Preserving megadiversity: The case of New Caledonia

Asia Pacific Journal of Environmental Law

Volumn 2, Issue 3-4, 1997, Pages 277-292

  Catherine, G K ^a,b  

^a SORBONNE UNIVERSITÉ   (France)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Biological diversity; Environmental law; French territory; New caledonia

Indexed keywords

EID: 14644421900     PISSN: 13852140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (67)

1. New Caledonia is a dependency of France; in formal term it is an overseas territory (hereafter "the Territory"). See further note 5 and accompanying text.
2. A dozen countries have been recognised in the world as being megadiverse. They include for example Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Mittermeier developed the megadiversity country concept in 1988. It recognises that a very small number of countries, lying mostly in the tropics, account for a very high percentage of the world's biodiversity. Consequently, these countries require very special international conservation attention. As New Caledonia is a French dependency, it is not separately included in the list, but it is considered to be a mega-diverse island, or an environmental "hot spot". See R. A. Mittermeier "Primate diversity and the tropical forest: case studies from Brazil and Madagascar and the importance of the megadiversity countries" in E. O. Wilson and F. M. Peter (eds) Biodiversity (National Academy Press, Washington: 1988) 145-154;
3. N. Myers "Threatened biotas: 'hot spots' in tropical forests" (1988) 8 The Environmentalist 187-208;
4. see also Conserving the world's biological diversity (IUCN, WRI, CI, WWF-US, The World Bank, Cambridge: 1990) 88-97.
5. See M. Schmid Fleurs et plantes de Nouvelle-Calédonie (3rd ed, Times Edition/Les Editions du Pacifique, Singapore: 1992);
6. and Ecobgie en Nouvelle-Calédonie (Centre Territorial de Recherche et Documentation Pédagogiques de NouvelIe-Calédonie, Nouméa: 1987)
7. Article 2 of the loi référendaire of 9 November 1988 concerning the current status of New Caledonia provides that a vote on independence will take place between 1 March and 31 December 1998.
8. The French title reads: "loi portant dispositions statutaires et préparaloires à I'auto-détermination de la Nouvelle-Calédonie en 1998." The text was adopted after the sad event of the "Ouvea massacre" of a number of " independentiss" by French police in May 1988, which lead to the conclusion of the Accords de Matignon in August that year. The law of 9 November 1988 was adopted by way of referendum, as permitted by Art. 11 of the French Constitution and involved all French citizens including New Caledonians, and replaced a previous law of 1984 concerning the status of the New Caledonian Territory. For a history of the evolution of the legal status of New Caledonia
9. see M-L Pavia "Le référendum du 6 novembre 1988" (1989) Revue de droit public 1697-1734
10. Y. Pimont "La Nouvelle-Calédonie et le Droit constitutionnel (1992) Revue de droit public 1687-1705. The latter emphasises the fact that because the law of 1988 was adopted by plebiscite, Parliamentary debate, which would have been vigorous, was circumvented.
11. The French text reads: "les traités ou accords régulig̀rement ratifiés ou approuvés ont, dès leur publication, une autorilé à supérieure cell des lois." It took some time for the courts to endorse the principle of primacy of treaties. In respect of the administrative courts, this was not established until 1989, in the Nicolo case; and in respect of the civil courts, in 1975, in the Jacques Vabre case.
12. See Geoffrey Sawer "Australian Constitutional Law in Relation to International Relations and International Law" in K. W. Ryan (ed) International Law in Australia (2nd ed, Law Book, Sydney: 1984) 35 at 37.
13. The French text reads: "les territoires d'outre-mer ont une organisation particulière tenant compte de leurs intérêts propres." The notion of special organisation was clarified in a decision of the Conseil Constitutibnnel of 7 July 1994. The decision states that any provision that introduces, modifies or cancels any previous provision applying to the territory relates to the notion of special organisation.
14. See A-M. Blandel "La spécialité législative dans les territoires d'outre-mer" in Le régime législatif de la Nouvelle-Calédonie (Dalloz, Paris: 1994)
15. F. Luchaire "Le juge constitutionnel et le régime législatif des territoires d'outre-mer" (1994) Revue de droit public 1621-1641.
16. The French term is "lois de souveramete". They include for example taxation laws, or national election laws.
17. DC No 88-247 (17 January 1989) (France), and DC No 93-318 (30 June 1993) (France). Specifically, the decision states that the territorial scope of an international convention is governed by its content, or by the statutory rules of the international organisation under which the treaty has been created; and that the scope of the international convention does not depend anymore on the law that authorises its ratification.
18. It might be stressed here that the Conseil d'Etat is generally seen as more conservative than the Cour de Cassation in its decisions, this mostly by reason of a difference in the recruitment of its members. The Conseil d'Etat is the supreme judicial institution in administrative (public) law. The Cour de Cassation is the supreme judicial institution in civil (private) law.
19. Specifically, the decision states that in the absence of a specific clause in a treaty concerning extradition, or of a specific reservation made by France with the view to exclude New Caledonia from the scope of the treaty, then the publication of the treaty makes it binding upon France.
20. The revision of the Constitution was mandatory in order to ensure its conformity with the Maastricht Treaty, prior to its adoption by France. Para 2 and 3 of Art. 74 impose an obligation of prior consultation of the territorial legislative assembly before adopting laws affecting the status or special organisation of overseas territories.
21. With the exception of treaties related to air or maritime transport, where the Territory may only participate in the negotiations. The delegation is made for the benefit of either the President of the Territory's congress, or of the Provinces, according to the scope of their legislative competence. The delegation comprises the signature of regional treaties, but ratification remains the legislative competence of the French Parliament.
22. The French term is "police des animaux et des végé laux", referring mostly to export and import prohibitions; but the term is unclear and has resulted in some court challenges.
23. Specifically, Art. 7 states that each Province is competent for all matters which are not specifically granted, either by the present law, to the State or to the Territory, or by other laws to the local districts.
24. G. Orfila "La répartition des compétences" (1993) Revue Juridique de l' Environnement hors séne, Droit de I'environnement et Nouvelk-Calédonie 43. The author specifically argues that in the minds of the signatories of the Matignon agreements, the new public powers' organisation in New Caledonia was governed by a primacy given to the Provinces.
25. Also, an arrêté of 15 December 1989 confirms that legislative competence over the protection of the environment accrues to the Provinces.
26. The decision relates to the special reserve of la Dieppoise. See TA (Tribunal Administratif) 13 December 1990, Petites Affiches 10 May 1991 No. 56 at 9 (France). The notion of special reserve is described below.
27. Arrèt du Conseil d'Etat 18 November 1994 Recueil Lebon.
28. It may be argued that this interpretation appears somewhat too extensive. Indeed, an express legislative head of power accrues to the French State, as regards to the management of marine resources in the Exclusive Economic Zone for example. For other matters not expressly stated, it would be fair to consider that the legislative competence should be that of the Province.
29. Arrêt du Conseil d'Etat 27 January 1995 Recueil Lebon.
30. Loi organique No 95-173 of 20 February 1995 (France), modifying the law of 9 November 1988. A loi organique has superior force as compared with ordinary laws but remains subject to compliance with the Constitution. Since the loi constitutionnelle of 1992, laws affecting the organisation of powers in overseas territories have to be passed in the form of lois organiques, requiring a stricter procedure of adoption than ordinary laws.
31. Article 2 of the loi organique. The text reads: "à I'exception de la création de réserves ou de parcs naturels ayant pour objel la protection des animaux, des coraux, des minéraux et des végétaux dans les logons jusqu'au tombant du récif coralien, dans les rades et dans la partie des cours d'eau el des étangs où les eaux sont salées." It is to be mentioned that the term "to the exception" incurs a restrictive interpretation of the competence of the Provinces as regards environmental protection within the public maritime domain.
32. The French terminology used is "régletnentation zoosanitaire et phytosanitaire".
33. One suggestion has been to use the current "accords de plan" (political and administrative agreements between the French State and the Territory) to improve the coordination between the French State and the Territory, and to give some financial assistance to the Territory to implement international environmental treaties.
34. See for example the ministerial decree of 25 August 1937 for the protection of natural monuments and picturesque sites of territories and other colonies, reproducing a decree of 1930 in force in France.
35. A deliberation has the legal force of an Act of Parliament. The adoption of a deliberation by the Territorial Assembly is followed by the adoption of an arrêté, for the deliberation to come into force.
36. The French text reads: "animaux dont la chasse et la capture sont interdites toute I'année et dont la détention fait I'objet de dispositions particulières."
37. The French text reads: "les espèces particulièrement menacées dont la chasse, la capture et la détention sont formellement interdites sauf dispositions exceptionnelles particulières prises notamment dans des buts scientifiques."
38. 993 UNTS 243. Of all international environmental treaties concerning biodiversity to which France is a party, only CITES has been substantially implemented by domestic legislation. This is not the case for example with the 1971 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, 996 UNTS 245, or the 1972 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1037 UNTS 151, or importantly, the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) 31 ILM 818.
39. Some exceptions between the corresponding registrations in Annex I, and II of CITES and Lists C and B of the 1972 deliberation exist, such as in the case of the Ouvea parakeet. Note that Annex 1 of CITES targets species threatened with extinction, and prohibits their international trade, with some rare exceptions. Annex II of CITES targets species that might become extinct due to international trade, and makes trade conditional on obtaining both an export and import permit.
40. They are found in Annex I of CITES. The Ouvea parakeet however was only registered in Annex I in 1997; previously, it was listed in Annex II, as are most of the world's parakeets.
41. The roussette is registered in List A, offering seasonal protection, but a rather strict one. The deliberation replaces an older regulation.
42. M Boulet Note sur la protection de I'environnement dans la province sud (Direction du développement rural,Service de I'environnement et de la gestion des pares et réserves, Nouméa: 1997).
43. An express reference to CITES is made for the first two species, registered in Annex II of the convention.
44. A first study was conducted in January 1994, mandated by the Environment Department in the SouthernProvince, which concluded that the bulime was facing extinction if measures to protect it were not taken. It identified its main threats as being its over-collecting, combined with a very slow growth of the animal (three years to reach adult size). A thorough study was conducted after the adoption of the legislation: see C Pöllabauer L'escargot del'lle des pins, biologie-réparation-économie (Service de I'environnement de la Province Sud, Nouméa: May 1995). Whilst it points to several faults in the law, it also provides for a series of recipes at the end of the study, including escargott fords or escargots façon parisienne!
45. Phone interview conducted on 16 October 1997 with Mr Boulet, Chief of the Parks and Reserves Service.
46. The French text reads: "sont interdits en tout temps I'importation, la mise en vente, la vente, I'achat et l'exportation a des fins commerciales de tortues marines à I 'état vivant ou mort et de toutes parties ou tons produils obtenus à partir de ces animaux."
47. See generally Chapter 26 of Agenda 21, adopted at 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. Agenda 21 defines customary practices as follows: "the knowledges, innovations and practices that constitute the traditional way of life of autochtone and local communities."
48. G. Le Serrec Application de la Convention de Washington en Nouvelk-Calédonie (WWF-Traffic, France, Paris: 1989) 8.
49. It ought to be mentioned that the mining industry has also taken some steps to rehabilitate biodiversity on mining sites, by entering into an agreement with the authorities of the Territory.
50. After the Matignon accords came into force, a deliberation of 28 March 1990 gave effect to the original legislation.
51. Access to the site requires a special authorisation in writing from the President of the Province.
52. The Parc de la Rivèire bleue, created in 1980, is one of the most popular provincial parks. A fee is required to enter the park since 1990. The park's original aim was to ensure the protection of the endangered cagou.
53. A deliberation of September 1997 established a new direction des ressources naturelles, which will be competent to enforce laws related to the protection of the environment.
54. The area of the Haute Pourina is protected by a deliberation of 14 April 1994; the massif de Kouakoue (and Valley of the Ni) by a deliberation of 24 November 1995; and the Park of the Nodela is established by a deliberation of 30 July 1996.
55. It led to some international concern, and a series of communications between the French State and the Territory on the matter.
56. See the Territory's newspapers of the time, for example the article of René Sintes "Haro sur la route de la Ny" Les Nouvelles calédoniennes 11 July 1991 at 13.
57. The local nature conservation society "ASNNC" (Association pour la Sauvegarde de la Nature en Nouvelle-Calédonie) was very involved in the "battle", and was quite effective in alerting public opinion. See for example a powerful letter reproduced in the Territory's main newspaper: "L'ASNNC attaque un projet d'exploitation foresteire" Les Nouvelles caledoniennes 4 February 1992 at 7.
58. The proposal is mentioned for example in a letter of 16 September 1993 addressed to the Minister of Overseas Territories in France by the representative of the French State in New Caledonia, at the time Mr Alain Christnacht.
59. The title reads: "réserve spéciale toumante de faune marine dons les eaux mariames enghbant certaines portions du recif barrièrs au voisinage de Nouméa." Another such reserve covers the "posse de la Sarcelle" in the south of the Southern Province.
60. T Jaffré and J M Veillon La forêt sclérophylle de la Province Sud de la Nounelle-Calédonie (Rapport science et vie, Botanique 6, ORSTOM, Nouméa: 1991) 3-39.
61. And Note of M Boulet Les formations scléphylles (Direction du développement rural, Service de I'environnement et de la gestion des parcs et réserves, Nouméa: 28 July 1995).
62. At the time of the first human settlements, possibly 3,500 years ago. See the comprehensive analysis of Ph. Bouchet, T. Jaffre and J. M. Veillon "Plant extinction in New Caledonia: protection of sclerophyll forests urgently needed" (1995) 4 Biodiversity and Conservation 415-428.
63. It may hence be considered that the payment corresponds to a reimbursement for the service provided by the farmer, rather than a compensation for the loss in value of the site for example.
64. The French term is "servitude convenrionnelle", following the concept of "servitudes administratives". Conservation covenants provide for the permanent protection of natural resources, in that they apply to all current and future owners of the land.
65. Bouchet advises that the remnants of forests be purchased from private owners, and that measures be adopted subsequently to protect the forests, such as the erection of fences to prevent animals trespass, or the conservation ex situ of some endangered sclerophyll forest species: Bouchet et al, note 55 at 426.
66. Phone interview conducted on 25 September 1997 with Mr Boulet.
67. It ought to be mentioned that regional funding through SPREP (South Pacific Regional Environment Programme) has not been possible because of the fact that the Territory is not independent. However, France is also contributing financially to the development of the Territory, within the five years "contrat de dévehppement" (the current running for the 1993-1997 period) between the French State and the Provinces. During that period, the French State has contributed approximately 1,500 million cfp francs on average each year. It has contributed, however, to a more limited extent to the protection of its environment: 22 million cfp francs were spent in 1993, decreasing gradually each year to a figure of 2.5 million cfp francs in 1997.