Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α target genes

Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences

Volumn 61, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 393-416

  Mandard, S ^a   Muller M ^a   Kersten, S ^a  

^a WAGENINGEN UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Lipid metabolism; PPAR response element; PPAR ; Target genes; Transcriptional regulation

Indexed keywords

BILE ACID; FATTY ACID; GLUCOSE; HORMONE RECEPTOR; LIPOPROTEIN; LONG CHAIN FATTY ACID; UNCOUPLING PROTEIN;

BILE ACID METABOLISM; BIOTRANSFORMATION; CARCINOGENESIS; CELL FUNCTION; CELL PROLIFERATION; DNA RESPONSIVE ELEMENT; FATTY ACID OXIDATION; FATTY ACID TRANSPORT; GENE CONTROL; GENE FUNCTION; GENE TARGETING; GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION; GLUCONEOGENESIS; GLUCOSE METABOLISM; GLYCOGEN SYNTHESIS; GLYCOLYSIS; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMAN; HYDROXYLATION; INFLAMMATION; INTESTINE ABSORPTION; KETOGENESIS; LIPOGENESIS; LIPOPROTEIN METABOLISM; MITOCHONDRION; NONHUMAN; OXIDATION; PEROXISOME; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PROTEIN METABOLISM; REVIEW; UREA CYCLE; WHITE ADIPOSE TISSUE;

ANIMALS; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; FATTY ACIDS; GENE EXPRESSION PROFILING; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION; HUMANS; MITOCHONDRIA; ORGAN SPECIFICITY; OXIDATION-REDUCTION; PEROXISOMES; RECEPTORS, CYTOPLASMIC AND NUCLEAR; TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS;

EID: 1542283630     PISSN: 1420682X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00018-003-3216-3     Document Type: Review

References (194)

1. Issemann I. and Green S. (1990) Activation of a member of the steroid hormone receptor superfamily by peroxisome proliferators. Nature 347: 645-650
2. Dreyer C., Krey G., Keller H., Givel F., Helftenbein G. and Wahli W. (1992) Control of the peroxisomal beta-oxidation pathway by a novel family of nuclear hormone receptors. Cell 68: 879-887
3. Dreyer C., Keller H., Mahfoudi A., Laudet V., Krey G. and Wahli W. (1993) Positive regulation of the peroxisomal beta-oxidation pathway by fatty acids through activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR). Biol. Cell. 77: 67-76
4. Escher P., Braissant O., Basu-Modak S., Michalik L., Wahli W. and Desvergne B. (2001) Rat PPARs: quantitative analysis in adult rat tissues and regulation in fasting and refeeding. Endocrinology 142: 4195-4202
5. Tugwood J. D., Holden P. R., James N. H., Prince R. A. and Roberts R. A. (1998) A peroxisome proliferator activated receptor- alphα (PPARα) cDNA cloned from guinea-pig liver encodes a protein with similar properties to the mouse PPARα: implications for species differences in responses to peroxisome proliferators. Arch. Toxicol. 72: 169-177
6. Sher T., Yi H. F., McBride O. W. and Gonzalez F. J. (1993) cDNA cloning, chromosomal mapping and functional characterization of the human peroxisome proliferator activated receptor. Biochemistry 32: 5598-5604
7. Diot C. and Douaire M. (1999) Characterization of a cDNA sequence encoding the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha in the chicken. Poult. Sci. 78: 1198-1202
8. Escriva H., Safi R., Hanni C., Langlois M. C., Saumitou-Laprade P., Stehelin D. et al. (1997) Ligand binding was acquired during evolution of nuclear receptors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94: 6803-6888
9. Ibabe A., Grabenbauer M., Baumgart E., Fahimi H. D. and Cajaraville M. P. (2002) Expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Histochem. Cell. Biol. 118: 231-239
10. Kliewer S. A., Forman B. M., Blumberg B., Ong E. S., Borgmeyer U., Mangelsdorf D. J. et al. (1994) Differential expression and activation of a family of murine peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 7355-7359
11. Mukherjee R., Jow L., Noonan D. and McDonnell D. P. (1994) Human and rat peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPARs) demonstrate similar tissue distribution but different responsiveness to PPAR activators. J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 51: 157-166
12. Braissant O., Foufelle F., Scotto C., Dauca M. and Wahli W. (1996) Differential expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs): tissue distribution of PPAR-alpha, -beta and -gamma in the adult rat. Endocrinology 137: 354-366
13. Desvergne B. and Wahli W. (1999) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors: nuclear control of metabolism. Endocr. Rev. 20: 649-688
14. Kersten S., Desvergne B. and Wahli W (2000) Roles of PPARs in health and disease. Nature 405: 421-424
15. IJpenberg A., Jeannin E., Wahli W. and Desvergne B. (1997) Polarity and specific sequence requirements of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)/retinoid X receptor heterodimer binding to DNA. A functional analysis of the malic enzyme gene PPAR response element. J. Biol. Chem. 272: 20108-20117
16. Hoekstra M., Kruijt J. K., Van Eck M. and Van Berkel T. J. (2003) Specific gene expression of ATP-binding cassette transporters and nuclear hormone receptors in rat liver parenchymal, endothelial and Kupffer cells. J. Biol. Chem. 10.1074/jbc.M301189200
17. Hellemans K., Michalik L., Dittie A., Knorr A., Rombouts K., De Jong J. et al. (2003) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-beta signaling contributes to enhanced proliferation of hepatic stellate cells. Gastroenterology 124: 184-201
18. Peters J. M., Rusyn I., Rose M. L., Gonzalez F. J. and Thurman R. G. (2000) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha is restricted to hepatic parenchymal cells, not Kupffer cells: implications for the mechanism of action of peroxisome proliferators in hepatocarcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis 21: 823-826
19. Auboeuf D., Rieusset J., Fajas L., Vallier P., Frering V. et al. (1999) Tissue distribution and quantification of the expression of mRNAs of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors and liver X receptor α in humans: no alteration in adipose tissue of obese and NIDDM patients. Diabetes 46: 1319-1327
20. Braissant O. and Wahli W. (1998) Differential expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha, -beta and -gamma during rat embryonic development. Endocrinology 139: 2748-2754
21. Loviscach M., Rehman N., Carter L., Mudaliar S., Mohadeen P., Ciaraldi T. P. et al. (2000) Distribution of peroxisome proliferators-activated receptors (PPARs) in human skeletal muscle and adipose tissue: relation to insulin action. Diabetologia 43: 304-311
22. Chinetti G., Griglio S., Antonucci M., Torra I. P., Delerive P., Majd Z. et al. (1998) Activation of proliferator-activated receptors alpha and gamma induces apoptosis of human monocyte-derived macrophages. J. Biol. Chem. 273: 25573-25580
23. Chinetti G., Gbaguidi F. G., Griglio S., Mallat Z., Antonucci M., Poulain P. et al. (2000) CLA-1/SR-BI is expressed in atherosclerotic lesion macrophages and regulated by activators of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Circulation 101: 2411-2417
24. Chinetti G., Lestavel S., Bocher V., Remaley A. T., Neve B., Torra I. P. et al. (2001) PPAR-alpha and PPAR-gamma activators induce cholesterol removal from human macrophage foam cells through stimulation of the ABCA1 pathway. Nat. Med. 7: 53-58
25. Gbaguidi F. G., Chinetti G., Milosavljevic D., Teissier E., Chapman J., Olivecrona G. et al. (2002) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) agonists decrease lipoprotein lipase secretion and glycated LDL uptake by human macrophages. FEBS Lett. 512: 85-90
26. Marx N., Mackman N., Schönbeck U., Yilmaz N., Hombach V., Libby P et al. (2001) PPARα activators inhibit tissue factor expression and activity in human monocytes. Circulation 103: 213-219
27. Neve B. P., Corseaux D., Chinetti G., Zawadzki C., Fruchart J. C., Duriez P. et al. (2001) PPARalpha agonists inhibit tissue factor expression in human monocytes and macrophages. Circulation 103: 207-212
28. Cunard R., Ricote M., DiCampli D., Archer D. C., Kahn D. A., Glass C. K. et al. (2002) Regulation of cytokine expression by ligands of peroxisome proliferator activated receptors. J. Immunol. 168: 2795-2802
29. Jones D. C., Ding X. and Daynes R. A. (2002) Nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) is expressed in resting murine lymphocytes. The PPAR-alpha in T and B lymphocytes is both transactivation and transrepression competent. J. Biol. Chem. 277: 6838-6845
30. Marx N., Kehrle B., Kohlhammer K., Grub M., Koenig W., Hombach V. et al. (2002) PPAR activators as anti-inflammatory mediators in human T Lymphocytes-implications for atherosclerosis and transplantation-associated arteriosclerosis. Circ. Res. 90: 703-710
31. Staels B., Koenig W., Habib A., Merval R., Lebret M., Pineda-Torra I. et al. (1998) Activation of human aortic smooth-muscle cells is inhibited by PPARα activators but not by PPARγ activators. Nature 393: 790-793
32. Marx N., Sukhova G., Collins T., Libby P. and Plutzky J. (1999) PPARα activators inhibit cytokine-induced vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression in human endothelial cells. Circulation 99: 3125-3131
33. Delerive P., Martin-Nizard F., Chinetti G., Trottein F., Fruchart J. C., Najib J. et al. (1999) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activators inhibit thrombin-induced endothelin-1 production in human vascular endothelial cells by inhibiting the activator protein-1 signaling pathway. Circ. Res. 85: 394-402
34. Inoue I., Shino K., Noji S., Awata T. and Katayama S. (1998) Expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) in primary cultures of human vascular endothelial cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 246: 370-374
35. Keller H., Dreyer C., Medin J., Mahfoudi A., Ozato K. and Wahli W. (1993) Fatty acids and retinoids control lipid metabolism through activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-retinoid X receptor heterodimers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90: 2160-2164
36. Forman B. M., Chen J. and Evans R. M. (1997) Hypolipidemic drugs, polyunsaturated fatty acids and eicosanoids are ligands for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha and delta. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94: 4312-4317
37. Yu K., Bayona W., Kallen C. B., Harding H. P., Ravera C. P., McMahon G. et al. (1995) Differential activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors by eicosanoids. J. Biol. Chem. 270: 23975-23983
38. Devchand P. R., Keller H., Peters J. M., Vazquez M., Gonzalez F. J. and Wahli W. (1996) The PPARalpha-leukotriene B4 pathway to inflammation control. Nature 384: 39-43
39. Kersten S., Seydoux J., Peters J. M., Gonzalez F. J., Desvergne B. and Wahli W. (1999) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha mediates the adaptive response to fasting. J. Clin. Invest. 103: 1489-1498
40. Leone T. C., Weinheimer C. J. and Kelly D. P. (1999) A critical role for the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) in the cellular fasting response: the PPARalpha-null mouse as a model of fatty acid oxidation disorders. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96: 7473-7478
41. Ren B., Thelen A. and Jump D. B. (1996) Peroxisome proliferator- activated receptor alpha inhibits hepatic S14 gene transcription. Evidence against the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha as the mediator of polyunsaturated fatty acid regulation of s14 gene transcription. J. Biol. Chem. 271: 17167-17173
42. Fruchart J. C., Duriez P. and Staels B. (1999) Molecular mechanism of action of the fibrates. J. Soc. Biol. 193: 67-75
43. Anderson S. P., Yoon L., Richard E. B., Dunn C. S., Cattley R. C. and Corton J. C. (2002) Delayed liver regeneration in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α-null mice. Hepatology 36: 544-554
44. Rao M. S., Peters J. M., Gonzalez F. J. and Reddy J. K. (2002) Hepatic regeneration in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha-null mice after partial hepatectomy. Hepatol. Res. 22: 52-57
45. Choudhury A. I., Chahal S., Bell A. R., Tomlinson S. R., Roberts R. A., Salter A. M. et al. (2000) Species differences in peroxisome proliferation; mechanisms and relevance. Mutat. Res. 448: 201-212
46. Lee S. S., Pineau T., Drago J., Lee E. J., Owens J. W., Kroetz D. L. et al. (1995) Targeted disruption of the alpha isoform of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gene in mice results in abolishment of the pleiotropic effects of peroxisome proliferators. Mol. Cell. Biol. 15: 3012-3022
47. Palmer C. N., Hsu M. H., Griffin K. J., Raucy J. L. and Johnson E. F. (1998) Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-alpha expression in human liver. Mol. Pharmacol. 53: 14-22
48. Lawrence J. W., Li Y., Chen S., DeLuca J. G., Berger J. P., Umbenhauer D. R. et al. (2001) Differential gene regulation in human versus rodent hepatocytes by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) alpha. PPAR alpha fails to induce peroxisome proliferation-associated genes in human cells independently of the level of receptor expression. J. Biol. Chem. 276: 31521-31527
49. Hsu M. H., Savas U., Griffin K. J. and Johnson E. F. (2001) Identification of peroxisome proliferator-responsive human genes by elevated expression of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha in HepG2 cells. J. Biol. Chem. 276: 27950-27958
50. Martin G., Schoonjans K., Lefebvre A. M., Staels B. and Auwerx J. (1997) Coordinate regulation of the expression of the fatty acid transport protein and acyl-CoA synthetase genes by PPARalpha and PPARgamma activators. J. Biol. Chem. 272: 28210-28217
51. Frohnert B. I., Hui T. Y. and Bernlohr D. A. (1999) Identification of a functional peroxisome proliferator-responsive element in the murine fatty acid transport protein gene. J. Biol. Chem. 274: 3970-3977
52. Motojima K., Passilly P., Peters J. M., Gonzalez F. J. and Latruffe N. (1998) Expression of putative fatty acid transporter genes are regulated by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha and gamma activators in a tissue- and inducer-specific manner. J. Biol. Chem. 273: 16710-16714
53. Sato O., Kuriki C., Fukui Y. and Motojima K. (2002) Dual promoter structure of mouse and human fatty acid translocase/CD36 genes and unique transcriptional activation by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha and gamma ligands J. Biol. Chem. 277: 15703-15711
54. Schoonjans K., Watanabe M., Suzuki H., Mahfoudi A., Krey G., Wahli W. et al. (1995) Induction of the acyl-coenzyme A synthetase gene by fibrates and fatty acids is mediated by a peroxisome proliferator response element in the C promoter. J. Biol. Chem. 270: 19269-19276
55. Wolfrum C., Borrmann C. M., Borchers T. and Spener F. (2001) Fatty acids and hypolipidemic drugs regulate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors alpha- and gamma-mediated gene expression via liver fatty acid binding protein: a signaling path to the nucleus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98: 2323-2328
56. Tan N. S., Shaw N. S., Vinckenbosch N., Liu P., Yasmin R., Desvergne B. et al. (2002) Selective cooperation between fatty acid binding proteins and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors in regulating transcription. Mol. Cell. Biol. 22: 5114-5127
57. Poirier H., Niot I., Monnot M. C., Braissant O., Meunier-Durmort C., Costet P. et al. (2001) Differential involvement of peroxisome-proliferator- activated receptors alpha and delta in fibrate and fatty-acid-mediated inductions of the gene encoding liver fatty-acid-binding protein in the liver and the small intestine. Biochem. J. 355: 481-488
58. Elholm M., Bjerking G., Knudsen J., Kristiansen K. and Mandrup S. (1996) Regulatory elements in the promoter region of the rat gene encoding the acyl-CoA-binding protein. Gene 173: 233-238
59. Helledie T., Grontved L., Jensen S. S., Kiilerich P., Rietveld L., Albrektsen T. et al. (2002) The gene encoding the acyl-CoA-binding protein is activated by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma through an intronic response element functionally conserved between humans and rodents. J. Biol. Chem. 277: 26821-26830
60. Brandt J. M., Djouadi F. and Kelly D. P. (1998) Fatty acids activate transcription of the muscle carnitine palmitoyltransferase I gene in cardiac myocytes via the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha. J. Biol. Chem. 273: 23786-23792
61. Mascaro C., Acosta E., Ortiz J. A., Marrero P. F., Hegardt F. G. and Haro D. (1998) Control of human muscle-type carnitine palmitoyltransferase I gene transcription by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor. J. Biol. Chem. 273: 8560-8563
62. Yu G. S., Lu Y. C. and Gulick T. (1998) Co-regulation of tissue-specific alternative human carnitine palmitoyltransferase Iβ gene promoters by fatty acid enzyme substrate. J. Biol. Chem. 273: 32901-32909
63. Aoyama T., Peters J. M., Iritani N., Nakajima T., Furihata K., Hashimoto T. et al. (1998) Altered constitutive expression of fatty acid-metabolizing enzymes in mice lacking the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha). J. Biol. Chem. 273: 5678-5684
64. Hashimoto T., Fujita T., Usuda N., Cook W., Qi C., Peters J. M. et al. (1999) Peroxisomal and mitochondrial fatty acid beta-oxidation in mice nullizygous for both peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha and peroxisomal fatty acyl-CoA oxidase. Genotype correlation with fatty liver phenotype. J. Biol. Chem. 274: 19228-19236
65. Louet J. F., Chatelain F., Decaux J. F., Park E. A., Kohl C., Pineau T. et al. (2001) Long-chain fatty acids regulate liver carnitine palmitoyltransferase I gene (L-CPT I) expression through a peroxisome- proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha)-independent pathway. Biochem. J. 354: 189-197
66. Young M. E., Goodwin G. W., Ying J., Guthrie P., Wilson C. R., Laws F. A. et al. (2001) Regulation of cardiac and skeletal muscle malonyl-CoA decarboxylase by fatty acids. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 280: 471-479
67. Campbell F. M., Kozak R., Wagner A., Altarejos J. Y., Dyck J. R., Belke D. D. et al. (2002) A role for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) in the control of cardiac malonyl-CoA levels: reduced fatty acid oxidation rates and increased glucose oxidation rates in the hearts of mice lacking PPARalpha are associated with higher concentrations of malonyl-CoA and reduced expression of malonyl-CoA decarboxylase. J. Biol. Chem. 277: 4098-4103
68. Barrero M. J., Camarero N., Marrero P. F. and Haro D. (2003) Control of human carnitine palmitoyltransferase II gene transcription by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor through a partially conserved PPRE. Biochem. J. 369: 721-729
69. Gulick T., Cresci S., Caira T., Moore D. D. and Kelly D. P. (1994) The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor regulates mitochondrial fatty acid oxidative enzyme gene expression. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 11012-11016
70. Fourcade S., Savary S., Albet S., Gauthe D., Gondcaille C., Pineau T. et al. (2001) Fibrate induction of the adrenoleukodystrophy-related gene (ABCD2): promoter analysis and role of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor PPARalpha. Eur. J. Biochem. 268: 3490-3500
71. Borst P. and Elferink R. O. (2002) Mammalian ABC transporters in health and disease. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 71: 537-592
72. Tugwood J. D., Issemann I., Anderson R. G., Bundell K. R., McPheat W. L. and Green S. (1992) The mouse peroxisome proliferator activated receptor recognizes a response element in the 5′ flanking sequence of the rat acyl CoA oxidase gene. EMBO J. 11: 433-439
73. Zhang B., Marcus S. L., Sajjadi F. G., Alvares K., Reddy J. K., Subramani S. et al. (1992) Identification of a peroxisome proliferator- responsive element upstream of the gene encoding rat peroxisomal enoyl-CoA hydratase/3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89: 7541-7545
74. Bardot O., Aldridge T. C., Latruffe N. and Green S. (1993) PPAR-RXR heterodimer activates a peroxisome proliferator response element upstream of the bifunctional enzyme gene. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 192: 37-45
75. Marcus S. L., Miyata K. S., Zhang B., Subramani S., Rachubinski R. A. and Capone J. P. (1993) Diverse peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors bind to the peroxisome proliferator-responsive elements of the rat hydratase/dehydrogenase and fatty acyl-CoA oxidase genes but differentially induce expression. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90: 5723-5727
76. Chu R., Lin Y., Rao M. S. and Reddy J. K. (1995) Cooperative formation of higher order peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor and retinoid X receptor complexes on the peroxisome proliferator responsive element of the rat hydratase-dehydrogenase gene. J. Biol. Chem. 270: 29636-29639
77. Hashimoto T., Cook W. S., Qi C., Yeldandi A. V., Reddy J. K. and Rao M. S. (2000) Defect in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha-inducible fatty acid oxidation determines the severity of hepatic steatosis in response to fasting. J. Biol. Chem. 275: 28918-28928
78. Bardot O., Clemencet M. C., Passilly P. and Latruffe N. (1995) The analysis of modified peroxisome proliferator responsive elements of the peroxisomal bifunctional enzyme in transfected HepG2 cells reveals two regulatory motifs. FEBS Lett. 360: 183-186
79. Nicolas-Frances V., Dasari V. K., Abruzzi E., Osumi T. and Latruffe N. (2000) The peroxisome proliferator response element (PPRE) present at positions -681/-669 in the rat liver 3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase B gene functionally interacts differently with PPARalpha and HNF-4. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 269: 347-351
80. Hunt M. C., Lindquist P. J., Peters J. M., Gonzalez F. J., Diczfalusy U. and Alexson S. E. (2000) Involvement of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha in regulating long-chain acyl-CoA thioesterases. J. Lipid. Res. 41: 814-823
81. Hunt M. C., Solaas K., Kase B. F. and Alexson S. E. (2002) Characterization of an acyl-coA thioesterase that functions as a major regulator of peroxisomal lipid metabolism. J. Biol. Chem. 277: 1128-1138
82. Lopez D., Irby R. B. and McLean M. P. (2003) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α induces rat sterol carrier protein X promoter activity through two peroxisome proliferator-response elements. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 205: 169-184
83. Girnun G. D., Domann F. E., Moore S. A. and Robbins M. E. (2002) Identification of a functional peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor response element in the rat catalase promoter. Mol. Endocrinol. 16: 2793-2801
84. MacDonald N., Barrow K., Tonge R., Davison M., Roberts R. A. and Chevalier S. (2000) PPARα-dependent alteration of GRP94 expression in mouse hepatocytes. Biochem. Biophys. Research. Commun. 277: 699-704
85. Meyer K., Völkl A., Endele R., Kühnle H. F. and Pill J. (1999) Species differences in induction of hepatic enzymes by BM 17.0744, an activator of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα). Arch. Toxicol. 73: 440-450
86. White I. R., Man W. J., Bryant D., Bugelski P., Camilleri P., Cutler P. et al. (2003) Protein expression changes in the Sprague Dawley rat liver proteome following administration of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha and gamma ligands. Proteomics 3: 505-512
87. Yoo H. Y., Chang M. S. and Rho H. M. (1999) Induction of the rat Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase gene through the peroxisome proliferator-responsive element by arachidonic acid. Gene 234: 87-91
88. Johnson E. F., Palmer C. N., Griffin K. J. and Hsu M. H. (1996) Role of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor in cytochrome P450 4A gene regulation. FASEB J. 10: 1241-1248
89. Aldridge T. C., Tugwood J. D., and Green S. (1995) Identification and characterization of DNA elements implicated in the regulation of CYP4A1 transcription. Biochem. J. 306: 473-479
90. Kroetz D. L., Yook P., Costet P., Bianchi P. and Pineau T. (1998) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha controls the hepatic CYP4A induction adaptive response to starvation and diabetes. J. Biol. Chem. 273: 31581-31589
91. Muerhoff A. S., Griffin K. J. and Johnson E. F. (1992) The peroxisome proliferator activated receptor mediates the induction of CYP4A6, a cytochrome P450 fatty acid omega-hydroxylase, by clofibric acid. J. Biol.Chem. 267: 19051-19053
92. Palmer C. N., Hsu M. H., Muerhoff A. S., Griffin K. J. and Johnson E. F. (1994) Interaction of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor a with the retinoid X receptor a unmasks a cryptic peroxisome proliferator response element that overlaps an ARP-1 binding site in the CYP4A6 promoter. J. Biol. Chem. 269: 18083-18089
93. Rodriguez J. C., Gil-Gomez G., Hegardt F. G. and Haro D. (1994) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor mediates induction of the mitochondrial 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA synthase gene by fatty acids. J. Biol. Chem. 269: 18767-18772
94. Hegardt F. G. (1998) Transcriptional regulation of mitochondrial HMG-CoA synthase in the control of ketogenesis. Biochimie 80: 803-806
95. Le May C., Pineau T., Bigot K., Kohl C., Girard J. and Pegorier J. P. (2000) Reduced hepatic fatty acid oxidation in fasting PPARalpha null mice is due to impaired mitochondrial hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA synthase gene expression. FEBS Lett. 475: 163-166
96. Ortiz J. A., Mallolas J., Nicot C., Bofarull J., Rodriguez J. C., Hegardt F. G. et al. (1999) Isolation of pig mitochondrial 3-hydroxy-3- methylglutaryl-CoA synthase gene promoter: characterization of a peroxisome proliferator-responsive element. Biochem J. 337: 329-335
97. Meertens L. M., Miyata K. S., Cechetto J. D., Rachubinski R. A. and Capone J. P. (1998) A mitochondrial ketogenic enzyme regulates its gene expression by association with the nuclear hormone receptor PPARalpha. EMBO J. 17: 6972-6978
98. Castelein H., Gulick T., Declercq P. E., Mannaerts G. P., Moore D. D. and Baes M. I. (1994) The peroxisome proliferator activated receptor regulates malic enzyme gene expression. J. Biol. Chem. 269: 26754-26758
99. Miller C. W. and Ntambi J. M. (1996) Peroxisome proliferators induce mouse liver stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 gene expression. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93: 9443-9448
100. Guillou H., Martin P., Jan S., D'Andrea S., Roulet A., Catheline D. et al. (2002) Comparative effect of fenofibrate on hepatic desaturases in wild-type and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α-deficient mice. Lipids 37: 981-989
101. Tang C., Cho H. P., Nakamura M. T. and Clarke S. D. (2003) Regulation of human delta-6 desaturase gene transcription: identification of a functional direct repeat-1 element. J. Lipid. Res. 44: 686-695
102. Matsuzaka T., Shimano H., Yahagi N., Amemiya-Kudo M., Yoshikawa T., Hasty A. H. et al. (2002) Dual regulation of mouse Delta(5)- and Delta(6)-desaturase gene expression by SREBP-1 and PPARalpha. J. Lipid Res. 43: 107-114
103. Tabor D. E., Kim J. B., Spiegelman B. M. and Edwards P. A. (1999) Identification of conserved cis-elements and transcription factors required for sterol-regulated transcription of stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 and 2. J. Biol. Chem. 274: 20603-20610
104. Vu-Dac N., Schoonjans K., Laine B., Fruchart J. C., Auwerx J. and Staels B. (1994) Negative regulation of the human apolipoprotein A-I promoter by fibrates can be attenuated by the interaction of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor with its response element. J. Biol. Chem. 269: 31012-31018
105. Vu-Dac N., Chopin-Delannoy S., Gervois P., Bonnelye E., Martin G., Fruchart J. C. et al. (1998) The nuclear receptors peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha and Rev-er-balpha mediate the species-specific regulation of apolipoprotein A-I expression by fibrates. J. Biol. Chem. 273: 25713-25720
106. Berthou L., Duverger N., Emmanuel F., Langouet S., Auwerx J., Guillouzo A. et al. (1996) Opposite regulation of human versus mouse apolipoprotein A-I by fibrates in human apolipoprotein A-I transgenic mice. J. Clin. Invest. 97: 2408-2416
107. Peters J. M., Hennuyer N., Staels B., Fruchart J. C., Fievet C., Gonzalez F. J. et al. (1997) Alterations in lipoprotein metabolism in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha-deficient mice. J. Biol. Chem. 272: 27307-27312
108. Berthou L., Saladin R., Yaqoob P., Branellec D., Calder P., Fruchart J. C. et al. (1995) Regulation of rat liver apolipoprotein A-I, apolipoprotein A-II and acyl-coenzyme A oxidase gene expression by fibrates and dietary fatty acids. Eur. J. Biochem. 232: 179-187
109. Raspe E., Madsen L., Lefebvre A. M., Leitersdorf I., Gelman L., Peinado-Onsurbe J. et al. (1999) Modulation of rat liver apolipoprotein gene expression and serum lipid levels by tetradecylthioacetic acid (TTA) via PPARalpha activation. J. Lipid. Res. 40: 2099-2110
110. Gervois P., Chopin-Delannoy S., Fadel A., Dubois G., Kosykh V., Fruchart J. C. et al. (1999) Fibrates increase human REVERBalpha expression in liver via a novel peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor response element. Mol. Endocrinol. 13: 400-409
111. Vu-Dac N., Schoonjans K., Kosykh V., Dallongeville J., Fruchart J. C., Staels B. et al. (1995) Fibrates increase human apolipoprotein A-II expression through activation of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor. J. Clin. Invest. 96: 741-750
112. Bouly M., Masson D., Gross B., Jiang X. C., Fievet C., Castro G. et al. (2001) Induction of the phospholipid transfer protein gene accounts for the high density lipoprotein enlargement in mice treated with fenofibrate. J. Biol. Chem. 276: 25841-25847
113. Tu A. Y. and Albers J. J. (2001) Functional analysis of the transcriptional activity of the mouse phospholipid transfer protein gene. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 287: 921-926
114. Tu A. Y. and Albers J. J. (2001) Glucose regulates the transcription of human genes relevant to HDL metabolism: responsive elements for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor are involved in the regulation of phospholipid transfer protein. Diabetes 50: 1851-1856
115. Mardones P., Pilon A., Bouly M., Duran D., Nishimoto T. and Arai H. et al. (2003) Fibrates downregulate hepatic scavenger receptor class B type I protein expression in mice. J. Biol. Chem. 278: 7884-7890
116. Staels B., Vu-Dac N., Kosykh V. A., Saladin R., Fruchart J. C., Dallongeville J. et al. (1995) Fibrates downregulate apolipoprotein C-III expression independent of induction of peroxisomal acyl coenzyme A oxidase. A potential mechanism for the hypolipidemic action of fibrates. J. Clin. Invest. 95: 705-712
117. Haubenwallner S., Essenburg A. D., Barnett B. C., Pape M. E., DeMattos R. B., Krause B. R. et al. (1995) Hypolipidemic activity of select fibrates correlates to changes in hepatic apolipoprotein C-III expression: a potential physiologic basis for their mode of action. J. Lipid Res. 36: 2541-2551
118. Hertz R., Bishara-Shieban J. and Bar-Tana J. (1995) Mode of action of peroxisome proliferators as hypolipidemic drugs. Suppression of apolipoprotein C-III. J. Biol. Chem. 270: 13470-13475
119. Schoonjans K., Peinado-Onsurbe J., Lefebvre A. M., Heyman R. A., Briggs M., Deeb S. et al. (1996) PPARalpha and PPARgamma activators direct a distinct tissue-specific transcriptional response via a PPRE in the lipoprotein lipase gene. EMBO J. 15: 5336-5348
120. Carroll R. and Severson D. L. (2001) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha ligands inhibit cardiac lipoprotein lipase activity. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 281: 888-894
121. Vu-Dac N., Gervois P., Jakel H., Nowak M., Baugé E., Dehondt H. et al. (2003) Apolipoprotein A5, a crucial determinant of plasma triglyceride levels, is highly responsive to PPAR alpha activators. J. Biol. Chem. 278: 17982-17985
122. Prieur X., Coste H. and Rodriguez J. C. (2003) The human apolipoprotein AV gene is regulated by PPAR alpha and contains a novel FXR response element. J. Biol. Chem. 278: 25468-25480
123. Puckey L. H. and Knight B. L. (2002) Interaction of oestrogen and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors with apolipoprotein(a) gene enhancers. Biochem. J. 366: 157-163
124. Barbera M. J., Schluter A., Pedraza N., Iglesias R., Villarroya F. and Giralt M. (2001) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha activates transcription of the brown fat uncoupling protein-1 gene. A link between regulation of the thermogenic and lipid oxidation pathways in the brown fat cell. J. Biol. Chem. 276: 1486-1493
125. Brun S., Carmona M. C., Mampel T., Vinas O., Giralt M., Iglesias R. et al. (1999) Activators of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha induce the expression of the uncoupling protein-3 gene in skeletal muscle: a potential mechanism for the lipid intake-dependent activation of uncoupling protein-3 gene expression at birth. Diabetes 48: 1217-1222
126. Young M. E., Patil S., Ying J., Depre C., Ahuja H. S., Shipley G. L. et al. (2001) Uncoupling protein 3 transcription is regulated by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (alpha) in the adult rodent heart. FASEB J. 15: 833-845
127. Armstrong M. B. and Towle H. C. (2001) Polyunsaturated fatty acids stimulate hepatic UCP-2 expression via a PPARalpha-mediated pathway. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 281: 1197-2004
128. Tsuboyama-Kasaoka N., Takahashi M., Kim H. and Ezaki O. (1999) Up-regulation of liver uncoupling protein-2 mRNA by either fish oil feeding or fibrate administration in mice. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 257: 879-885
129. Nakatani T., Tsuboyama-Kasaoka N., Takahashi M., Miura S. and Ezaki O. (2002) Mechanism for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha activator-induced up-regulation of UCP2 mRNA in rodent hepatocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 277: 9562-9569
130. Tordjman K., Standley K. N., Bernal-Mizrachi C., Leone T. C., Coleman T., Kelly D. P. et al. (2002) PPARalpha suppresses insulin secretion and induces UCP2 in insulinoma cells. J. Lipid. Res. 43: 936-943
131. Chiang J. Y. (2002) Bile acid regulation of gene expression: roles of nuclear hormone receptors. Endocr. Rev. 23: 443-463
132. Marrapodi M. and Chiang J. Y. (2000) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) and agonist inhibit cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase gene (CYP7A1) transcription. J. Lipid. Res. 41: 514-520
133. Patel D. D., Knight B. L., Soutar A. K., Gibbons G. F. and Wade D. P. (2000) The effect of peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor-alpha on the activity of the cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase gene. Biochem. J. 351: 747-753
134. Post S. M., Duez H., Gervois P. P., Staels B., Kuipers F. and Princen H. M. (2001) Fibrates suppress bile acid synthesis via peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha-mediated downregulation of cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase and sterol 27-hydroxylase expression. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 21: 1840-1845
135. Cheema S. K. and Agellon L. B. (2000) The murine and human cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase gene promoters are differentially responsive to regulation by fatty acids mediated via peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha. J. Biol. Chem. 275: 12530-12536
136. Hunt M. C., Yang Y. Z., Eggertsen G., Carneheim C. M., Gafvels M., Einarsson C. et al. (2000) The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) regulates bile acid biosynthesis. J. Biol. Chem. 275: 28947-28953
137. Tobin K. A., Steineger H. H., Alberti S., Spydevold O., Auwerx J., Gustafsson J. A. et al. (2000) Cross-talk between fatty acid and cholesterol metabolism mediated by liver X receptor-alpha. Mol. Endocrinol. 14: 741-752
138. Kok T., Bloks V. W., Wolters H., Havinga R., Jansen P. L., Staels B. et al. (2003) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) -mediated regulation of Mdr2 expression and function in mice. Biochem. J. 369: 539-547
139. Kok T., Wolters H., Bloks V. W., Havinga R., Jansen P. L., Staels B. et al. (2003) Induction of hepatic ABC transporter expression is part of the PPARalpha-mediated fasting response in the mouse. Gastroenterology 124: 160-171
140. Jung D., Fried M. and Kullak-Ublick G. A. (2002) Human apical sodium-dependent bile salt transporter gene (SLC10A2) is regulated by the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha. J. Biol. Chem. 277: 30559-30566
141. Suruga K., Mochizuki K., Suzuki R., Goda T. and Takase S. (1999) Regulation of cellular retinol-binding protein type II gene expression by arachidonic acid analogue and 9-cis retinoic acid in caco-2 cells. Eur. J. Biochem. 262: 70-78
142. Mochizuki K., Suruga K., Kitagawa M., Takase S. and Goda T. (2001) Modulation of the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-dependent genes through disproportional expression of two subtypes in the small intestine. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 389: 41-48
143. Xu J., Xiao G., Trujillo C., Chang V., Blanco L., Joseph S. B. et al. (2002) PPAR alpha influences substrate utilization for hepatic glucose production. J. Biol. Chem. 277: 50237-50244
144. Muoio D. M., MacLean P. S., Lang D. B., Li S., Houmard J. A., Way J. M. et al. (2002) Fatty acid homeostasis and induction of lipid regulatory genes in skeletal muscles of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) alpha knock-out mice. Evidence for compensatory regulation by PPAR delta. J. Biol. Chem. 277: 26089-26097
145. Sugden M. C., Bulmer K., Gibbons G. F., Knight B. L. and Holness M. J. (2002) Peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPARalpha) deficiency leads to dysregulation of hepatic lipid and carbohydrate metabolism by fatty acids and insulin. Biochem. J. 364: 361-368
146. Tontonoz P., Hu E., Devine J., Beale E. G. and Spiegelman B. M. (1995) PPAR gamma 2 regulates adipose expression of the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase gene. Mol. Cell. Biol. 15: 351-357
147. Sugden M. C., Bulmer K., Gibbons G. F. and Holness M. J. (2001) Role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha in the mechanism underlying changes in renal pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isoform 4 protein expression in starvation and after refeeding. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 395: 246-252
148. Wu P., Peters J. M. and Harris R. A. (2001) Adaptive increase in pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 during starvation is mediated by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 287: 391-396
149. Wu P., Inskeep K., Bowker-Kinley M. M., Popov K. M. and Harris R. A. (1999) Mechanism responsible for inactivation of skeletal muscle pyruvate dehydrogenase complex in starvation and diabetes. Diabetes 48: 1593-1599
150. Holness M. J., Bulmer K., Gibbons G. F. and Sugden M. C. (2002) Up-regulation of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isoform 4 (PDK4) protein expression in oxidative skeletal muscle does not require the obligatory participation of peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha). Biochem. J. 366: 839-846
151. Holness M. J., Smith N. D., Bulmer K., Hopkins T., Gibbons G. F. and Sugden M. C. (2002) Evaluation of the role of peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor alpha in the regulation of cardiac pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 protein expression in response to starvation, high-fat feeding and hyperthyroidism. Biochem. J. 364: 687-694
152. Edgar A. D., Tomkiewicz C., Costet P., Legendre C., Aggerbeck M., Bouguet J. et al. (1998) Fenofibrate modifies transaminase gene expression via a peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha-dependent pathway. Toxicol. Lett. 98: 13-23
153. Kersten S., Mandard S., Escher P., Gonzalez F. J., Tafuri S., Desvergne B. et al. (2001) The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha regulates amino acid metabolism. FASEB J. 15: 1971-1978
154. Inoue Y., Hayhurst G. P., Inoue J., Mori M. and Gonzalez F. J. (2002) Defective ureagenesis in mice carrying a liver-specific disruption of hepatocyte nuclear factor 4alpha (HNF4alpha). HNF4alpha regulates ornithine transcarbamylase in vivo. J. Biol. Chem. 277: 25257-25265
155. Hermanowski-Vosatka A., Gerhold D., Mundt S. S., Loving V. A., Lu M. and Chen Y. (2000) PPARalpha agonists reduce 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 in the liver. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 279: 330-336
156. Corton J. C., Bocos C., Moreno E. S., Merritt A., Cattley R. C. and Gustafsson J. A. (1997) Peroxisome proliferators alter the expression of estrogen-metabolizing enzymes. Biochimie 79: 151-162
157. Corton J. C., Fan L. Q., Brown S., Anderson S. P., Bocos C., Cattley R. C. et al. (1998) Down-regulation of cytochrome P4502C family members and positive acute-phase response gene expression by peroxisome proliferator chemicals. Mol. Pharmacol. 54: 463-473
158. Fan L. Q., Cattley R. C. and Corton J. C. (1998) Tissue-specific induction of 17 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type IV by peroxisome proliferator chemicals is dependent on the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha. J. Endocrinol. 158: 237-246
159. Barclay T. B., Peters J. M., Sewer M. B., Ferrari L., Gonzalez F. J. and Morgan E. T. (1999) Modulation of cytochrome P-450 gene expression in endotoxemic mice is tissue specific and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha dependent. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 290: 1250-1257
160. Xu S., Zhu B. T., Turan V., Rusyn I., Thurman R., Peters J. M. et al. (2001) PPARalpha-dependent induction of liver microsomal esterification of estradiol and testosterone by a prototypical peroxisome proliferator. Endocrinology 142: 3554-3557
161. Kojo A., Pellinen P., Juvonen R., Raunio H., Pelkonen O. and Pasanen M. (1996) Distinct responses of mouse hepatic CYP enzymes to corn oil and peroxisome proliferators. Biochem. Pharmacol. 51: 1137-1143
162. Voskoboinik I., Drew R. and Ahokas J. T. (1996) Differential effect of peroxisome proliferators on rat glutathione S-transferase isoenzymes. Toxicol. Lett. 87: 147-155
163. James S. I. and Ahokas J. T. (1992) Effect of peroxisome proliferators on glutathione-dependent sulphobromophthalein excretion. Xenobiotica 22: 1425-1432
164. Voskoboinik I., Ooi S. G., Drew R. and Ahokas J. T. (1997) Peroxisome proliferators increase the formation of BPDE-DNA adducts in isolated rat hepatocytes. Toxicology 122: 81-91
165. Foliot A. and Beaune P. (1994) Effects of microsomal enzyme inducers on glutathione S-transferase isoenzymes in livers of rats and hamsters. Biochem. Pharmacol. 48: 293-300
166. Magdalou J., Fournel-Gigleux S., Pritchard M. and Siest G. (1993) Peroxisome proliferators as inducers and substrates of UDP- glucuronosyltransferases. Biol. Cell. 77: 13-16
167. Arand M., Coughtrie M. W., Burchell B., Oesch F. and Robertson L. W. (1991) Selective induction of bilirubin UDP-glucuronosyl-transferase by perfluorodecanoic acid. Chem. Biol. Interact. 77: 97-105
168. Barbier O., Villeneuve L., Bocher V., Fontaine C., Pineda-Torra I., Duhem C. et al. (2003) The UDP-glucuronosyl-transferase 1A9 enzyme is a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha and gamma target gene. J. Biol. Chem. 278: 13975-13983
169. Fukui Y. and Motojima K. (2002) Expression of resistin in the adipose tissue is modulated by various factors including peroxisome proliferator- activated receptor alpha. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 4: 342-345
170. Kersten S., Mandard S., Tan N. S., Escher P., Metzger D., Chambon P. et al. (2000) Characterization of the fasting-induced adipose factor FIAF, a novel peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor target gene. J. Biol. Chem. 275: 28488-28493
171. Gervois P., Vu-Dac N., Kleemann R., Kockx M., Dubois G., Laine B. et al. (2001) Negative regulation of human fibrinogen gene expression by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha agonists via inhibition of CCAAT box/enhancer-binding protein beta. J. Biol. Chem. 276: 33471-33477
172. Kintscher U., Lyon C., Wakino S., Bruemmer D., Feng X., Goetze S. et al. (2002) PPARalpha inhibits TGF-beta-induced betaS integrin transcription in vascular smooth muscle cells by interacting with Smad4. Cir. Res. 91: 35-44
173. Delerive P., De Bosscher K., Besnard S., Vanden Berghe W., Peters J. M., Gonzalez F. J. et al. (1999) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha negatively regulates the vascular inflammatory gene response by negative cross-talk with transcription factors NF-kappaB and AP-1. J. Biol. Chem. 274: 32048-32054
174. Delerive P., Gervois P., Fruchart J. C. and Staels B. (2000) Induction of IkappaBalpha expression as a mechanism contributing to the anti-inflammatory activities of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha activators. J. Biol. Chem. 275: 36703-36707
175. Delerive P., De Bosscher K., Vanden Berghe W., Fruchart J. C., Haegeman G. and Staels B. (2002) DNA binding-independent induction of IkappaBalpha gene transcription by PPARalpha. Mol. Endocrinol. 16: 1029-1039
176. Meade E. A., McIntyre T. M., Zimmerman G. A. and Prescott S. M. (1999) Peroxisome proliferators enhance cyclooxygenase-2 expression in epithelial cells. J. Biol. Chem. 274: 8328-8334
177. Su A. I., Guidotti L. G., Pezacki J. P., Chisari F. V. and Schultz P. G. (2002) Gene expression during the priming phase of liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99: 11191-11185
178. Beigneux A. P., Moser A. H., Shigenaga J. K., Grunfeld C. and Feingold K. R. (2000) The acute phase response is associated with retinoid X receptor repression in rodent liver. J. Biol. Chem. 275: 16390-16399
179. Hertz R., Seckbach M., Zakin M. M. and Bar-Tana J. (1996) Transcriptional suppression of the transferrin gene by hypolipidemic peroxisome proliferators. J. Biol. Chem. 271: 218-224
180. Kockx M., Gervois P., Poulain P., Derudas B., Peters J. M., Gonzalez F. J. et al. (1999) Fibrates suppress fibrinogen gene expression in rodents via activation of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha. Blood 93: 2991-2998
181. Müller M. and Kersten S. (2003) Nutrigenomics: goals and strategies. Nat. Rev. Genet. 4: 315-322
182. Daynes R. A. and Dallas C. J. (2002) Emerging roles of PPARs in inflammation and immunity. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2: 748-759
183. Pineda-Torra I., Jamshidi Y., Flavell D. M., Fruchart J. C. and Staels B. (2002) Characterization of the human PPARalpha promoter: identification of a functional nuclear receptor response element. Mol. Endocrinol. 16: 1013-1028
184. Gearing K. L., Crickmore A. and Gustafsson J. A. (1994) Structure of the mouse peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α gene. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Com. 199: 255-263
185. Yu S., Matsusue K., Kashireddy P., Cao W. Q., Yeldandi V., Yeldandi A. V. et al. (2003) Adipocyte-specific gene expression and adipogenic steatosis in the mouse liver due to PPARγ1 overexpression. J. Biol. Chem. 278: 498-505
186. Gilde A. J., van der Lee K. A., Willemsen P. H., Chinetti G., van der Leij F. R., van der Vusse G. J. et al. (2003) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) alpha and PPARbeta/delta, but not PPARgamma, modulate the expression of genes involved in cardiac lipid metabolism. Circ. Res. 92: 518-524
187. Wang Y. X., Lee C. H., Tiep S., Yu R. T., Ham J., Kang H. et al. (2003) Peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor delta activates fat metabolism to prevent obesity. Cell 113: 159-170
188. Way J. M., Harrington W. W., Brown K. K., Gottschalk W. K., Sundseth S. S., Mansfield T. A. et al. (2001) Comprehensive messenger ribonucleic acid profiling reveals that peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma activation has coordinate effects on gene expression in multiple insulin-sensitive tissues. Endocrinology 142: 1269-1277
189. Watkins S. M., Reifsnyder P. R., Pan H. J., German J. B. and Leiter E. H. (2002) Lipid metabolome-wide effects of the PPARgamma agonist rosiglitazone. J. Lipid. Res. 43: 1809-1817
190. Yu S., Cao W. Q., Kashireddy P., Meyer K., Jia Y., Hughes D. E. et al. (2001) Human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) supports the induction of peroxisome proliferation in PPARalpha-deficient mouse liver. J. Biol. Chem. 276: 42485-42491
191. Yamazaki K., Kuromitsu J. and Tanaka I. (2002) Microarray analysis of gene expression changes in mouse liver induced by peroxisome proliferator- activated receptor alpha agonists. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 290: 1114-1122
192. Hasmall S., Orphanides G., James N., Pennie W., Hedley K., Soames A. et al. (2002) Downregulation of lactoferrin by PPARalpha ligands: role in perturbation of hepatocyte proliferation and apoptosis. Toxicol. Sci. 68: 304-313
193. Peters J. M., Aoyama T., Burns A. M. and Gonzalez F. J. (2003) Bezafibrate is a dual ligand for PPARalpha and PPARbeta: studies using null mice. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1632: 80-89
194. Watanabe K., Fujii H., Takahashi T., Kodama M., Aizawa Y., Ohta Y. et al. (2000) Constitutive regulation of cardiac fatty acid metabolism through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha associated with age-dependent cardiac toxicity. J. Biol. Chem. 275: 22293-22299