The military as a bridging environment in criminal careers: Differential outcomes of the military experience

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 273-295

  Bouffard, Leana Allen ^a  

^a NORTH DAKOTA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 14944381546     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X0503100206     Document Type: Article

References (82)

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2. J. Cohen, David R. Segal, and L. V. Temme, "Military Service and Educational Attainment in the All-Volunteer Force," Social Science Quarterly 76 (1995): 88-104; David R. Segal, T. J. Burns, W. W. Falk, M. P. Silver, and B. D. Sharda, "The All-Volunteer Force in the 1970s," Social Science Quarterly 79 (1998): 390-411; David R. Segal and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Change in Military Organization," Annual Review of Sociology 9 (1983): 151-170.
3. J. Cohen, David R. Segal, and L. V. Temme, "Military Service and Educational Attainment in the All-Volunteer Force," Social Science Quarterly 76 (1995): 88-104; David R. Segal, T. J. Burns, W. W. Falk, M. P. Silver, and B. D. Sharda, "The All-Volunteer Force in the 1970s," Social Science Quarterly 79 (1998): 390-411; David R. Segal and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Change in Military Organization," Annual Review of Sociology 9 (1983): 151-170.
4. Harley L. Browning, Sally C. Lopreato, and Dudley L. Poston, Jr., "Income and Veteran Status: Variations among Mexican Americans, Blacks and Anglos," American Sociological Review 38 (February 1973): 74-85.
5. I b i d.
6. Robert J. Sampson and John H. Laub, Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points through Life (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).
7. Vaughan R. A. Call and J. D. Teachman, "Life-Course Timing and Sequencing of Marriage and Military Service and Their Effects on Marital Stability," Journal of Marriage and the Family 58 (1996): 219-226.
8. Sampson and Laub, Crime in the Making.
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11. Glen H. Elder Jr, "The Life Course as Developmental Theory," Child Development 69 (1998): 1-12.
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15. Donna M. Shaw, Cynthia M. Churchill, Russell Noyes, and Paul L. Loeffelholz, "Criminal Behavior and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Vietnam Veterans," Comprehensive Psychiatry 28 (1987): 403-411.
16. Clifton D. Bryant, Khaki-Collar Crime: Deviant Behavior in the Military Context (New York: The Free Press, 1979); Richard A. Dubanoski and Sally R. McIntosh, "Child Abuse and Neglect in Military and Civilian Families," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 10 (1984): 117-123; Hakeem, "Service in the Armed Forces and Criminality."
17. Clifton D. Bryant, Khaki-Collar Crime: Deviant Behavior in the Military Context (New York: The Free Press, 1979); Richard A. Dubanoski and Sally R. McIntosh, "Child Abuse and Neglect in Military and Civilian Families," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 10 (1984): 117-123; Hakeem, "Service in the Armed Forces and Criminality."
18. Clifton D. Bryant, Khaki-Collar Crime: Deviant Behavior in the Military Context (New York: The Free Press, 1979); Richard A. Dubanoski and Sally R. McIntosh, "Child Abuse and Neglect in Military and Civilian Families," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 10 (1984): 117-123; Hakeem, "Service in the Armed Forces and Criminality."
19. Jere Cohen, David R. Segal, and Lloyd V. Temme, "The Impact of Education on Vietnam-Era Veterans' Occupational Attainment," Social Science Quarterly 73 (1992): 397-409.
20. Eliza K. Pavalko and Glen H. Elder, "World War II and Divorce: A Life-Course Perspective," American Journal of Sociology 95 (1990): 1213-1234; Call and Teachman, "Life Course Timing and Sequencing"; Glen H. Elder and Avshalom Caspi, "Studying Lives in a Changing Society: Sociological and Personological Explorations," in Studying Persons and Lives, eds. A.I. Rabin, Robert Zucker, and Susan Frank (New York: Springer, 1990); Sampson and Laub, "Socioeconomic Achievement"; Jere Cohen, Rebecca L. Warner, and David R. Segal, "Military Service and Educational Attainment in the All-Volunteer Force," Social Science Quarterly 76 (1995): 88-104; Y. Xie, "The Socioeconomic Status of Young Male Veterans, 1964-1984," Social Science Quarterly 73 (1992): 379-396; Glen H. Elder, "War Mobilization and the Life Course: A Cohort of World War II Veterans," Sociological Forum 2 (1987): 449-473.
21. Eliza K. Pavalko and Glen H. Elder, "World War II and Divorce: A Life-Course Perspective," American Journal of Sociology 95 (1990): 1213-1234; Call and Teachman, "Life Course Timing and Sequencing"; Glen H. Elder and Avshalom Caspi, "Studying Lives in a Changing Society: Sociological and Personological Explorations," in Studying Persons and Lives, eds. A.I. Rabin, Robert Zucker, and Susan Frank (New York: Springer, 1990); Sampson and Laub, "Socioeconomic Achievement"; Jere Cohen, Rebecca L. Warner, and David R. Segal, "Military Service and Educational Attainment in the All-Volunteer Force," Social Science Quarterly 76 (1995): 88-104; Y. Xie, "The Socioeconomic Status of Young Male Veterans, 1964-1984," Social Science Quarterly 73 (1992): 379-396; Glen H. Elder, "War Mobilization and the Life Course: A Cohort of World War II Veterans," Sociological Forum 2 (1987): 449-473.
22. Eliza K. Pavalko and Glen H. Elder, "World War II and Divorce: A Life-Course Perspective," American Journal of Sociology 95 (1990): 1213-1234; Call and Teachman, "Life Course Timing and Sequencing"; Glen H. Elder and Avshalom Caspi, "Studying Lives in a Changing Society: Sociological and Personological Explorations," in Studying Persons and Lives, eds. A.I. Rabin, Robert Zucker, and Susan Frank (New York: Springer, 1990); Sampson and Laub, "Socioeconomic Achievement"; Jere Cohen, Rebecca L. Warner, and David R. Segal, "Military Service and Educational Attainment in the All-Volunteer Force," Social Science Quarterly 76 (1995): 88-104; Y. Xie, "The Socioeconomic Status of Young Male Veterans, 1964-1984," Social Science Quarterly 73 (1992): 379-396; Glen H. Elder, "War Mobilization and the Life Course: A Cohort of World War II Veterans," Sociological Forum 2 (1987): 449-473.
23. Eliza K. Pavalko and Glen H. Elder, "World War II and Divorce: A Life-Course Perspective," American Journal of Sociology 95 (1990): 1213-1234; Call and Teachman, "Life Course Timing and Sequencing"; Glen H. Elder and Avshalom Caspi, "Studying Lives in a Changing Society: Sociological and Personological Explorations," in Studying Persons and Lives, eds. A.I. Rabin, Robert Zucker, and Susan Frank (New York: Springer, 1990); Sampson and Laub, "Socioeconomic Achievement"; Jere Cohen, Rebecca L. Warner, and David R. Segal, "Military Service and Educational Attainment in the All-Volunteer Force," Social Science Quarterly 76 (1995): 88-104; Y. Xie, "The Socioeconomic Status of Young Male Veterans, 1964-1984," Social Science Quarterly 73 (1992): 379-396; Glen H. Elder, "War Mobilization and the Life Course: A Cohort of World War II Veterans," Sociological Forum 2 (1987): 449-473.
24. Eliza K. Pavalko and Glen H. Elder, "World War II and Divorce: A Life-Course Perspective," American Journal of Sociology 95 (1990): 1213-1234; Call and Teachman, "Life Course Timing and Sequencing"; Glen H. Elder and Avshalom Caspi, "Studying Lives in a Changing Society: Sociological and Personological Explorations," in Studying Persons and Lives, eds. A.I. Rabin, Robert Zucker, and Susan Frank (New York: Springer, 1990); Sampson and Laub, "Socioeconomic Achievement"; Jere Cohen, Rebecca L. Warner, and David R. Segal, "Military Service and Educational Attainment in the All-Volunteer Force," Social Science Quarterly 76 (1995): 88-104; Y. Xie, "The Socioeconomic Status of Young Male Veterans, 1964-1984," Social Science Quarterly 73 (1992): 379-396; Glen H. Elder, "War Mobilization and the Life Course: A Cohort of World War II Veterans," Sociological Forum 2 (1987): 449-473.
25. Eliza K. Pavalko and Glen H. Elder, "World War II and Divorce: A Life-Course Perspective," American Journal of Sociology 95 (1990): 1213-1234; Call and Teachman, "Life Course Timing and Sequencing"; Glen H. Elder and Avshalom Caspi, "Studying Lives in a Changing Society: Sociological and Personological Explorations," in Studying Persons and Lives, eds. A.I. Rabin, Robert Zucker, and Susan Frank (New York: Springer, 1990); Sampson and Laub, "Socioeconomic Achievement"; Jere Cohen, Rebecca L. Warner, and David R. Segal, "Military Service and Educational Attainment in the All-Volunteer Force," Social Science Quarterly 76 (1995): 88-104; Y. Xie, "The Socioeconomic Status of Young Male Veterans, 1964-1984," Social Science Quarterly 73 (1992): 379-396; Glen H. Elder, "War Mobilization and the Life Course: A Cohort of World War II Veterans," Sociological Forum 2 (1987): 449-473.
26. Eliza K. Pavalko and Glen H. Elder, "World War II and Divorce: A Life-Course Perspective," American Journal of Sociology 95 (1990): 1213-1234; Call and Teachman, "Life Course Timing and Sequencing"; Glen H. Elder and Avshalom Caspi, "Studying Lives in a Changing Society: Sociological and Personological Explorations," in Studying Persons and Lives, eds. A.I. Rabin, Robert Zucker, and Susan Frank (New York: Springer, 1990); Sampson and Laub, "Socioeconomic Achievement"; Jere Cohen, Rebecca L. Warner, and David R. Segal, "Military Service and Educational Attainment in the All-Volunteer Force," Social Science Quarterly 76 (1995): 88-104; Y. Xie, "The Socioeconomic Status of Young Male Veterans, 1964-1984," Social Science Quarterly 73 (1992): 379-396; Glen H. Elder, "War Mobilization and the Life Course: A Cohort of World War II Veterans," Sociological Forum 2 (1987): 449-473.
27. Leana Allen Bouffard, "Examining the Relationship between Military Service and Criminal Behavior during the Vietnam-Era: A Research Note," Criminology 41 (2003): 491-510; Alicia Rand, "Transitional Life Events and Desistance from Delinquency and Crime," in From Boy to Man, From Delinquency to Crime, ed. Marvin E. Wolfgang, Terence P. Thornberry, and Robert M. Figlio (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987), 134-162; Sampson and Laub, Crime in the Making; Sampson and Laub, "Socioeconomic Achievement."
28. Leana Allen Bouffard, "Examining the Relationship between Military Service and Criminal Behavior during the Vietnam-Era: A Research Note," Criminology 41 (2003): 491-510; Alicia Rand, "Transitional Life Events and Desistance from Delinquency and Crime," in From Boy to Man, From Delinquency to Crime, ed. Marvin E. Wolfgang, Terence P. Thornberry, and Robert M. Figlio (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987), 134-162; Sampson and Laub, Crime in the Making; Sampson and Laub, "Socioeconomic Achievement."
29. Leana Allen Bouffard, "Examining the Relationship between Military Service and Criminal Behavior during the Vietnam-Era: A Research Note," Criminology 41 (2003): 491-510; Alicia Rand, "Transitional Life Events and Desistance from Delinquency and Crime," in From Boy to Man, From Delinquency to Crime, ed. Marvin E. Wolfgang, Terence P. Thornberry, and Robert M. Figlio (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987), 134-162; Sampson and Laub, Crime in the Making; Sampson and Laub, "Socioeconomic Achievement."
30. Leana Allen Bouffard, "Examining the Relationship between Military Service and Criminal Behavior during the Vietnam-Era: A Research Note," Criminology 41 (2003): 491-510; Alicia Rand, "Transitional Life Events and Desistance from Delinquency and Crime," in From Boy to Man, From Delinquency to Crime, ed. Marvin E. Wolfgang, Terence P. Thornberry, and Robert M. Figlio (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987), 134-162; Sampson and Laub, Crime in the Making; Sampson and Laub, "Socioeconomic Achievement."
31. Lee N. Robins, Darlene H. Davis, and Donald W. Goodwin, "Drug Use by U.S. Army Enlisted Men in Vietnam: A Follow-Up on Their Return Home," American Journal of Epidemiology 99 (1974): 235-249; Lee N. Robins, John E. Heizer, and Darlene H. Davis, "Narcotic Use in Southeast Asia and Afterward: An Interview Study of 898 Vietnam Returnees," Archives of General Psychiatry 32 (1975): 955-961.
32. Lee N. Robins, Darlene H. Davis, and Donald W. Goodwin, "Drug Use by U.S. Army Enlisted Men in Vietnam: A Follow-Up on Their Return Home," American Journal of Epidemiology 99 (1974): 235-249; Lee N. Robins, John E. Heizer, and Darlene H. Davis, "Narcotic Use in Southeast Asia and Afterward: An Interview Study of 898 Vietnam Returnees," Archives of General Psychiatry 32 (1975): 955-961.
33. Jerald G. Bachman, Peter Freedman-Doan, Patrick M. O'Malley, Lloyd D. Johnston, David R. Segal, "Changing Patterns of Drug Use Among U.S. Military Recruits Before and After Enlistment," American Journal of Public Health 89 (1999): 672-677.
34. I b i d.
35. Bohannon et al., "Using Couple Data to Determine Domestic Violence Rates"; Dubanoski and McIntosh, "Child Abuse and Neglect"; Christopher Cronin, "Adolescent Reports of Parental Spousal Violence in Military and Civilian Families," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 10 (1995): 117-123.
36. Bohannon et al., "Using Couple Data to Determine Domestic Violence Rates"; Dubanoski and McIntosh, "Child Abuse and Neglect"; Christopher Cronin, "Adolescent Reports of Parental Spousal Violence in Military and Civilian Families," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 10 (1995): 117-123.
37. Bohannon et al., "Using Couple Data to Determine Domestic Violence Rates"; Dubanoski and McIntosh, "Child Abuse and Neglect"; Christopher Cronin, "Adolescent Reports of Parental Spousal Violence in Military and Civilian Families," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 10 (1995): 117-123.
38. C. J. Mumola, Veterans in Prison or Jail (Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice, 2000).
39. Cronin, "Adolescent Reports of Parental Spousal Violence."
40. Browning et al., "Income and Veteran Status."
41. Segal et al., "The All-Volunteer Force in the 1970s"; David R. Segal, Recruiting for Uncle Sam: Citizenship and Military Manpower (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1989).
42. Segal et al., "The All-Volunteer Force in the 1970s"; David R. Segal, Recruiting for Uncle Sam: Citizenship and Military Manpower (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1989).
43. Charles C. Moskos, "The Military," Annual Review of Sociology 2 (1976): 55-77; Segal, Recruiting for Uncle Sam; Jay D. Teachman and Vaughn R. A. Call, "The Effect of Military Service on Educational, Occupational, and Income Attainment," Social Science Research 25 (1996): 1-31.
44. Charles C. Moskos, "The Military," Annual Review of Sociology 2 (1976): 55-77; Segal, Recruiting for Uncle Sam; Jay D. Teachman and Vaughn R. A. Call, "The Effect of Military Service on Educational, Occupational, and Income Attainment," Social Science Research 25 (1996): 1-31.
45. Charles C. Moskos, "The Military," Annual Review of Sociology 2 (1976): 55-77; Segal, Recruiting for Uncle Sam; Jay D. Teachman and Vaughn R. A. Call, "The Effect of Military Service on Educational, Occupational, and Income Attainment," Social Science Research 25 (1996): 1-31.
46. Joshua D. Angrist, "The 'Misnorming' of the U.S. Military's Entrance Examination and Its Effect on Minority Enlistments," Institute for Research on Poverty Discussion Paper, 1017-93, September 1993, available online at http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/irp/pubs/dp101793.pdf; M. Rebecca Kilborn, Lawrence M. Hanser, and Jacob A. Klerman, Estimating AFQT Scores for National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS) Respondents (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corp. and National Defense Research Institute, 1998), available online at http://www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR818/, chapter two.
47. Joshua D. Angrist, "The 'Misnorming' of the U.S. Military's Entrance Examination and Its Effect on Minority Enlistments," Institute for Research on Poverty Discussion Paper, 1017-93, September 1993, available online at http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/irp/pubs/dp101793.pdf; M. Rebecca Kilborn, Lawrence M. Hanser, and Jacob A. Klerman, Estimating AFQT Scores for National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS) Respondents (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corp. and National Defense Research Institute, 1998), available online at http://www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR818/, chapter two.
48. Charles C. Moskos, "Toward a Post-Modern Military: The United States as a Paradigm," in The Postmodern Military: Armed Forces after the Cold War, eds. Charles C. Moskos, J.A. Williams, and David R. Segal (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000); see also J.A. Williams, "The Postmodern Military Reconsidered," ibid.
49. Charles C. Moskos, "Toward a Post-Modern Military: The United States as a Paradigm," in The Postmodern Military: Armed Forces after the Cold War, eds. Charles C. Moskos, J.A. Williams, and David R. Segal (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000); see also J.A. Williams, "The Postmodern Military Reconsidered," ibid.
50. Paul A. Gade, Hyder Lakhani, and Melvin Kimmel, "Military Service: A Good Place to Start?" Military Psychology 3 (1991): 251-267.
51. Segal and Segal, "Change in Military Organization"; Moskos et al., The Postmodern Military.
52. Segal and Segal, "Change in Military Organization"; Moskos et al., The Postmodern Military.
53. Charles C. Moskos, "Institutional and Occupational Trends in the Armed Forces," in The Military: More than Just a Job? eds. Charles C. Moskos and F.R. Wood (New York: Pergamon-Brassey's International Defense Publishers, 1988), 15-26.
54. Segal and Segal, "Change in Military Organization," 161.
55. Browning et al., "Income and Veteran Status." Similar sentiments are expressed by Sampson and Laub, Crime in the Making, and by Moskos, "The Military."
56. Browning et al., "Income and Veteran Status." Similar sentiments are expressed by Sampson and Laub, Crime in the Making, and by Moskos, "The Military."
57. Cohen et al., "Military Service and Educational Attainment."
58. Moskos, "The Military."
59. See, for example, Delbert S. Elliott and Suzanne S. Ageton, "Reconciling Race and Class Differences in Self-Reported and Official Estimates of Delinquency," American Sociological Review 45 (1980): 95-110.
60. Michael J. Hindelang, "Variations in Sex-Race-Age-Specific Incidence Rates of Offending," American Sociological Review 46 (1981): 461-474.
61. David R. Segal, Jerald G. Bachman, Peter Freedman-Doan, and Patrick M. O'Malley, "Propensity to Serve in the U.S. Military: Temporal Trends and Subgroup Differences," Armed Forces & Society 25 (1999): 407-427.
62. Moskos, "The Military."
63. Elliott and Ageton, "Reconciling Race and Class Differences."
64. Segal et al., "Propensity to Serve in the U.S. Military," 391.
65. Moskos, "The Military," 65.
66. Elizabeth R. Smith, "The Army's Moral Waiver Program," Juvenile Justice 23 (1972): 27-30.
67. Eli Flyer, personal communication, August 27, 2003; Thomas T. Trent, "Criminal Background Screening of Navy Recruits," Proceedings of the 1998 Conference of the International Military Testing Association, available online at http://www.internationalmta.org/1998/9834c.html.
68. Eli Flyer, personal communication, August 27, 2003; Thomas T. Trent, "Criminal Background Screening of Navy Recruits," Proceedings of the 1998 Conference of the International Military Testing Association, available online at http://www.internationalmta.org/1998/9834c.html.
69. Daniel S. Nagin and Raymond Paternoster, "On the Relationship of Past to Future Participation in Delinquency," Criminology 29 (1991): 163-189.
70. John H. Laub and Robert J. Sampson, "Crime and Context in the Lives of 1,000 Boston Men, Circa 1925-1955," in Current Perspectives on Aging and the Life Cycle, vol. 4, Delinquency and Disrepute in the Life Course, ed. Zena Smith Blau and John Hagan (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, Inc., 1995), 119-139; Sampson and Laub, Crime in the Making.
71. John H. Laub and Robert J. Sampson, "Crime and Context in the Lives of 1,000 Boston Men, Circa 1925-1955," in Current Perspectives on Aging and the Life Cycle, vol. 4, Delinquency and Disrepute in the Life Course, ed. Zena Smith Blau and John Hagan (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, Inc., 1995), 119-139; Sampson and Laub, Crime in the Making.
72. Sampson and Laub, "Socioeconomic Achievement."
73. Center for Human Resources Research, NLS Users' Guide (Columbus: The Ohio State University, 1995).
74. Additional variables included a broader measure of less serious violent offending and total self-reported offending (violent and property). Additionally, negative bi nomial models were estimated for a dependent variable indicating the number of violent offenses. Results from these various modeling strategies were not substantially different from those reported here and are available upon request.
75. James J. Heckman, "Sample Selection Bias as a Specification Error," Econometrica 47 (1979): 153-161; Sampson and Laub, "Socioeconomic Achievement."
76. James J. Heckman, "Sample Selection Bias as a Specification Error," Econometrica 47 (1979): 153-161; Sampson and Laub, "Socioeconomic Achievement."
77. The two-stage modeling process requires that an instrumental variable that is not related to the final dependent variable (in this case, criminal behavior) be included in the first stage. Gender, race, education, class, prior delinquency, and AFQT scores (as a proxy for cognitive ability) are all theoretically and empirically related to criminal behavior. Therefore, an additional variable must function as the instrumental variable. Parental military service was selected, assuming that children would perceive their military parent as having more positive attitudes toward the military. Research does indicate that perceptions of parental attitudes are related to intentions to enlist and to actual enlistment. See Peter J. Legree, Paul A. Gade, Daniel E. Martin, M. A. Fischl, Michael J. Wilson, Veronica F. Nieva, Rod McCloy, and Janice Laurence, "Military Enlistment and Family Dynamics: Youth and Parental Perspectives," Military Psychology 12 (2000): 31-49. In the selection model, having a parent who served in the military does significantly increase the likelihood that an individual will also serve. These results are available upon request.
78. In their study of delinquent and nondelinquent boys who were eligible to serve in the military during World War II and Korea, Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck were able to gather a wide variety of military selection information in conjunction with measures of criminal behavior. In their reanalyses of these data, Sampson and Laub included potentially important selection factors, such as method of entry (e.g., enlistment versus draft) and the reasons for deferment (e.g., psychiatric disabilities or moral unfitness). These are examples of the type of information necessary to adequately address the issue of selection. See Sampson and Laub, Crime in the Making; Sampson and Laub, "Socioeconomic Achievement."
79. In their study of delinquent and nondelinquent boys who were eligible to serve in the military during World War II and Korea, Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck were able to gather a wide variety of military selection information in conjunction with measures of criminal behavior. In their reanalyses of these data, Sampson and Laub included potentially important selection factors, such as method of entry (e.g., enlistment versus draft) and the reasons for deferment (e.g., psychiatric disabilities or moral unfitness). These are examples of the type of information necessary to adequately address the issue of selection. See Sampson and Laub, Crime in the Making; Sampson and Laub, "Socioeconomic Achievement."
80. Eli Flyer, personal communication, August 27, 2003; Trent, "Criminal Background Screening of Navy Recruits."
81. Eli Flyer, personal communication, August 27, 2003; Trent, "Criminal Background Screening of Navy Recruits."
82. Bouffard, "Examining the Relationship between Military Service and Criminal Behavior."