The public space of the marketplace in Medieval England

Speculum

Volumn 77, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 383-421

  Masschaele, James ^a  

^a RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 1442335800     PISSN: 00387134     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3301326     Document Type: Article

References (207)

1. G. William Skinner, "Marketing and Social Structure in Rural China," Journal of Asian Studies 24 (1964-65), 3-43, 195-228, and 363-400;
2. Lawrence W. Crissman, "Spatial Aspects of Marriage Patterns as Influenced by Marketing Behavior in West Central Taiwan," in Regional Analysis, ed. Carol A. Smith (New York, 1976), 2:123-48.
3. Richard Britnell, "Price-Setting in English Borough Markets," Canadian Journal of History 31 (1996), 1-16;
4. Maryanne Kowaleski, Local Markets and Regional Trade in Medieval Exeter (Cambridge, Eng., 1995), pp. 192-202.
5. Calendar of Inquisitions Miscellaneous (Chancery), 1: 1219-1307 (London, 1916), p. 316.
6. Placita de quo warranto temporibus Edw. I. II. & III., ed. W. Illingworth and J. Caley (London, 1818), p. 64.
7. Placita de quo warranto, p. 405.
8. Barbara Harvey, "Introduction: The 'Crisis' of the Early Fourteenth Century," in Before the Black Death: Studies in the "Crisis" of the Early Fourteenth Century, ed. Bruce M. S. Campbell (Manchester, Eng., 1991), p. 12.
9. R. H. Britnell, "The Proliferation of Markets in England, 1200-1349," Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 34 (1981), 209-21.
10. James Masschaele, Peasants, Merchants, and Markets: Inland Trade in Medieval England (New York, 1997), pp. 103-5 and 167-88.
11. Idem, "The Multiplicity of Medieval Markets Reconsidered," Journal of Historical Geography 20 (1994), 255-71.
12. Kew, Public Record Office (PRO), SC6/1248/8.
13. PRO E101/505/24.
14. Rotuli hundredorum, ed. W. Illingworth and J. Caley (London, 1833-34), 2:252;
15. Court Rolls of the Borough of Colchester, trans. Isaac H. Jeayes (Colchester, 1921), 1:3;
16. Kenneth L. McCutcheon, Yorkshire Fairs and Markets to the End of the Eighteenth Century, Publications of the Thoresby Society 39 (Leeds, 1940), p. 103.
17. Richard M. Smith, "A Periodic Market and Its Impact on a Manorial Community: Botesdale, Suffolk," in Zvi Razi and Richard M. Smith, eds., Medieval Society and the Manor Court (Oxford, 1996), pp. 514-15.
18. Calendar of Inquisitions Miscellaneous (Chancery), 1:315-16.
19. Roll of Divers Accounts for the Early Years of the Reign of Henry III: Account of Escheats for the Sixteenth, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Years of the Reign of Henry III; Wardrobe Receipt Roll and Fragments of Household Roll, 10 Henry III, ed. Fred A. Cazel, Jr., Publications of the Pipe Roll Society 82, n.s. 44 (London, 1982), p. 47.
20. Victoria History of the Counties of England, ed. H. Arthur Doubleday et al. (London, 1900-), henceforth cited as V.C.H., Shropshire, 4:68.
21. V.C.H., Gloucester, 6:153.
22. R. M. Sergeantson, The Court Rolls of Higham Ferrers, in Reports and Papers of the Associated Architectural Societies of Lincoln, York, Northampton, Worcester, and Leicester, 33/2 (n.p., n.d.), p. 13.
23. For examples of contemporary toll rates, see Calendar of the Patent Rolls Preserved in the Public Record Office: Edward III, 1: 1327-1330, ed. R. F. Isaacson et al. (London, 1891), pp. 3-4;
24. Constance Fraser, "The Pattern of Trade in the North-East of England, 1265-1350," Northern History 4 (1969), 47-48, and appendix.
25. Masschaele, Peasants, Merchants, and Markets, pp. 111-12 and 131-32.
26. Masschaele, Peasants, Merchants, and Markets, pp. 69-70.
27. Colin Platt, "The Evolution of Towns: Natural Growth," in M. W. Barley, ed., The Plans and Topography of Medieval Towns in England and Wales, Council for British Archaeology Research Report 14 (London, 1976), p. 51;
28. Helen Clarke, The Archaeology of Medieval England (London, 1984), p. 37.
29. Maurice Beresford, New Towns of the Middle Ages (London, 1967), p. 153;
30. Colin Platt, The English Medieval Town (London, 1979), pp. 33-34.
31. The description of Stow-on-the-Wold and its marketplace is based on V.C.H., Gloucester, 6:142-65.
32. V.C.H., Gloucester, 6:143. It is evident from the layout that St. Edward's Hall and St. Edward's House were later additions; even with these encroachments, the basic outlines of the original plan are still clearly visible.
33. Historic Towns. Maps and Plans of Towns and Cities in the British Isles, with Historical Commentaries, from Earliest Times to 1800, ed. M. D. Lobel, 1 (London, 1969), p. 11;
34. Peter Bigmore, "Villages and Towns," in Leonard Cantor, ed., The English Medieval Landscape (Philadelphia, 1982), p. 180;
35. John Schofield and Alan Vince, Medieval Towns (London, 1994), p. 44;
36. Masschaele, Peasants, Merchants, and Markets, p. 172.
37. Kenneth Penn, "Early Unplanned Towns," in An Historical Atlas of Norfolk, ed. Peter Wade-Martins, 2nd ed. (Norwich, 1994), p. 71.
38. M. W. Beresford and J. K. S. St. Joseph, Medieval England: An Aerial Survey (Cambridge, Eng., 1958), pp. 169 and 204-5.
39. Le livre de seyntz medicines: The Unpublished Devotional Treastise of Henry of Lancaster, ed. Emile Jules Arnould, Anglo-Norman Texts 2 (Oxford, 1940), p. 119.
40. Visitations of Religious Houses in the Diocese of Lincoln, 3/2, ed. A. Hamilton Thompson, Lincoln Record Society 21 (Lincoln, Eng., 1929), p. 321.
41. Scribes sometimes explicitly substituted "in mercatis" for "in villis mercatoriis." The Anglo-Norman term "villes marchaundes," upon which the Latin expression may well be based, also refers more clearly to rural than to urban settlements. See, e.g., Rotuli litterarum clausarum in Turri Londinensi asservati, ed. T. D. Hardy (London, 1833-44), 1:270;
42. Thomas Rymer and Robert Sanderson, eds., Foedera, conventiones, litterae . . . , ed. Adam Clarke et al. (London, 1816-69), 1/2:497;
43. Statutes of the Realm, ed. A. Luders et al. (London, 1810-28), 1:97.
44. J. R. Maddicott, "The County Community and the Making of Public Opinion in Fourteenth-Century England," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th ser., 28 (1978), 27-43;
45. Judith Ferster, Fictions of Advice: The Literature and Politics of Counsel in Late Medieval England (Philadelphia, 1996), pp. 22-23.
46. William Alfred Morris, The Early English County Court, University of California Publications in History 14 (Berkelely, Calif., 1926), p. 136.
47. Rotuli litterarum patentium, 1201-1216, ed. T. D. Hardy (London, 1835), 1:47-48.
48. John's use of proclamations is discussed briefly in William Alfred Morris, The Medieval English Sheriff to 1300 (Manchester, Eng., 1927), p. 153.
49. Tudor Royal Proclamations, 1: The Early Tudors, ed. Paul Hughes and James Larkin (New Haven, Conn., 1964), p. 546.
50. Steven Justice, Writing and Rebellion: England in 1381 (Berkeley, Calif., 1994), pp. 29 and 77.
51. The distinctions between types of proclamations offered here is heuristic, not a reflection of differences found in the primary sources.
52. Foedera, ed. Clarke, 1/2:497.
53. The relevant entry in Calendar of the Close Rolls Preserved in the Public Record Office: Edward I, 1: 1272-1279, ed. H. C. Maxwell Lyte et al. (London, 1900), p. 1, omits the clause about proclamation.
54. Statutes of the Realm, 1:39.
55. Edward's emphasis on publicizing this statute is discussed in J. R. Maddicott, "Edward I and the Lessons of Baronial Reform," in Thirteenth Century England, 1, ed. P. Coss and S. D. Lloyd (Woodbridge, Eng., 1986), pp. 14-15.
56. Foedera, ed. Clarke, 2/2:718.
57. Foedera, ed. Clarke, 1/2:958 and 995.
58. Foedera, ed. Clarke, 3/1:88.
59. Thomas Rymer and Robert Sanderson, eds., Foedera, conventiones, literae . . . , 3rd ed., rev. George Holmes (The Hague, 1739-45), 3/4:155.
60. Charles Ross, "Rumour, Propaganda and Popular Opinion during the Wars of the Roses," in Patronage, the Crown and the Provinces in Later Medieval England, ed. Ralph A. Griffiths (Gloucester, Eng., 1981), pp. 15-32.
61. Foedera, ed. Clarke, 2/1:113.
62. Albert Beebe White, Self-Government at the King's Command: A Study in the Beginnings of English Democracy (Minneapolis, 1933).
63. Rotuli Parliamentorum, 4:30b-31b;
64. Rotuli hundredorum, 1:427;
65. Calendar of Close Rolls, 1288-96, p. 292;
66. Foedera, ed. Clarke, 1/2:57 and 538.
67. Documents of the Baronial Movement of Reform and Rebellion, 1258-1267, ed. R. E. Treharne and I. J. Sanders (Oxford, 1973), pp. 85 and 161.
68. A. K. McHardy, "Church Courts and Criminous Clerks in the Later Middle Ages," in Medieval Ecclesiastical Studies in Honour of Dorothy M. Owen, ed. M. J. Franklin and Christopher Harper-Bill (Woodbridge, Eng., 1995), pp. 174-75.
69. The Register of William Greenfield, Lord Archbishop of York, 1306-1315, 4, ed. William Brown and A. Hamilton Thompson, Surtees Society 152 (Durham, Eng., 1938), p. 231.
70. Registrum Johannis de Trillek, ed. Joseph H. Percy, Canterbury and York Society 8 (London, 1912), p. 321.
71. James Thorold Rogers, A History of Agriculture and Prices in England, 1259-1793 (Oxford, 1866-1902), 2:612.
72. Octavius Ogle, "The Oxford Market," in Collectanea, 2nd ser., ed. Montagu Burrows, Oxford Historical Society 16 (Oxford, 1890), p. 55.
73. Bristol, ed. Mark Pilkinton, Records of Early English Drama (Toronto, 1997), p. 10.
74. The Eyre of Northamptonshire, 1329-30, 1, ed. Donald W. Sutherland, Selden Society 97 (London, 1983), p. 74.
75. See Edgar Powell and G. M. Trevelyan, The Peasants' Rising and the Lollards (London, 1899), p. 20, for an example of a public announcement made at the market cross.
76. Rotuli Parliamentorum, 2:10.
77. The town of Cambridge hired someone for 1d. to make the proclamation about theft noted above, n. 58. For an early reference to a public crier, see The Life and Death of Thomas Becket, Chancellor of England and Archbishop of Canterbury, Based on the Account of William fitzStephen, His Clerk, ed. George Greenaway (London, 1961), p. 90.
78. Morris, Early English County Court (above, n. 33), p. 173.
79. John Hooker, Description of Excester, 3:846
80. quoted in R. W. Heinze, The Proclamations of the Tudor Kings (Cambridge, Eng., 1976), p. 28.
81. Heinze, Proclamations of the Tudor Kings, pp. 28-29.
82. Maddicott, "County Community" (above, n. 32), pp. 34-36.
83. The original documents in the Public Record Office have been organized into a class called Warrants for Proclamations (C255), running from the reign of Edward I to the reign of Henry VI.
84. Herbert F. Westlake, The Parish Gilds of Medieval England (London, 1919);
85. Barbara Hanawalt, "Keepers of the Lights: Late Medieval English Parish Gilds," Journal of Medieval and Renaissance History 14 (1984), 21-37;
86. Caroline M. Barron and L. Wright, "The London Middle English Guild Certificates of 1388-9," Nottingham Mediaeval Studies 39 (1995), 108-18.
87. PRO C255/3/5/195, summarized in Maddicott, "County Community," p. 35.
88. David Postles, "Markets for Agricultural Produce in Oxfordshire, 1086-1350," Midland History 12 (1987), 24-25;
89. Alan Everitt, "The Marketing of Agricultural Produce, 1500-1640," in The Agrarian History of England and Wales, 4, ed. Joan Thirsk (Cambridge, Eng., 1967)
90. repr., with updated bibliography, in Agricultural Markets and Trade, 1500-1750, ed. John Chartres (Cambridge, Eng., 1990), p. 475;
91. The Lay Subsidy of 1334, ed. Robin Glasscock, Records of Social and Economic History, n.s., 11 (London, 1975), pp. 235-45.
92. Postles, "Markets in Oxfordshire," pp. 24-25.
93. Joseph R. Strayer, On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State (Princeton, N.J., 1970);
94. Bernard Guenée, States and Rulers in Later Medieval Europe (Oxford, 1985);
95. Thomas Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan: Building States and Regimes in Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, Eng., 1997).
96. R. H. Britnell, The Commercialisation of English Society, 1000-1500 (Cambridge, Eng., 1993);
97. Masschaele, Peasants, Merchants, and Markets.
98. John Bellamy, Crime and Public Order in England in the Later Middle Ages (London, 1973), pp. 182-85;
99. Marjorie Keniston McIntosh, Controlling Misbehavior in England, 1370-1600, Cambridge Studies in Population, Economy, and Society in Past Time 34 (Cambridge, Eng., 1998), pp. 63-64 and 113-16.
100. The shame inherent in a stint in the pillory is captured in the Middle English text "Disputation between Mary and the Cross," composed in the late fourteenth century. The poet describes the cross as a pillory and rhetorically asks why Jesus felt no shame at being held fast by it. See also Middle English Dictionary, ed. Sherman M. Kuhn, P.4 (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1983), s.v. pillorie.
101. Peter Bartlett, "Sodomites in the Pillory in Eighteenth-Century London," Social and Legal Studies 6 (1977), 557-60.
102. Borough Customs, 1, ed. Mary Bateson, Selden Society 18 (London, 1904), p. 57. Bateson dated the customal to the fifteenth century.
103. E. J. Burford and Sandra Shulman, Of Bridles and Burnings: The Punishment of Women (New York, 1992), pp. 80 and 163-64.
104. The etymological analysis of this paragraph is based on relevant entries in the Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., ed. J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner (London, 1989);
105. Dictionary of Medieval Latin from British Sources, ed. R. E. Latham (London, 1975-);
106. and Revised Medieval Latin Word-List from British and Irish Sources, ed. R. E. Latham (London, 1965).
107. Overviews of sentences involving pillories and thews can be found in Liber Albus: The White Book of the City of London, trans. Henry T. Riley (London, 1861), pp. 517-26, and Middle English Dictionary, s.v. pillorie.
108. Charles Gross, The Gild Merchant: A Contribution to British Municipal History (Oxford, 1890), 2:301.
109. Useful details can be found in Liber Albus, pp. 517-25, with references to the letter books detailing the cases.
110. George Economou, ed., William Langland's Piers Plowman: The C Version (Philadelphia, 1996), 3.79-80, p. 25.
111. Middle English Dictionary, s.v. pillorie.
112. Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, pp. 162-98.
113. York Civic Ordinances, 1301, trans. Michael Prestwich, Borthwick Papers 49 ([York], 1976), pp. 20-21;
114. Records of the Borough of Leicester, 1, ed. Mary Bateson (London, 1899), p. 104;
115. The Red Register of King's Lynn, 1, ed. Holcombe Ingleby (King's Lynn, n.d.), p. 75;
116. The Records of the Borough of Northampton, 1, ed. Christopher Markham (n.p., 1898), p. 373;
117. Records of the Borough of Nottingham, 1 (London, 1882), p. 75;
118. Munimenta Civitatis Oxonie, ed. H. E. Salter (Devizes, 1920), p. 15;
119. The Black Book of the Admiralty, appendix, part 2, ed. Travers Twiss, Rolls Series 55 (London, 1873), p. 173;
120. The Oak Book of Southampton, 1, ed. P. Studer, Publications of the Southampton Record Society 10 (Southampton, 1910), p. 53;
121. The Bailiffs' Minute Book of Dunwich, 1404-1430, ed. Mark Bailey, Suffolk Records Society 34 (Woodbridge, Eng., 1992), p. 78;
122. Eyre of Northamptonshire, 1, ed. Sutherland, p. 87;
123. Reprint of the Barnstaple Records Published by J. R. Chanter and Thos. Wainwright, 2 (Barnstaple, 1900), p. 48;
124. Stamford in the Thirteenth Century, ed. David Roffe (Stamford, 1994), p. 23;
125. Gross, The Gild Merchant, 2:238-39;
126. Borough Customs, 1, ed. Bateson, pp. 55-57.
127. Ellen Wedemeyer Moore, The Fairs of Medieval England: An Introductory Study, Studies and Texts 72 (Toronto, 1985), p. 181.
128. Eyre of Northamptonshire, ed. Sutherland, 1:87 and 93.
129. Cartularium monasterii de Rameseia, ed. William Hart and Ponsonby Lyons, Rolls Series 79 (London, 1884-94), 2:342.
130. Calendar of the Patent Rolls Preserved in the Public Record Office: Edward I, 2: 1281-1292, ed. H. C. Maxwell Lyte (London, 1901), pp. 206-7.
131. The Records of the City of Norwich, ed. William Hudson and John Cottingham Tingey, 2 vols. (Norwich, 1906-10), 1:182.
132. Eyre of Northamptonshire, ed. Sutherland, 1:93.
133. Colin Morris, The Discovery of the Individual, 1050-1200 (London, 1972), esp. pp. 70-76.
134. For a recent assessment of the historiography of penance and confession, see Peter Biller, "Confession in the Middle Ages: Introduction," in Peter Biller and A. J. Minnis, eds., Handling Sin: Confession in the Middle Ages, York Studies in Medieval Theology 2 (Woodbridge, Eng., 1998), pp. 3-33.
135. The literature of this debate is summarized in Mary Mansfield, The Humiliation of Sinners: Public Penance in Thirteenth-Century France (Ithaca, N.Y., 1995).
136. W. David Myers, "Poor, Sinning Folk": Confession and Conscience in Counter-Reformation Germany (Ithaca, N.Y., 1996), p. 54;
137. John Bossy, Christianity in the West, 1400-1700 (Oxford, 1987), pp. 49-53.
138. Mansfield, Humiliation of Sinners, pp. 124-28.
139. Nigel J. Tringham, "A Church Court at Baswich, Stafford, in 1288," South Staffordshire Archaeological and Historical Society Transactions for 1988-89 30 (1990), 23-25;
140. R. H. Helmholz, Marriage Litigation in Medieval England (Cambridge, Eng., 1974), p. 182. Most bishops' registers from the period also contain examples of sentences involving penance in parish churches.
141. The main records from lower levels of ecclesiastical jurisdiction on which this analysis of public penance is based are Tringham, "Church Court at Baswich"; F. S. Pearson, "Records of a Ruridecanal Court of 1300," in Collectanea, ed. Sidney Graves Hamilton, Worcestershire Historical Record Society 29 (London, 1912), pp. 69-80;
142. Antonia Gransden, "Some Late Thirteenth-Century Records of an Ecclesiastical Court in the Archdeaconry of Sudbury," Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research 32 (1959), 62-69;
143. and Sandra Lee Parker and L. R. Poos, "A Consistory Court from the Diocese of Rochester, 1363-4," English Historical Review 106 (1991), 652-65.
144. The record edited by Pearson was translated and published in English Historical Documents, 3: 1189-1327, ed. Harry Rothwell (New York, 1975), pp. 724-29.
145. Pearson, "Records of a Ruridecanal Court of 1300."
146. I have drawn upon material from the following episcopal registers in this study: The Register of William Wickwane, Lord Archbishop of York, 1279-1285, ed. William Brown, Publications of the Surtees Society 114 (Durham, Eng., 1907);
147. Registrum Hamonis Hethe diocesis Roffensis, A.D. 1319-1352, ed. Charles Johnson, Canterbury and York Society 48-49 (Oxford, 1948);
148. Registrum Simonis Langham, Cantuariensis archiepiscopi, ed. A. C. Wood, Canterbury and York Society 53 (Oxford, 1956);
149. The Register of Thomas Langley, Bishop of Durham, 1406-1437, ed. R. L. Storey, Publications of the Surtees Society 164, 166, 169, 170, 177, and 182 (Durham, Eng., 1956-70);
150. The Registers of Roger Martival, Bishop of Salisbury, 1315-1330, 2, ed. C. R. Erlington, and 4, ed. Dorothy Owen, Canterbury and York Society 57 and 68 (Oxford, 1963; Torquay, 1975);
151. Rolls and Register of Bishop Oliver Sutton, 1280-1299, ed. Rosalind M. T. Hill, 5 and 6, Lincolnshire Record Society 60 and 64 (Hereford, Eng., 1965 and 1969);
152. The Register of William Melton, Archbishop of York, 1317-1340, ed. Rosalind M. T. Hill, Canterbury and York Society 70 (Torquay, 1977);
153. The Register of Thomas Langton, Bishop of Salisbury, 1485-93, ed. D. P. Wright, Canterbury and York Society 74 (n.p., 1985);
154. and The Register of John Waltham, Bishop of Salisbury, 1388-1395, ed. T. C. B. Timmins, Canterbury and York Society 80 (Woodbridge, Eng., 1994).
155. Some useful material can also be found in an unusual episcopal court book from the 1440s, extracts from which were printed in Alexander Hamilton Thompson, The English Clergy and Their Organization in the Later Middle Ages (Oxford, 1947), pp. 206-46.
156. Mention should also be made here of the valuable extracts from bishops' registers and other ecclesiastical sources printed in Before the Bawdy Court: Selections from Church Court and Other Records Relating to the Correction of Moral Offences in England, Scotland and New England, 1300-1800, ed. P. E. H. Hair (London, 1972).
157. Registrum Hamonis Hethe, pp. 933, 980, 986-87, 997, 998-99, 1008, 1015, 1021, 1026-27, and 1043.
158. Register of Thomas Langton, pp. 71, 73, 76, 77, and 81.
159. Registers of Roger Martival, p. 77.
160. Jocelin of Brakelond, Chronicle of the Abbey of Bury St. Edmunds, trans. Diana Greenway and Jane Sayers (Oxford, 1989), pp. 82-83.
161. Thompson, English Clergy and Their Organization, pp. 216-18.
162. Register of Thomas Langley, pp. 78-79.
163. Heresy Trials in the Diocese of Norwich, 1428-31, ed. Norman Tanner, Camden Society, 4th ser., 20 (London, 1977), pp. 83-84.
164. J. H. Bettey, Church and Parish: An Introduction for Local Historians (London, 1987), p. 48.
165. Brian Woodcock, Medieval Ecclesiastical Courts in the Diocese of Canterbury (London, 1952), pp. 97-98;
166. Helmholz, Marriage Litigation in Medieval England, p. 182;
167. Before the Bawdy Court, ed. Hair, pp. 256-57;
168. Frank Barlow, Thomas Becket (Berkeley, Calif., 1986), p. 270;
169. The Church Historians of England, trans. Joseph Stevenson, 4/2 (London, 1856), p. 481.
170. Keith Thomas, "The Puritans and Adultery: The Act of 1650 Reconsidered," in Puritans and Revolutionaries: Essays in Seventeenth-Century History Presented to Christopher Hill, ed. Donald Pennington and Keith Thomas (Oxford, 1978), pp. 263-67.
171. John R. H. Moorman, Church Life in England in the Thirteenth Century (Cambridge, Eng., 1945), p. 207.
172. Rolls and Register of Bishop Sutton, 5:12.
173. Parker and Poos, "Consistory Court from the Diocese of Rochester" (above, n. 108), p. 657.
174. DeLloyd J. Guth, "Enforcing Late Medieval Law: Patterns in Litigation during Henry VII's Reign," in Legal Records and the Historian, ed. J. H. Baker (London, 1978), p. 90.
175. Heresy Trials in the Diocese of Norwich, ed. Tanner, pp. 43, 83-84, and 107-38.
176. Register of Thomas Langton, pp. 71-81.
177. John A. F. Thomson, The Later Lollards, 1414-1520 (Oxford, 1965), pp. 230-36.
178. Coventry, ed. R. W. Ingram, Records of Early English Drama (Toronto, 1981), p. 107.
179. James Brundage, Law, Sex, and Christian Society in Medieval Europe (Chicago, 1987), p. 388.
180. Pearson, "Records of a Ruridecanal Court" (above, n. 108).
181. Register of John Waltham, pp. 129-68.
182. Rotuli Parliamentorum, 1:98.
183. Bryan Coates, "The Distribution of Markets and Fairs in Medieval Derbyshire," Derbyshire Archaeological Journal 85 (1965), 100;
184. Michael Reed, "Markets and Fairs in Medieval Buckinghamshire," Records of Buckinghamshire 20 (1978), 570.
185. Select Cases of Trespass from the King's Courts, ed. Morris Arnold, Selden Society 100 (London, 1985), 1:109-11.
186. Britnell, "Proliferation of Markets," pp. 209-21;
187. Masschaele, "Multiplicity of Medieval Markets Reconsidered," pp. 255-71.
188. Rosalind Hill, "Public Penance: Some Problems of a Thirteenth-Century Bishop," History 36 (1951), 223-24;
189. Peter Heath, The English Parish Clergy on the Eve of the Reformation (London, 1969), pp. 112-19;
190. Tringham, "Church Court at Baswich," p. 25;
191. Hill, "Public Penance," pp. 221-22.
192. Herbert E. Salter, "A Chronicle Roll of the Abbots of Abingdon," English Historical Review 26 (1911), 727-38.
193. Gabrielle Lambrick, "Abingdon and the Riots of 1327," Oxoniensia 29-30 (1964-65), 129-41.
194. Gesta abbatum Monasterii Sancti Albani, ed. Henry T. Riley, Rolls Series 28 (London, 1863-76), 4/3:303.
195. R. B. Dobson, The Peasants' Revolt of 1381 (London, 1970), p. 276.
196. Dobson, Peasants' Revolt, p. 274.
197. Memorials of St. Edmund's Abbey, ed. Thomas Arnold, Rolls Series 96 (London, 1890-96), 3:128-29.
198. Robert Darnton, The Forbidden Best-Sellers of Pre-revolutionary France (New York, 1995).
199. Calendar of Inquisitions Miscellaneous (Chancery), 1:66;
200. Cambridge Borough Documents, ed. W. M. Palmer (Cambridge, Eng., 1931), 1:9;
201. Records of the Borough of Leicester, 1103-1327, ed. Bateson, 1:231;
202. L. R. Poos, A Rural Society after the Black Death: Essex, 1350-1525 (Cambridge, Eng., 1991), p. 277;
203. Calendar of Close Rolls, 1272-79, p. 290.
204. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, trans. Thomas Burger (Cambridge, Mass., 1989);
205. Habermas and the Public Sphere, ed. Craig Calhoun (Cambridge, Mass., 1992);
206. David Zaret, Origins of Democratic Culture: Printing, Petitions, and the Public Sphere in Early-Modern England (Princeton, N.J., 2000).
207. The ordinance instituting commissions of trailbaston, for example, specifically mentions violence in fairs and markets as one of the problems needing the attention of justices: Rotuli Parliamentorum, 1:178.