 92-122; Bell (n. 15 above), pp. 9-10; and Leff (n. 3 above), p. 414.
35. See n. 15 above. On patriarchy, see Abramovitz (n. 15 above); Carole Pateman, "The Patriarchal Welfare State," in Democracy and the Welfare State, ed. Amy Gutman (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988), pp. 231-60; Eileen Boris and Peter Bardaglio, "The Transformation of Patriarchy: The Historic Role of the State," in Families, Politics and Public Policy: A Feminist Dialogue on Women and the State, ed. Irene Diamond (New York: Longman, 1983), pp. 70-93. On racism and ethnocentrism, see Gwendolyn Mink, "The Lady and the Tramp: Gender, Race, and the Origins of the American Welfare State," in Women, the State, and Welfare, ed. Linda Gordon (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), pp. 92-122; Bell (n. 15 above), pp. 9-10; and Leff (n. 3 above), p. 414.
36. By 1926, 42 states, Hawaii, and Alaska had ratified pension laws. Michigan had enacted a precursor of its pension law in 1911, a statute that authorized payment from school funds to indigent parents to enable their children to attend school. Children's Bureau, Public Aid to Mothers (n. 4 above), p. 2.
37. Reba F. Harris, Mothers' Pensions in Michigan (Lansing: State Welfare Department, 1934), p. 2.
38. By 1926, only five states limited aid to the children of widows. Children's Bureau, Public Aid to Mothers (n. 4 above), p. 5.
39. Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931 (n. 4 above), p. 17. In 1931, the average monthly grant varied from $4.33 in Arkansas to $69.31 in Massachusetts, with the median $21.78 in South Dakota. The original statute passed in 1913 enacting the Mothers' Pension in Michigan set a maximum grant of $3.00 per week per child. Michigan, Legislature, Public Acts of the Legislature of the State of Michigan (Lansing: 1913), p. 445. However, a 1921 amendment changed the maximum to $10.00 per family per week and stated a minimum of $2.00 per week for a single child and $2.00 for each additional child. Michigan, Legislature, Public Acts of the Legislature of the State of Michigan (Lansing: 1921), p. 200. Michigan's generosity was evidently not a consequence of greater wealth. According to the 1930 federal census, Michigan had the lowest average farm value of the 12 states in the north central region of the United States, $6,853. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Abstract of the Fifteenth Census of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1933), p. 709.
40. Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931 (n. 4 above), p. 17. In 1931, the average monthly grant varied from $4.33 in Arkansas to $69.31 in Massachusetts, with the median $21.78 in South Dakota. The original statute passed in 1913 enacting the Mothers' Pension in Michigan set a maximum grant of $3.00 per week per child. Michigan, Legislature, Public Acts of the Legislature of the State of Michigan (Lansing: 1913), p. 445. However, a 1921 amendment changed the maximum to $10.00 per family per week and stated a minimum of $2.00 per week for a single child and $2.00 for each additional child. Michigan, Legislature, Public Acts of the Legislature of the State of Michigan (Lansing: 1921), p. 200. Michigan's generosity was evidently not a consequence of greater wealth. According to the 1930 federal census, Michigan had the lowest average farm value of the 12 states in the north central region of the United States, $6,853. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Abstract of the Fifteenth Census of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1933), p. 709.
41. Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931 (n. 4 above), p. 17. In 1931, the average monthly grant varied from $4.33 in Arkansas to $69.31 in Massachusetts, with the median $21.78 in South Dakota. The original statute passed in 1913 enacting the Mothers' Pension in Michigan set a maximum grant of $3.00 per week per child. Michigan, Legislature, Public Acts of the Legislature of the State of Michigan (Lansing: 1913), p. 445. However, a 1921 amendment changed the maximum to $10.00 per family per week and stated a minimum of $2.00 per week for a single child and $2.00 for each additional child. Michigan, Legislature, Public Acts of the Legislature of the State of Michigan (Lansing: 1921), p. 200. Michigan's generosity was evidently not a consequence of greater wealth. According to the 1930 federal census, Michigan had the lowest average farm value of the 12 states in the north central region of the United States, $6,853. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Abstract of the Fifteenth Census of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1933), p. 709.
42. Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931 (n. 4 above), p. 17. In 1931, the average monthly grant varied from $4.33 in Arkansas to $69.31 in Massachusetts, with the median $21.78 in South Dakota. The original statute passed in 1913 enacting the Mothers' Pension in Michigan set a maximum grant of $3.00 per week per child. Michigan, Legislature, Public Acts of the Legislature of the State of Michigan (Lansing: 1913), p. 445. However, a 1921 amendment changed the maximum to $10.00 per family per week and stated a minimum of $2.00 per week for a single child and $2.00 for each additional child. Michigan, Legislature, Public Acts of the Legislature of the State of Michigan (Lansing: 1921), p. 200. Michigan's generosity was evidently not a consequence of greater wealth. According to the 1930 federal census, Michigan had the lowest average farm value of the 12 states in the north central region of the United States, $6,853. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Abstract of the Fifteenth Census of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1933), p. 709.
43. Francis H. Hiller, "Juvenile Courts and Adult Probation in Certain Counties of Michigan: General Summary" (National Probation Association, 1926), p. 10.
44. Harris (n. 18 above), p. 1.
45. Ibid., pp. 10, 15-16.
46. Ibid., p. 7.
47. Michigan, State Welfare Department, Mothers' Aid in Michigan Report: A State-Wide Study (Lansing: State Welfare Department, 1934), p. 17.
48. Forty-three of the 83 counties in Michigan granted pensions to unmarried mothers between 1914 and 1928. (Records for 1913 did not provide the marital status of recipients.) Michigan, State Board Corrections and Charities, Biennial Reports, 1913-1920 (Lansing: State of Michigan, 1914-21); Michigan, State Welfare Commission, Biennial Reports, 1921-1928 (Lansing: State of Michigan, 1921-28). The State Board of Corrections and Charities became the State Welfare Commission.
49. Forty-three of the 83 counties in Michigan granted pensions to unmarried mothers between 1914 and 1928. (Records for 1913 did not provide the marital status of recipients.) Michigan, State Board Corrections and Charities, Biennial Reports, 1913-1920 (Lansing: State of Michigan, 1914-21); Michigan, State Welfare Commission, Biennial Reports, 1921-1928 (Lansing: State of Michigan, 1921-28). The State Board of Corrections and Charities became the State Welfare Commission.
50. Only one-third of the counties below the median population, but two-thirds above, paid pensions to unmarried mothers. However, counties in the smaller half of the population averaged 3.7% of their grants to unmarried mothers, while counties in the larger half averaged just 1%. Michigan, Biennial Reports (both n. 26 above); U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Population (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1932), 3, pt. 1:1135-40.
51. Michigan, Biennial Reports (n. 26 above); Department of Commerce, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Population (n. 27 above).
52. Michigan, Biennial Reports (n. 26 above); Department of Commerce, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Population (n. 27 above).
53. Michigan, Biennial Reports (n. 26 above); Department of Commerce, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Population (n. 27 above).
54. Michigan, Biennial Reports (n. 26 above); Department of Commerce, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Population (n. 27 above).
55. Michigan, Biennial Reports (n. 26 above); Department of Commerce, Abstract of the Fifteenth Census (n. 20 above), pp. 60-61; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Families (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1932), 6:649-53; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Agriculture (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1932), 5, pt. 3:497-503.
56. Michigan, Biennial Reports (n. 26 above); Department of Commerce, Abstract of the Fifteenth Census (n. 20 above), pp. 60-61; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Families (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1932), 6:649-53; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Agriculture (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1932), 5, pt. 3:497-503.
57. Michigan, Biennial Reports (n. 26 above); Department of Commerce, Abstract of the Fifteenth Census (n. 20 above), pp. 60-61; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Families (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1932), 6:649-53; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Agriculture (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1932), 5, pt. 3:497-503.
58. Michigan, Biennial Reports (n. 26 above); Department of Commerce, Abstract of the Fifteenth Census (n. 20 above), pp. 60-61; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Families (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1932), 6:649-53; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Agriculture (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1932), 5, pt. 3:497-503.
59. Department of Commerce, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Population (n. 27 above), 3, pt. 1:1159-65.
60. Department of Commerce, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Population (n. 27 above), 6:644-46.
61. Department of Commerce, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Population (n. 27 above), 3, pt. 1:1123; 4:811; 4, pt. 3:238-40.
62. Department of Commerce, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Population (n. 27 above), 3, pt. 1:1123; 4:811; 4, pt. 3:238-40.
63. Department of Commerce, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Population (n. 27 above), 3, pt. 1:1123; 4:811; 4, pt. 3:238-40.
64. Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid in Ten Localities (n. 4 above), p. 171.
65. Michigan, Biennial Reports (n. 26 above).
66. Michigan, Public Acts of the Legislature, 1921 (n. 20 above), p. 200.
67. In all cases, their recommendations for the original grants were followed by the judges. In only one case was a pension increased less than the township supervisor recommended.
68. From 1913 to 1928, 223 petitions were granted. Michigan, Biennial Reports (n. 26 above).
69. In Michigan, 9.5% of the female population was widowed and 1.5% divorced in 1930; in 1920, 9.9% was widowed and .9% divorced. Department of Commerce, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Population (n. 27 above), 3, pt. 1:1121.
70. The distribution of grants for all counties from 1913 to 1928 was as follows: (data from 1913-14 did not provide marital status) 73.4% to widows, .9% to unmarried mothers, 9.4% to deserted and 5.3% to divorced women, 4.8% to women whose husbands were in penal institutions, 6.2% to women whose husbands were in other institutions. Michigan, Biennial Reports (n. 26 above).
71. See Bell (n. 15 above), pp. 5, 17-19; Leff (n. 3 above), pp. 397-98, 407-408, 414; Tiffin (n. 15 above), pp. 130-32; Lubove (n. 15 above), pp. 108-11; and Abramovitz (n. 15 above), p. 200.
72. Michigan, Biennial Reports (n. 26 above). It is, of course, probable that in this period some births to unmarried mothers occurred at home and do not appear in the records.
73. See n. 41 above.
74. Though the figures for two-child families look suspicious, Allegan County did not have a "flat rate" grant policy. (A "flat rate" policy gave a set amount to every eligible child, or sometimes a larger specified amount to the first child in a family and lesser set amounts to additional children.) Over the years, grants to these families varied from $1.25 to $3.00 per child per year.
75. Other factors that do not appear to have influenced officials in determining the amount of aid to families are the age of the mother, the age of the children, whether the mother was employed, and whether the petitioner owned property. Some women who reported having cash on hand from insurance payments initially received unusually small grants but had their pensions raised after a time.
76. Michigan, Public Acts of the Legislature, 1921 (n. 20 above), p. 200. By 1932, no family had more than three children receiving pensions.
77. Sixty-three of the 79 pensions in the unpublished records were granted from 1920 to 1925. From 1920 to 1930, the Consumer Price Index fell 16.4%, and real wage rates rose 9%. Allegan officials lowered pension payments generally in 1932, and made a second smaller decrease in 1933. The cumulative cuts averaged 40%-50% from the original grant amounts. In a form letter notifying recipients of the 1932 decrease in their payments, the probate judge pointed out that "the price of living is down." He also offered assistance to those who found their reduced pensions insufficient to meet family needs. See Donald R. Adams, Jr., "Prices and Wages," Encyclopedia of American Economic History: Studies of the Principal Movements and Ideas, ed. Glenn Porter (New York: Scribner, 1980), pp. 229-46.
78. The 1933 rerating of aid was a general reduction of $.50 per child per week. Only one clear exception was made, a mother with two children whose husband was in a mental institution had her pension reduced by just $.25 per child per week. It is unclear why she was dealt with differently.
79. Data were available for only 19 widows and 7 deserted women. Eight of the widows applied for a pension within 30 days of the deaths of their husbands. Only two deserted women waited less than 6 months to apply.
80. See, e.g., Carstens (n. 6 above), p. 459; Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction (NCCC), 1912 (Fort Wayne, Ind.: Fort Wayne Printing Company, 1912), pp. 463-64; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 575; William Hard, "The Moral Necessity of 'State Funds to Mothers,'" Survey 29, no. 22 (1913): 769-73; and Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931 (n. 4 above), p. 29. For early twentieth-century studies on wage earning by mothers and married women, see, e.g., "Problems in the Administration of Mothers' Aid," in Proceedings of the NCSW, 1918, by Mary F. Bogue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1918), p. 354; New York State, "Report of the Commission on Relief for Widowed Mothers, 1914," in Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History, ed. Robert H. Bremner (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 379-84; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, publication no. 23, The Family Status of Breadwinning Women (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922), pp. 13, 17, 35-36; Barbara Klaczynska, "Why Women Work: A Comparison of Various Groups - Philadelphia, 1910-1930," Labor History 17 (Winter 1974): pp. 73-87; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 577. For recent discussions on pension recipients and waged work see Skocpol (n. 3 above) and Goodwin (n. 3 above). The 1920s study of nine localities throughout the country found that over half of the mothers who received pensions worked for wages. Of those, about twice as many worked outside the home as in the home. Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid (n. 4 above), p. 18. The 1930s study of Michigan's mothers' pension programs found that 44% of the mothers were wage earners - 69% earned at home, 31% outside. Harris (n. 18 above), p. 13.
81. See, e.g., Carstens (n. 6 above), p. 459; Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction (NCCC), 1912 (Fort Wayne, Ind.: Fort Wayne Printing Company, 1912), pp. 463-64; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 575; William Hard, "The Moral Necessity of 'State Funds to Mothers,'" Survey 29, no. 22 (1913): 769-73; and Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931 (n. 4 above), p. 29. For early twentieth-century studies on wage earning by mothers and married women, see, e.g., "Problems in the Administration of Mothers' Aid," in Proceedings of the NCSW, 1918, by Mary F. Bogue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1918), p. 354; New York State, "Report of the Commission on Relief for Widowed Mothers, 1914," in Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History, ed. Robert H. Bremner (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 379-84; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, publication no. 23, The Family Status of Breadwinning Women (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922), pp. 13, 17, 35-36; Barbara Klaczynska, "Why Women Work: A Comparison of Various Groups - Philadelphia, 1910-1930," Labor History 17 (Winter 1974): pp. 73-87; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 577. For recent discussions on pension recipients and waged work see Skocpol (n. 3 above) and Goodwin (n. 3 above). The 1920s study of nine localities throughout the country found that over half of the mothers who received pensions worked for wages. Of those, about twice as many worked outside the home as in the home. Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid (n. 4 above), p. 18. The 1930s study of Michigan's mothers' pension programs found that 44% of the mothers were wage earners - 69% earned at home, 31% outside. Harris (n. 18 above), p. 13.
82. See, e.g., Carstens (n. 6 above), p. 459; Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction (NCCC), 1912 (Fort Wayne, Ind.: Fort Wayne Printing Company, 1912), pp. 463-64; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 575; William Hard, "The Moral Necessity of 'State Funds to Mothers,'" Survey 29, no. 22 (1913): 769-73; and Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931 (n. 4 above), p. 29. For early twentieth-century studies on wage earning by mothers and married women, see, e.g., "Problems in the Administration of Mothers' Aid," in Proceedings of the NCSW, 1918, by Mary F. Bogue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1918), p. 354; New York State, "Report of the Commission on Relief for Widowed Mothers, 1914," in Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History, ed. Robert H. Bremner (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 379-84; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, publication no. 23, The Family Status of Breadwinning Women (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922), pp. 13, 17, 35-36; Barbara Klaczynska, "Why Women Work: A Comparison of Various Groups - Philadelphia, 1910-1930," Labor History 17 (Winter 1974): pp. 73-87; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 577. For recent discussions on pension recipients and waged work see Skocpol (n. 3 above) and Goodwin (n. 3 above). The 1920s study of nine localities throughout the country found that over half of the mothers who received pensions worked for wages. Of those, about twice as many worked outside the home as in the home. Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid (n. 4 above), p. 18. The 1930s study of Michigan's mothers' pension programs found that 44% of the mothers were wage earners - 69% earned at home, 31% outside. Harris (n. 18 above), p. 13.
83. See, e.g., Carstens (n. 6 above), p. 459; Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction (NCCC), 1912 (Fort Wayne, Ind.: Fort Wayne Printing Company, 1912), pp. 463-64; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 575; William Hard, "The Moral Necessity of 'State Funds to Mothers,'" Survey 29, no. 22 (1913): 769-73; and Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931 (n. 4 above), p. 29. For early twentieth-century studies on wage earning by mothers and married women, see, e.g., "Problems in the Administration of Mothers' Aid," in Proceedings of the NCSW, 1918, by Mary F. Bogue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1918), p. 354; New York State, "Report of the Commission on Relief for Widowed Mothers, 1914," in Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History, ed. Robert H. Bremner (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 379-84; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, publication no. 23, The Family Status of Breadwinning Women (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922), pp. 13, 17, 35-36; Barbara Klaczynska, "Why Women Work: A Comparison of Various Groups - Philadelphia, 1910-1930," Labor History 17 (Winter 1974): pp. 73-87; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 577. For recent discussions on pension recipients and waged work see Skocpol (n. 3 above) and Goodwin (n. 3 above). The 1920s study of nine localities throughout the country found that over half of the mothers who received pensions worked for wages. Of those, about twice as many worked outside the home as in the home. Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid (n. 4 above), p. 18. The 1930s study of Michigan's mothers' pension programs found that 44% of the mothers were wage earners - 69% earned at home, 31% outside. Harris (n. 18 above), p. 13.
84. See, e.g., Carstens (n. 6 above), p. 459; Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction (NCCC), 1912 (Fort Wayne, Ind.: Fort Wayne Printing Company, 1912), pp. 463-64; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 575; William Hard, "The Moral Necessity of 'State Funds to Mothers,'" Survey 29, no. 22 (1913): 769-73; and Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931 (n. 4 above), p. 29. For early twentieth-century studies on wage earning by mothers and married women, see, e.g., "Problems in the Administration of Mothers' Aid," in Proceedings of the NCSW, 1918, by Mary F. Bogue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1918), p. 354; New York State, "Report of the Commission on Relief for Widowed Mothers, 1914," in Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History, ed. Robert H. Bremner (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 379-84; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, publication no. 23, The Family Status of Breadwinning Women (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922), pp. 13, 17, 35-36; Barbara Klaczynska, "Why Women Work: A Comparison of Various Groups - Philadelphia, 1910-1930," Labor History 17 (Winter 1974): pp. 73-87; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 577. For recent discussions on pension recipients and waged work see Skocpol (n. 3 above) and Goodwin (n. 3 above). The 1920s study of nine localities throughout the country found that over half of the mothers who received pensions worked for wages. Of those, about twice as many worked outside the home as in the home. Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid (n. 4 above), p. 18. The 1930s study of Michigan's mothers' pension programs found that 44% of the mothers were wage earners - 69% earned at home, 31% outside. Harris (n. 18 above), p. 13.
85. See, e.g., Carstens (n. 6 above), p. 459; Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction (NCCC), 1912 (Fort Wayne, Ind.: Fort Wayne Printing Company, 1912), pp. 463-64; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 575; William Hard, "The Moral Necessity of 'State Funds to Mothers,'" Survey 29, no. 22 (1913): 769-73; and Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931 (n. 4 above), p. 29. For early twentieth-century studies on wage earning by mothers and married women, see, e.g., "Problems in the Administration of Mothers' Aid," in Proceedings of the NCSW, 1918, by Mary F. Bogue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1918), p. 354; New York State, "Report of the Commission on Relief for Widowed Mothers, 1914," in Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History, ed. Robert H. Bremner (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 379-84; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, publication no. 23, The Family Status of Breadwinning Women (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922), pp. 13, 17, 35-36; Barbara Klaczynska, "Why Women Work: A Comparison of Various Groups - Philadelphia, 1910-1930," Labor History 17 (Winter 1974): pp. 73-87; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 577. For recent discussions on pension recipients and waged work see Skocpol (n. 3 above) and Goodwin (n. 3 above). The 1920s study of nine localities throughout the country found that over half of the mothers who received pensions worked for wages. Of those, about twice as many worked outside the home as in the home. Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid (n. 4 above), p. 18. The 1930s study of Michigan's mothers' pension programs found that 44% of the mothers were wage earners - 69% earned at home, 31% outside. Harris (n. 18 above), p. 13.
86. See, e.g., Carstens (n. 6 above), p. 459; Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction (NCCC), 1912 (Fort Wayne, Ind.: Fort Wayne Printing Company, 1912), pp. 463-64; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 575; William Hard, "The Moral Necessity of 'State Funds to Mothers,'" Survey 29, no. 22 (1913): 769-73; and Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931 (n. 4 above), p. 29. For early twentieth-century studies on wage earning by mothers and married women, see, e.g., "Problems in the Administration of Mothers' Aid," in Proceedings of the NCSW, 1918, by Mary F. Bogue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1918), p. 354; New York State, "Report of the Commission on Relief for Widowed Mothers, 1914," in Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History, ed. Robert H. Bremner (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 379-84; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, publication no. 23, The Family Status of Breadwinning Women (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922), pp. 13, 17, 35-36; Barbara Klaczynska, "Why Women Work: A Comparison of Various Groups - Philadelphia, 1910-1930," Labor History 17 (Winter 1974): pp. 73-87; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 577. For recent discussions on pension recipients and waged work see Skocpol (n. 3 above) and Goodwin (n. 3 above). The 1920s study of nine localities throughout the country found that over half of the mothers who received pensions worked for wages. Of those, about twice as many worked outside the home as in the home. Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid (n. 4 above), p. 18. The 1930s study of Michigan's mothers' pension programs found that 44% of the mothers were wage earners - 69% earned at home, 31% outside. Harris (n. 18 above), p. 13.
87. See, e.g., Carstens (n. 6 above), p. 459; Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction (NCCC), 1912 (Fort Wayne, Ind.: Fort Wayne Printing Company, 1912), pp. 463-64; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 575; William Hard, "The Moral Necessity of 'State Funds to Mothers,'" Survey 29, no. 22 (1913): 769-73; and Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931 (n. 4 above), p. 29. For early twentieth-century studies on wage earning by mothers and married women, see, e.g., "Problems in the Administration of Mothers' Aid," in Proceedings of the NCSW, 1918, by Mary F. Bogue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1918), p. 354; New York State, "Report of the Commission on Relief for Widowed Mothers, 1914," in Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History, ed. Robert H. Bremner (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 379-84; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, publication no. 23, The Family Status of Breadwinning Women (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922), pp. 13, 17, 35-36; Barbara Klaczynska, "Why Women Work: A Comparison of Various Groups - Philadelphia, 1910-1930," Labor History 17 (Winter 1974): pp. 73-87; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 577. For recent discussions on pension recipients and waged work see Skocpol (n. 3 above) and Goodwin (n. 3 above). The 1920s study of nine localities throughout the country found that over half of the mothers who received pensions worked for wages. Of those, about twice as many worked outside the home as in the home. Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid (n. 4 above), p. 18. The 1930s study of Michigan's mothers' pension programs found that 44% of the mothers were wage earners - 69% earned at home, 31% outside. Harris (n. 18 above), p. 13.
88. See, e.g., Carstens (n. 6 above), p. 459; Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction (NCCC), 1912 (Fort Wayne, Ind.: Fort Wayne Printing Company, 1912), pp. 463-64; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 575; William Hard, "The Moral Necessity of 'State Funds to Mothers,'" Survey 29, no. 22 (1913): 769-73; and Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931 (n. 4 above), p. 29. For early twentieth-century studies on wage earning by mothers and married women, see, e.g., "Problems in the Administration of Mothers' Aid," in Proceedings of the NCSW, 1918, by Mary F. Bogue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1918), p. 354; New York State, "Report of the Commission on Relief for Widowed Mothers, 1914," in Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History, ed. Robert H. Bremner (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 379-84; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, publication no. 23, The Family Status of Breadwinning Women (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922), pp. 13, 17, 35-36; Barbara Klaczynska, "Why Women Work: A Comparison of Various Groups - Philadelphia, 1910-1930," Labor History 17 (Winter 1974): pp. 73-87; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 577. For recent discussions on pension recipients and waged work see Skocpol (n. 3 above) and Goodwin (n. 3 above). The 1920s study of nine localities throughout the country found that over half of the mothers who received pensions worked for wages. Of those, about twice as many worked outside the home as in the home. Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid (n. 4 above), p. 18. The 1930s study of Michigan's mothers' pension programs found that 44% of the mothers were wage earners - 69% earned at home, 31% outside. Harris (n. 18 above), p. 13.
89. See, e.g., Carstens (n. 6 above), p. 459; Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction (NCCC), 1912 (Fort Wayne, Ind.: Fort Wayne Printing Company, 1912), pp. 463-64; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 575; William Hard, "The Moral Necessity of 'State Funds to Mothers,'" Survey 29, no. 22 (1913): 769-73; and Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931 (n. 4 above), p. 29. For early twentieth-century studies on wage earning by mothers and married women, see, e.g., "Problems in the Administration of Mothers' Aid," in Proceedings of the NCSW, 1918, by Mary F. Bogue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1918), p. 354; New York State, "Report of the Commission on Relief for Widowed Mothers, 1914," in Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History, ed. Robert H. Bremner (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 379-84; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, publication no. 23, The Family Status of Breadwinning Women (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922), pp. 13, 17, 35-36; Barbara Klaczynska, "Why Women Work: A Comparison of Various Groups - Philadelphia, 1910-1930," Labor History 17 (Winter 1974): pp. 73-87; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 577. For recent discussions on pension recipients and waged work see Skocpol (n. 3 above) and Goodwin (n. 3 above). The 1920s study of nine localities throughout the country found that over half of the mothers who received pensions worked for wages. Of those, about twice as many worked outside the home as in the home. Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid (n. 4 above), p. 18. The 1930s study of Michigan's mothers' pension programs found that 44% of the mothers were wage earners - 69% earned at home, 31% outside. Harris (n. 18 above), p. 13.
90. See, e.g., Carstens (n. 6 above), p. 459; Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction (NCCC), 1912 (Fort Wayne, Ind.: Fort Wayne Printing Company, 1912), pp. 463-64; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 575; William Hard, "The Moral Necessity of 'State Funds to Mothers,'" Survey 29, no. 22 (1913): 769-73; and Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931 (n. 4 above), p. 29. For early twentieth-century studies on wage earning by mothers and married women, see, e.g., "Problems in the Administration of Mothers' Aid," in Proceedings of the NCSW, 1918, by Mary F. Bogue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1918), p. 354; New York State, "Report of the Commission on Relief for Widowed Mothers, 1914," in Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History, ed. Robert H. Bremner (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 379-84; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, publication no. 23, The Family Status of Breadwinning Women (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922), pp. 13, 17, 35-36; Barbara Klaczynska, "Why Women Work: A Comparison of Various Groups - Philadelphia, 1910-1930," Labor History 17 (Winter 1974): pp. 73-87; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 577. For recent discussions on pension recipients and waged work see Skocpol (n. 3 above) and Goodwin (n. 3 above). The 1920s study of nine localities throughout the country found that over half of the mothers who received pensions worked for wages. Of those, about twice as many worked outside the home as in the home. Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid (n. 4 above), p. 18. The 1930s study of Michigan's mothers' pension programs found that 44% of the mothers were wage earners - 69% earned at home, 31% outside. Harris (n. 18 above), p. 13.
91. See, e.g., Carstens (n. 6 above), p. 459; Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction (NCCC), 1912 (Fort Wayne, Ind.: Fort Wayne Printing Company, 1912), pp. 463-64; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 575; William Hard, "The Moral Necessity of 'State Funds to Mothers,'" Survey 29, no. 22 (1913): 769-73; and Children's Bureau, Mothers' Aid, 1931 (n. 4 above), p. 29. For early twentieth-century studies on wage earning by mothers and married women, see, e.g., "Problems in the Administration of Mothers' Aid," in Proceedings of the NCSW, 1918, by Mary F. Bogue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1918), p. 354; New York State, "Report of the Commission on Relief for Widowed Mothers, 1914," in Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History, ed. Robert H. Bremner (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 379-84; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, publication no. 23, The Family Status of Breadwinning Women (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922), pp. 13, 17, 35-36; Barbara Klaczynska, "Why Women Work: A Comparison of Various Groups - Philadelphia, 1910-1930," Labor History 17 (Winter 1974): pp. 73-87; Davis (n. 6 above), p. 577. For recent discussions on pension recipients and waged work see Skocpol (n. 3 above) and Goodwin (n. 3 above). The 1920s study of nine localities throughout the country found that over half of the mothers who received pensions worked for wages. Of those, about twice as many worked outside the home as in the home. Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid (n. 4 above), p. 18. The 1930s study of Michigan's mothers' pension programs found that 44% of the mothers were wage earners - 69% earned at home, 31% outside. Harris (n. 18 above), p. 13.
92. It is probable that women underreported both paid labor and boarders in the home. One woman (cited below) reported no boarders or work in her petition, but her expense reports reveal that she probably both worked and took in boarders. Of the 50 mothers who supplied some information about their means of support, 22 positively engaged in paid labor and 8 specifically mentioned owning farms or having trouble finding work and, therefore, probably worked at least part-time. Five women acknowledged the expectation to work and, therefore, may have engaged in some sort of paid home work. Thus, 35 of the 50, or 70%, of those who mentioned a means of support either worked or acknowledged the expectation to work. Of the 26 women who received pensions until the youngest child was 16, 9 gave definite evidence of engaging in paid work, and 3 owned farms. Therefore, at least 46% of these women produced income through their labor.
93. Department of Commerce, Abstract of the Fifteenth Census (n. 20 above),
94. Department of Commerce, Abstract of the Fifteenth Census (n. 20 above), pp. 379, 381; Department of Commerce, Fifteenth Census of the United States: Population (n. 27 above), 3, pt. 1:1159.
95. Although the family received aid for 52 months, the expense reports cover only 44 months.
96. It is unclear who earned in the family, the 15 year old, the mother, or both. The entry reads only "work."
97. Bell (n. 15 above), p. 18; Skocpol (n. 3 above), p. 475.
98. Edith Abbott, for instance, complained that many counties in Illinois granted aid to mothers illegally. See Abbott (n. 6 above), pp. 158-59.
99. See n. 6 above.
100. On the Progressive Era, see, e.g., Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Wang, 1967).
101. Robyn Muncy, Creating a Female Dominion in American Reform, 1890-1935 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).
102. See n. 15 above.
103. See n. 16 above.
104. For arguments on the controlling aspects of mothers' pension programs, see Bell (n. 15 above), pp. 17-18; Leff (n. 3 above), pp. 407-8; and Abramovitz (n. 15 above), pp. 3-4.
105. For evidence of work restrictions, see Children's Bureau, Conference on Mothers' Pensions (n. 6 above), p. 11; Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid to Children (n. 4 above), pp. 17, 19; Proceedings of the NCCC, 1910 (Fort Wayne: Archer Printing Company, 1910), p. 141.
106. For evidence of work restrictions, see Children's Bureau, Conference on Mothers' Pensions (n. 6 above), p. 11; Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid to Children (n. 4 above), pp. 17, 19; Proceedings of the NCCC, 1910 (Fort Wayne: Archer Printing Company, 1910), p. 141.
107. For evidence of work restrictions, see Children's Bureau, Conference on Mothers' Pensions (n. 6 above), p. 11; Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid to Children (n. 4 above), pp. 17, 19; Proceedings of the NCCC, 1910 (Fort Wayne: Archer Printing Company, 1910), p. 141.
108. Skocpol (n. 3 above), p. 476. Some contemporary reformers voiced the opinion that a mother's employment had a beneficial influence on her family. See Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid (n. 4 above), p. 17; and Merritt W. Pinckney, "Public Pensions to Widows: Experiences and Observations Which Lead Me to Favor Such a Law," in Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History, ed. Robert H. Bremner (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 370-73.
109. Skocpol (n. 3 above), p. 476. Some contemporary reformers voiced the opinion that a mother's employment had a beneficial influence on her family. See Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid (n. 4 above), p. 17; and Merritt W. Pinckney, "Public Pensions to Widows: Experiences and Observations Which Lead Me to Favor Such a Law," in Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History, ed. Robert H. Bremner (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 370-73.
110. Skocpol (n. 3 above), p. 476. Some contemporary reformers voiced the opinion that a mother's employment had a beneficial influence on her family. See Children's Bureau, Standards of Public Aid (n. 4 above), p. 17; and Merritt W. Pinckney, "Public Pensions to Widows: Experiences and Observations Which Lead Me to Favor Such a Law," in Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History, ed. Robert H. Bremner (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 370-73.
111. Goodwin (n. 3 above), pp. 246, 247.
112. Proceedings of the NCCC, 1912 (n. 50 above), pp. 395, 400.
113. Proceedings of the NCSW, 1926 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1926), p. 298.