Gender and Masculinity in South African Nationalist Discourse, 1912-1950

Feminist Studies

Volumn 29, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 653-671+676

  Erlank, Natasha ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG   (South Africa)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 1542398243     PISSN: 00463663     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (97)

1. Sheridan Johns, ed., Protest and Hope, 1882-1934, vol. 1 of From Protest to Challenge: A Documentary History of African Politics in South Africa, 1882-1964 (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1972), 317. In this article "African" refers to people of African descent (Bantu speakers) living in South Africa. The term "black" refers to a broader community of people 'discriminated against by racist legislation, including coloreds and Indians.
2. "Bantu and Politics," c. 1935, AD 843, Xuma Papers, box O, Department of Historical Papers, University of the Witwatersrand (hereafter cited as Wits).
3. See Phil Bonner, "The Transvaal Native Congress, 1917-1920: The Radicalisation of the Black Petty Bourgeoisie on the Rand," in Industrialization and Social Change in South Africa, ed. Shula Marks and Richard Rathbone (London: Longman, 1982), 270-313.
4. Cheryl Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa (Cape Town: David Philip, 1991); Julie Wells, We Now Demand: The History of Women's Resistance to Pass Laws in South Africa (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1993). Walker's preface contains a good review of this literature. Shireen Hassim, "Identities, Interests, and Constituencies: The Politics of the Women's Movement in South Africa, 1980-1990" (Ph.D. diss., York University, 2002).
5. Cheryl Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa (Cape Town: David Philip, 1991); Julie Wells, We Now Demand: The History of Women's Resistance to Pass Laws in South Africa (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1993). Walker's preface contains a good review of this literature. Shireen Hassim, "Identities, Interests, and Constituencies: The Politics of the Women's Movement in South Africa, 1980-1990" (Ph.D. diss., York University, 2002).
6. Cheryl Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa (Cape Town: David Philip, 1991); Julie Wells, We Now Demand: The History of Women's Resistance to Pass Laws in South Africa (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1993). Walker's preface contains a good review of this literature. Shireen Hassim, "Identities, Interests, and Constituencies: The Politics of the Women's Movement in South Africa, 1980-1990" (Ph.D. diss., York University, 2002).
7. Walker, ix-xiii.
8. Helen Bradford, "Women and the Beerhall Protests in the Natal Countryside in 1929," in Class, Community, and Conflict, ed. Belinda Bozzoli (Johannesburg: Ravan, 1987), 292-323; Natasha Erlank, "Gender and Christianity amongst Africans Attached to Scottish Mission Stations in Xhosaland in the Nineteenth Century" (Ph.D. diss., University of Cambridge, 1999); Deborah Gaitskell, "Devout Domesticity? A Century of African Women's Christianity in South Africa," in Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945, ed. Cheryl Walker (Cape Town: David Philip, 1990), 251-72; and Deborah Gaitskell, "Wailing for Purity: Prayer Unions, African Mothers, and Adolescent Daughters, 1912-1940," in Industrialization and Social Change in South Africa, 338-57.
9. Helen Bradford, "Women and the Beerhall Protests in the Natal Countryside in 1929," in Class, Community, and Conflict, ed. Belinda Bozzoli (Johannesburg: Ravan, 1987), 292-323; Natasha Erlank, "Gender and Christianity amongst Africans Attached to Scottish Mission Stations in Xhosaland in the Nineteenth Century" (Ph.D. diss., University of Cambridge, 1999); Deborah Gaitskell, "Devout Domesticity? A Century of African Women's Christianity in South Africa," in Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945, ed. Cheryl Walker (Cape Town: David Philip, 1990), 251-72; and Deborah Gaitskell, "Wailing for Purity: Prayer Unions, African Mothers, and Adolescent Daughters, 1912-1940," in Industrialization and Social Change in South Africa, 338-57.
10. Helen Bradford, "Women and the Beerhall Protests in the Natal Countryside in 1929," in Class, Community, and Conflict, ed. Belinda Bozzoli (Johannesburg: Ravan, 1987), 292-323; Natasha Erlank, "Gender and Christianity amongst Africans Attached to Scottish Mission Stations in Xhosaland in the Nineteenth Century" (Ph.D. diss., University of Cambridge, 1999); Deborah Gaitskell, "Devout Domesticity? A Century of African Women's Christianity in South Africa," in Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945, ed. Cheryl Walker (Cape Town: David Philip, 1990), 251-72; and Deborah Gaitskell, "Wailing for Purity: Prayer Unions, African Mothers, and Adolescent Daughters, 1912-1940," in Industrialization and Social Change in South Africa, 338-57.
11. Helen Bradford, "Women and the Beerhall Protests in the Natal Countryside in 1929," in Class, Community, and Conflict, ed. Belinda Bozzoli (Johannesburg: Ravan, 1987), 292-323; Natasha Erlank, "Gender and Christianity amongst Africans Attached to Scottish Mission Stations in Xhosaland in the Nineteenth Century" (Ph.D. diss., University of Cambridge, 1999); Deborah Gaitskell, "Devout Domesticity? A Century of African Women's Christianity in South Africa," in Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945, ed. Cheryl Walker (Cape Town: David Philip, 1990), 251-72; and Deborah Gaitskell, "Wailing for Purity: Prayer Unions, African Mothers, and Adolescent Daughters, 1912-1940," in Industrialization and Social Change in South Africa, 338-57.
12. Glenda E. Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Helen Bradford, "Mass Movements and the Petty Bourgeoisie: The Social Origins of ICU Leadership, 1924-1929," Journal of African History 25, no. 3 (1984): 295-310; Frene Ginwala, "Women and the African National Congress," Agenda, no. 8 (1990): 78; Iris Berger, Threads of Solidarity (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992); Mia Roth, "Josie Mpama: The Contribution of a Largely Forgotten Figure in the South African Liberation Struggle," Kleio 27 (1996): 120-36.
13. Glenda E. Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Helen Bradford, "Mass Movements and the Petty Bourgeoisie: The Social Origins of ICU Leadership, 1924-1929," Journal of African History 25, no. 3 (1984): 295-310; Frene Ginwala, "Women and the African National Congress," Agenda, no. 8 (1990): 78; Iris Berger, Threads of Solidarity (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992); Mia Roth, "Josie Mpama: The Contribution of a Largely Forgotten Figure in the South African Liberation Struggle," Kleio 27 (1996): 120-36.
14. Glenda E. Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Helen Bradford, "Mass Movements and the Petty Bourgeoisie: The Social Origins of ICU Leadership, 1924-1929," Journal of African History 25, no. 3 (1984): 295-310; Frene Ginwala, "Women and the African National Congress," Agenda, no. 8 (1990): 78; Iris Berger, Threads of Solidarity (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992); Mia Roth, "Josie Mpama: The Contribution of a Largely Forgotten Figure in the South African Liberation Struggle," Kleio 27 (1996): 120-36.
15. Glenda E. Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Helen Bradford, "Mass Movements and the Petty Bourgeoisie: The Social Origins of ICU Leadership, 1924-1929," Journal of African History 25, no. 3 (1984): 295-310; Frene Ginwala, "Women and the African National Congress," Agenda, no. 8 (1990): 78; Iris Berger, Threads of Solidarity (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992); Mia Roth, "Josie Mpama: The Contribution of a Largely Forgotten Figure in the South African Liberation Struggle," Kleio 27 (1996): 120-36.
16. Glenda E. Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Helen Bradford, "Mass Movements and the Petty Bourgeoisie: The Social Origins of ICU Leadership, 1924-1929," Journal of African History 25, no. 3 (1984): 295-310; Frene Ginwala, "Women and the African National Congress," Agenda, no. 8 (1990): 78; Iris Berger, Threads of Solidarity (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992); Mia Roth, "Josie Mpama: The Contribution of a Largely Forgotten Figure in the South African Liberation Struggle," Kleio 27 (1996): 120-36.
17. Ginwala, 78.
18. Laura Chrisman, "Fathering the Black Nation of South Africa," Social Dynamics 23 (Summer 1997): 57-73; Elaine Unterhalter, "The Work of the Nation: Heroic Masculinity in South African Autobiographical Writing of the Anti-Apartheid Struggle," Journal of Development Research 12 (December 2000): 157-78.
19. Laura Chrisman, "Fathering the Black Nation of South Africa," Social Dynamics 23 (Summer 1997): 57-73; Elaine Unterhalter, "The Work of the Nation: Heroic Masculinity in South African Autobiographical Writing of the Anti-Apartheid Struggle," Journal of Development Research 12 (December 2000): 157-78.
20. See, for example, Hazel Carby, Race Men (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998); Kevin Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
21. See, for example, Hazel Carby, Race Men (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998); Kevin Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
22. Bonner; Bradford, "Mass Movements and the Petty Bourgeoisie"; Alan Gregor Cobley, Class and Consciousness: The Black Petty Bourgeoisie in South Africa, 1924-1950 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990); Tim Couzens, "'Moralising Leisure Time': The Transatlantic Connection and Black Johannesburg, 1918-1936," in Industrialization and Social Change. The black middle class is generally referred to in the South African literature as the black petty bourgeoisie because it never achieved bourgeois power over resources.
23. Bonner; Bradford, "Mass Movements and the Petty Bourgeoisie"; Alan Gregor Cobley, Class and Consciousness: The Black Petty Bourgeoisie in South Africa, 1924-1950 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990); Tim Couzens, "'Moralising Leisure Time': The Transatlantic Connection and Black Johannesburg, 1918-1936," in Industrialization and Social Change. The black middle class is generally referred to in the South African literature as the black petty bourgeoisie because it never achieved bourgeois power over resources.
24. Bonner; Bradford, "Mass Movements and the Petty Bourgeoisie"; Alan Gregor Cobley, Class and Consciousness: The Black Petty Bourgeoisie in South Africa, 1924-1950 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990); Tim Couzens, "'Moralising Leisure Time': The Transatlantic Connection and Black Johannesburg, 1918-1936," in Industrialization and Social Change. The black middle class is generally referred to in the South African literature as the black petty bourgeoisie because it never achieved bourgeois power over resources.
25. Bradford, "Women and the Beerhall Protests."
26. Jane Starfield, "'Not Quite History': The Autobiographies of H. Selby Msimang and R.V. Selope Thema and the Writing of South African History," Social Dynamics 14 (December 1988): 17; Kathy Eales, "Patriarchs, Passes, and Privilege: Johannesburg's African Middle Classes and the Question of Night Passes for African Women, 1920-1931," in Holding Their Ground: Class, Locality, and Culture in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century South Africa, ed. Phil Bonner et al. (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1989), 116.
27. Jane Starfield, "'Not Quite History': The Autobiographies of H. Selby Msimang and R.V. Selope Thema and the Writing of South African History," Social Dynamics 14 (December 1988): 17; Kathy Eales, "Patriarchs, Passes, and Privilege: Johannesburg's African Middle Classes and the Question of Night Passes for African Women, 1920-1931," in Holding Their Ground: Class, Locality, and Culture in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century South Africa, ed. Phil Bonner et al. (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1989), 116.
28. Eales, 116.
29. Eales, 117; Carby, 33.
30. Eales, 117; Carby, 33.
31. Gaitskell, "Wailing for Purity."
32. Silas Molema to father, Silas Molema, 16 May 1920, Ms 979, Wits.
33. Stephen Gish, Alfred B. Xuma: African, American, South African (New York: New York University Press, 2000), 107.
34. Alfred Xuma, Autobiography, AD 843, Xuma Papers, box P, Wits.
35. Xuma to Max Yergan, AD 843, ABX 361127, Xuma Papers, Wits.
36. James Campbell, Songs of Zion: The African Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States and South Africa (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 276.
37. Iris Berger, "An African American 'Mother of the Nation': Madie Hall Xuma in South Africa, 1940-1963," Journal of Southern African Studies 27 (September 2001): 547-66.
38. For a similar situation in Southern Rhodesia, see Carol Summers, "Mission Boys, Civilized Men, and Marriage: Educated African Men in the Missions of Southern Rhodesia, 1920-1945," Journal of Religious History 23 (February 1999): 79; Deborah Gaitskell, "Housewives, Maids, or Mothers: Some Contradictions of Domesticity for Christian Women in Johannesburg, 1903-1939," Journal of African History 24, no. 2 (1983): 11-15; Modupe Labode, "From Heathen Kraal to Christian Home," in Women and Missions: Past and Present, ed. Fiona Bowie, Deborah Kirkwood, and Shirley Ardener (Providence, R.I.: Berg, 1993), 136-37; Shula Marks, ed., Not Either an Experimental Doll: The Separate Worlds of Three South African Women (Durban: Killie Campbell Africana Library and University of Natal Press, 1987), 36; Cobley, 38.
39. For a similar situation in Southern Rhodesia, see Carol Summers, "Mission Boys, Civilized Men, and Marriage: Educated African Men in the Missions of Southern Rhodesia, 1920-1945," Journal of Religious History 23 (February 1999): 79; Deborah Gaitskell, "Housewives, Maids, or Mothers: Some Contradictions of Domesticity for Christian Women in Johannesburg, 1903-1939," Journal of African History 24, no. 2 (1983): 11-15; Modupe Labode, "From Heathen Kraal to Christian Home," in Women and Missions: Past and Present, ed. Fiona Bowie, Deborah Kirkwood, and Shirley Ardener (Providence, R.I.: Berg, 1993), 136-37; Shula Marks, ed., Not Either an Experimental Doll: The Separate Worlds of Three South African Women (Durban: Killie Campbell Africana Library and University of Natal Press, 1987), 36; Cobley, 38.
40. For a similar situation in Southern Rhodesia, see Carol Summers, "Mission Boys, Civilized Men, and Marriage: Educated African Men in the Missions of Southern Rhodesia, 1920-1945," Journal of Religious History 23 (February 1999): 79; Deborah Gaitskell, "Housewives, Maids, or Mothers: Some Contradictions of Domesticity for Christian Women in Johannesburg, 1903-1939," Journal of African History 24, no. 2 (1983): 11-15; Modupe Labode, "From Heathen Kraal to Christian Home," in Women and Missions: Past and Present, ed. Fiona Bowie, Deborah Kirkwood, and Shirley Ardener (Providence, R.I.: Berg, 1993), 136-37; Shula Marks, ed., Not Either an Experimental Doll: The Separate Worlds of Three South African Women (Durban: Killie Campbell Africana Library and University of Natal Press, 1987), 36; Cobley, 38.
41. For a similar situation in Southern Rhodesia, see Carol Summers, "Mission Boys, Civilized Men, and Marriage: Educated African Men in the Missions of Southern Rhodesia, 1920-1945," Journal of Religious History 23 (February 1999): 79; Deborah Gaitskell, "Housewives, Maids, or Mothers: Some Contradictions of Domesticity for Christian Women in Johannesburg, 1903-1939," Journal of African History 24, no. 2 (1983): 11-15; Modupe Labode, "From Heathen Kraal to Christian Home," in Women and Missions: Past and Present, ed. Fiona Bowie, Deborah Kirkwood, and Shirley Ardener (Providence, R.I.: Berg, 1993), 136-37; Shula Marks, ed., Not Either an Experimental Doll: The Separate Worlds of Three South African Women (Durban: Killie Campbell Africana Library and University of Natal Press, 1987), 36; Cobley, 38.
42. For a similar situation in Southern Rhodesia, see Carol Summers, "Mission Boys, Civilized Men, and Marriage: Educated African Men in the Missions of Southern Rhodesia, 1920-1945," Journal of Religious History 23 (February 1999): 79; Deborah Gaitskell, "Housewives, Maids, or Mothers: Some Contradictions of Domesticity for Christian Women in Johannesburg, 1903-1939," Journal of African History 24, no. 2 (1983): 11-15; Modupe Labode, "From Heathen Kraal to Christian Home," in Women and Missions: Past and Present, ed. Fiona Bowie, Deborah Kirkwood, and Shirley Ardener (Providence, R.I.: Berg, 1993), 136-37; Shula Marks, ed., Not Either an Experimental Doll: The Separate Worlds of Three South African Women (Durban: Killie Campbell Africana Library and University of Natal Press, 1987), 36; Cobley, 38.
43. Zacchariah Keodirelang Matthews, Freedom for My People (Cape Town: David Philip, 1981), 12.
44. Xuma's Circular to Doctors on the Training of Non-European Nurses, AD 843, ABX 320814, Xuma Papers, Wits; Rheinallt Jones to ABX, ABX 321017, Xuma Papers, Wits.
45. Xuma's Circular to Doctors on the Training of Non-European Nurses, AD 843, ABX 320814, Xuma Papers, Wits; Rheinallt Jones to ABX, ABX 321017, Xuma Papers, Wits.
46. Xuma on Maxeke, AD 843, ABX 391016, Xuma Papers, Wits.
47. Campbell, 82-94.
48. Alfred Bitini Xuma, What an Educated African Girl Can Do (Women's Parent Mite Missionary Society, 1930), 10-11.
49. Xuma to J.S. Nkoane, AD 843, ABX 43120513, Xuma Papers, Wits; Berger, "An African American 'Mother of the Nation'"; Josie Mpama in Women and Gender, 89-91; Carter-Karis Microfilm Collection, 2: DA15:30/1; Report of the African Women's League of the African National Congress, 1947; Carby, 12; Unterhalter, 157, 159.
50. Xuma to J.S. Nkoane, AD 843, ABX 43120513, Xuma Papers, Wits; Berger, "An African American 'Mother of the Nation'"; Josie Mpama in Women and Gender, 89-91; Carter-Karis Microfilm Collection, 2: DA15:30/1; Report of the African Women's League of the African National Congress, 1947; Carby, 12; Unterhalter, 157, 159.
51. Xuma to J.S. Nkoane, AD 843, ABX 43120513, Xuma Papers, Wits; Berger, "An African American 'Mother of the Nation'"; Josie Mpama in Women and Gender, 89-91; Carter-Karis Microfilm Collection, 2: DA15:30/1; Report of the African Women's League of the African National Congress, 1947; Carby, 12; Unterhalter, 157, 159.
52. Xuma to J.S. Nkoane, AD 843, ABX 43120513, Xuma Papers, Wits; Berger, "An African American 'Mother of the Nation'"; Josie Mpama in Women and Gender, 89-91; Carter-Karis Microfilm Collection, 2: DA15:30/1; Report of the African Women's League of the African National Congress, 1947; Carby, 12; Unterhalter, 157, 159.
53. Xuma to J.S. Nkoane, AD 843, ABX 43120513, Xuma Papers, Wits; Berger, "An African American 'Mother of the Nation'"; Josie Mpama in Women and Gender, 89-91; Carter-Karis Microfilm Collection, 2: DA15:30/1; Report of the African Women's League of the African National Congress, 1947; Carby, 12; Unterhalter, 157, 159.
54. Xuma to J.S. Nkoane, AD 843, ABX 43120513, Xuma Papers, Wits; Berger, "An African American 'Mother of the Nation'"; Josie Mpama in Women and Gender, 89-91; Carter-Karis Microfilm Collection, 2: DA15:30/1; Report of the African Women's League of the African National Congress, 1947; Carby, 12; Unterhalter, 157, 159.
55. Xuma to J.S. Nkoane, AD 843, ABX 43120513, Xuma Papers, Wits; Berger, "An African American 'Mother of the Nation'"; Josie Mpama in Women and Gender, 89-91; Carter-Karis Microfilm Collection, 2: DA15:30/1; Report of the African Women's League of the African National Congress, 1947; Carby, 12; Unterhalter, 157, 159.
56. Carole Pateman, The Sexual Contract (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1988), 77-78.
57. Report and Resolution of the Conference of Chiefs and Leaders in the Cape Province Convened by the Government, 18 Sept. 1935, in Protest and Hope, 1: 22; "Bantu and Politics," c. 1935, AD 843, Xuma Papers, box O, Wits.
58. Report and Resolution of the Conference of Chiefs and Leaders in the Cape Province Convened by the Government, 18 Sept. 1935, in Protest and Hope, 1: 22; "Bantu and Politics," c. 1935, AD 843, Xuma Papers, box O, Wits.
59. Saul Dubow, Racial Segregation and the Origins of Apartheid in South Africa, 1919-1936 (Oxford: Macmillan, 1989), 132.
60. For a discussion of the African franchise and its erosion, see Les Switzer, Power and Resistance in an African Society: The Ciskei Xhosa and the Making of South Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), 141-55.
61. Joan W. Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 23.
62. Zaccheus Mahabane, "The Exclusion of the Bantu," Address to the Cape Province National Congress, 1921, in Protest and Hope, 1: 296.
63. Presidential Address, Friend, 25 June 1926, Carter-Karis Microfilm Collection, 2: DA14:99/10, Wits.
64. Mahabane's capitals, Carter-Karis Microfilm Collection, 2: DA14:30/9, Wits.
65. "The Black Man's Outlook," 2 May 1953, Unisa, ace. 101, Z.K. Matthews Collection, B4.17; in 1926, General Hertzog referred to the African as a child. Quoted in Dubow, 137.
66. Z.K. Matthews writing in 1953 on the same theme, see Unisa ace. 101, 84.17; Carter-Karis Microfilm Collection, 2: DA14:99/6, 4 Jan. 1926, and 99/10, also quoted in Friend, 25 June 1926.
67. Z.K. Matthews writing in 1953 on the same theme, see Unisa ace. 101, 84.17; Carter-Karis Microfilm Collection, 2: DA14:99/6, 4 Jan. 1926, and 99/10, also quoted in Friend, 25 June 1926.
68. Z.K. Matthews writing in 1953 on the same theme, see Unisa ace. 101, 84.17; Carter-Karis Microfilm Collection, 2: DA14:99/6, 4 Jan. 1926, and 99/10, also quoted in Friend, 25 June 1926.
69. Carter-Karis Microfilm Collection, 2: DA14:99/14.
70. "The Problems of Bantu Youth," Unisa, ace. 101, F1.2; Chrisman, 57-58; "The Black Man," 1953, Unisa, ace. 101, B4.17.
71. "The Problems of Bantu Youth," Unisa, ace. 101, F1.2; Chrisman, 57-58; "The Black Man," 1953, Unisa, ace. 101, B4.17.
72. "The Problems of Bantu Youth," Unisa, ace. 101, F1.2; Chrisman, 57-58; "The Black Man," 1953, Unisa, ace. 101, B4.17.
73. Carter-Karis Microfilm Collection, 2:DA14:30/2.
74. Bonner, 297; Gaitskell, "Wailing for Purity," 339. Working-class Africans living in urban areas-many of them migrant laborers and living alone-did not aspire to a middle-class lifestyle and suffered less of a contraction in their lifestyles; Evidence to the Native Economic Commission, 1932, AD 843, Xuma Papers, box A, Wits.
75. Bonner, 297; Gaitskell, "Wailing for Purity," 339. Working-class Africans living in urban areas-many of them migrant laborers and living alone-did not aspire to a middle-class lifestyle and suffered less of a contraction in their lifestyles; Evidence to the Native Economic Commission, 1932, AD 843, Xuma Papers, box A, Wits.
76. Bonner, 297; Gaitskell, "Wailing for Purity," 339. Working-class Africans living in urban areas-many of them migrant laborers and living alone-did not aspire to a middle-class lifestyle and suffered less of a contraction in their lifestyles; Evidence to the Native Economic Commission, 1932, AD 843, Xuma Papers, box A, Wits.
77. Ibid., 272; Cobley, 11-12; "Native Laws Inquiry Commission," 1946, Unisa, acc. 101, B4-5.
78. Ibid., 272; Cobley, 11-12; "Native Laws Inquiry Commission," 1946, Unisa, acc. 101, B4-5.
79. Ibid., 272; Cobley, 11-12; "Native Laws Inquiry Commission," 1946, Unisa, acc. 101, B4-5.
80. Howard Pim Papers, A 881, FA9/1 and FAg/6, Wits; Housing of Natives, 26 Jan. 1923, A 881, FA9/5, Wits.
81. Howard Pim Papers, A 881, FA9/1 and FAg/6, Wits; Housing of Natives, 26 Jan. 1923, A 881, FA9/5, Wits.
82. Bales, 105; Bradford, "Mass Movements and the Petty Bourgeoisie"; Maxeke, in Campbell.
83. Bales, 105; Bradford, "Mass Movements and the Petty Bourgeoisie"; Maxeke, in Campbell.
84. Bales, 105; Bradford, "Mass Movements and the Petty Bourgeoisie"; Maxeke, in Campbell.
85. Youth League Manifesto in Protest and Hope, 1: 300-7.
86. For the Hertzog bills, see Dubow; Paul Rich, State Power and Black Politics in South Africa, 1921-1951 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996); C.M. Tatz, Shadow and Substance in South Africa: A Study in Land and Franchise Policies Affecting Africans, 1910-1960 (Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1962); Eddie Roux, Time Longer Than Rope: The Black Man's Struggle for Freedom in South Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), 289.
87. For the Hertzog bills, see Dubow; Paul Rich, State Power and Black Politics in South Africa, 1921-1951 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996); C.M. Tatz, Shadow and Substance in South Africa: A Study in Land and Franchise Policies Affecting Africans, 1910-1960 (Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1962); Eddie Roux, Time Longer Than Rope: The Black Man's Struggle for Freedom in South Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), 289.
88. For the Hertzog bills, see Dubow; Paul Rich, State Power and Black Politics in South Africa, 1921-1951 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996); C.M. Tatz, Shadow and Substance in South Africa: A Study in Land and Franchise Policies Affecting Africans, 1910-1960 (Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1962); Eddie Roux, Time Longer Than Rope: The Black Man's Struggle for Freedom in South Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), 289.
89. Gilbert Coka, "The African Liberator," October 1935, in Protest and Hope, 1: 16.
90. Don Davidson Tengo Jabavu, The Findings of the All-African Convention (All-African Convention, 1935).
91. Tatz, 56-65; Walker, 19-24.
92. Tatz, 56-65; Walker, 19-24.
93. The phrase is the AAC's own; Jabavu, 6, 30, 34.
94. Thomas Karis, ed., Hope and Challenge, 1935-1952, vol. 2 of From Protest to Challenge: A Documentary History of African Politics in South Africa, 1882-1964 (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1973), 92-98; Tatz, 108-10; Margaret Ballinger almost lost her election as one of the white senators because of the apparent reluctance of the chiefs to vote for a woman (Roux, 296).
95. Thomas Karis, ed., Hope and Challenge, 1935-1952, vol. 2 of From Protest to Challenge: A Documentary History of African Politics in South Africa, 1882-1964 (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1973), 92-98; Tatz, 108-10; Margaret Ballinger almost lost her election as one of the white senators because of the apparent reluctance of the chiefs to vote for a woman (Roux, 296).
96. "The Black Man's Outlook," Unisa, acc. 101, B4.17; "Report and Resolution of the Conference of Chiefs and Leaders in the Cape Province," in Hope and Challenge, 2: 22.
97. "The Black Man's Outlook," Unisa, acc. 101, B4.17; "Report and Resolution of the Conference of Chiefs and Leaders in the Cape Province," in Hope and Challenge, 2: 22.