Docile Children and Dangerous Revolutionaries: The Racial Hierarchy of Manliness and the Bisbee Deportation of 1917

Frontiers

Volumn 24, Issue 2-3, 2003, Pages

  Benton Cohen, Katherine ^a  

^a LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 1442335314     PISSN: 01609009     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (103)

1. The President's Mediation Commission appointed by President Woodrow Wilson concluded that the strike had been peaceful (U.S. Department of Labor, Report on the Bisbee Deportation Made by the President's Mediation Commission to the President of the United Sates, November 6, 1917 [Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office (GPO), 1918, hereafter cited as PMC], 4; George E. Kellogg testimony, PMC, 13; "Women and Children Keep Off Streets Today," Bisbee Daily Review, July 12, 1917, 1; and "Arizona Sheriff Ships 1,100 IWW's Out in Cattle Cars," New York Times, July 13, 1917, 1).
2. The President's Mediation Commission appointed by President Woodrow Wilson concluded that the strike had been peaceful (U.S. Department of Labor, Report on the Bisbee Deportation Made by the President's Mediation Commission to the President of the United Sates, November 6, 1917 [Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office (GPO), 1918, hereafter cited as PMC], 4; George E. Kellogg testimony, PMC, 13; "Women and Children Keep Off Streets Today," Bisbee Daily Review, July 12, 1917, 1; and "Arizona Sheriff Ships 1,100 IWW's Out in Cattle Cars," New York Times, July 13, 1917, 1).
3. The President's Mediation Commission appointed by President Woodrow Wilson concluded that the strike had been peaceful (U.S. Department of Labor, Report on the Bisbee Deportation Made by the President's Mediation Commission to the President of the United Sates, November 6, 1917 [Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office (GPO), 1918, hereafter cited as PMC], 4; George E. Kellogg testimony, PMC, 13; "Women and Children Keep Off Streets Today," Bisbee Daily Review, July 12, 1917, 1; and "Arizona Sheriff Ships 1,100 IWW's Out in Cattle Cars," New York Times, July 13, 1917, 1).
4. Testimony cited in reports to Gov. George W. P. Hunt, July, 1917, probably from sworn statements to Arizona Attorney General Wiley Jones, RG 1 Governor's Office, Hunt Papers, box 8, Arizona State Legislative and Public Records, hereafter cited as Hunt Papers and ASLAPR.
5. The classic account of the IWW is Melvyn Dubofsky, We Shall Be All: A History of the IWW (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1969). Thomas E. Sheridan, Arizona: A History (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1995), 183. Vernon H. Jensen, Heritage of Conflict: Labor Relations in the Nonferrous Metals Industry up to 1930 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1950), 400.
6. The classic account of the IWW is Melvyn Dubofsky, We Shall Be All: A History of the IWW (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1969). Thomas E. Sheridan, Arizona: A History (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1995), 183. Vernon H. Jensen, Heritage of Conflict: Labor Relations in the Nonferrous Metals Industry up to 1930 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1950), 400.
7. The classic account of the IWW is Melvyn Dubofsky, We Shall Be All: A History of the IWW (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1969). Thomas E. Sheridan, Arizona: A History (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1995), 183. Vernon H. Jensen, Heritage of Conflict: Labor Relations in the Nonferrous Metals Industry up to 1930 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1950), 400.
8. Major interpretations of the deportation include John H. Lindquist and James Fraser, "A Sociological Interpretation of the Bisbee Deportation," Pacific Historical Review 37:4 (1968): 401-22; Philip Taft, "The Bisbee Deportation," Labor History 13:1 (1972), 3-40; James Byrkit, Forging the Copper Collar: Arizona's Labor-Management War of 1901-1921 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1982); Philip J. Mellinger, Race and Labor in Western Copper: The Fight for Equality, 1896-1918 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1995); Colleen O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed: Gender, Race, and the Construction of Class Struggle in the Bisbee Deportation," Labor History 34:2/3 (1993): 256-73; and Colleen O'Neill, "A Community Divided: A Social History of the Bisbee Deportation" (master's thesis, New Mexico State University, 1989). The most recent study is Christopher Capozzola, "The Only Badge Needed is Your Patriotic Fervor: Vigilance, Coercion, and the Law in World War I America," Journal of American History 88:4 (2002): 1354-82.
9. Major interpretations of the deportation include John H. Lindquist and James Fraser, "A Sociological Interpretation of the Bisbee Deportation," Pacific Historical Review 37:4 (1968): 401-22; Philip Taft, "The Bisbee Deportation," Labor History 13:1 (1972), 3-40; James Byrkit, Forging the Copper Collar: Arizona's Labor-Management War of 1901-1921 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1982); Philip J. Mellinger, Race and Labor in Western Copper: The Fight for Equality, 1896-1918 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1995); Colleen O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed: Gender, Race, and the Construction of Class Struggle in the Bisbee Deportation," Labor History 34:2/3 (1993): 256-73; and Colleen O'Neill, "A Community Divided: A Social History of the Bisbee Deportation" (master's thesis, New Mexico State University, 1989). The most recent study is Christopher Capozzola, "The Only Badge Needed is Your Patriotic Fervor: Vigilance, Coercion, and the Law in World War I America," Journal of American History 88:4 (2002): 1354-82.
10. Major interpretations of the deportation include John H. Lindquist and James Fraser, "A Sociological Interpretation of the Bisbee Deportation," Pacific Historical Review 37:4 (1968): 401-22; Philip Taft, "The Bisbee Deportation," Labor History 13:1 (1972), 3-40; James Byrkit, Forging the Copper Collar: Arizona's Labor-Management War of 1901-1921 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1982); Philip J. Mellinger, Race and Labor in Western Copper: The Fight for Equality, 1896-1918 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1995); Colleen O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed: Gender, Race, and the Construction of Class Struggle in the Bisbee Deportation," Labor History 34:2/3 (1993): 256-73; and Colleen O'Neill, "A Community Divided: A Social History of the Bisbee Deportation" (master's thesis, New Mexico State University, 1989). The most recent study is Christopher Capozzola, "The Only Badge Needed is Your Patriotic Fervor: Vigilance, Coercion, and the Law in World War I America," Journal of American History 88:4 (2002): 1354-82.
11. Major interpretations of the deportation include John H. Lindquist and James Fraser, "A Sociological Interpretation of the Bisbee Deportation," Pacific Historical Review 37:4 (1968): 401-22; Philip Taft, "The Bisbee Deportation," Labor History 13:1 (1972), 3-40; James Byrkit, Forging the Copper Collar: Arizona's Labor-Management War of 1901-1921 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1982); Philip J. Mellinger, Race and Labor in Western Copper: The Fight for Equality, 1896-1918 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1995); Colleen O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed: Gender, Race, and the Construction of Class Struggle in the Bisbee Deportation," Labor History 34:2/3 (1993): 256-73; and Colleen O'Neill, "A Community Divided: A Social History of the Bisbee Deportation" (master's thesis, New Mexico State University, 1989). The most recent study is Christopher Capozzola, "The Only Badge Needed is Your Patriotic Fervor: Vigilance, Coercion, and the Law in World War I America," Journal of American History 88:4 (2002): 1354-82.
12. Major interpretations of the deportation include John H. Lindquist and James Fraser, "A Sociological Interpretation of the Bisbee Deportation," Pacific Historical Review 37:4 (1968): 401-22; Philip Taft, "The Bisbee Deportation," Labor History 13:1 (1972), 3-40; James Byrkit, Forging the Copper Collar: Arizona's Labor-Management War of 1901-1921 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1982); Philip J. Mellinger, Race and Labor in Western Copper: The Fight for Equality, 1896-1918 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1995); Colleen O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed: Gender, Race, and the Construction of Class Struggle in the Bisbee Deportation," Labor History 34:2/3 (1993): 256-73; and Colleen O'Neill, "A Community Divided: A Social History of the Bisbee Deportation" (master's thesis, New Mexico State University, 1989). The most recent study is Christopher Capozzola, "The Only Badge Needed is Your Patriotic Fervor: Vigilance, Coercion, and the Law in World War I America," Journal of American History 88:4 (2002): 1354-82.
13. Major interpretations of the deportation include John H. Lindquist and James Fraser, "A Sociological Interpretation of the Bisbee Deportation," Pacific Historical Review 37:4 (1968): 401-22; Philip Taft, "The Bisbee Deportation," Labor History 13:1 (1972), 3-40; James Byrkit, Forging the Copper Collar: Arizona's Labor-Management War of 1901-1921 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1982); Philip J. Mellinger, Race and Labor in Western Copper: The Fight for Equality, 1896-1918 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1995); Colleen O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed: Gender, Race, and the Construction of Class Struggle in the Bisbee Deportation," Labor History 34:2/3 (1993): 256-73; and Colleen O'Neill, "A Community Divided: A Social History of the Bisbee Deportation" (master's thesis, New Mexico State University, 1989). The most recent study is Christopher Capozzola, "The Only Badge Needed is Your Patriotic Fervor: Vigilance, Coercion, and the Law in World War I America," Journal of American History 88:4 (2002): 1354-82.
14. Major interpretations of the deportation include John H. Lindquist and James Fraser, "A Sociological Interpretation of the Bisbee Deportation," Pacific Historical Review 37:4 (1968): 401-22; Philip Taft, "The Bisbee Deportation," Labor History 13:1 (1972), 3-40; James Byrkit, Forging the Copper Collar: Arizona's Labor-Management War of 1901-1921 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1982); Philip J. Mellinger, Race and Labor in Western Copper: The Fight for Equality, 1896-1918 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1995); Colleen O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed: Gender, Race, and the Construction of Class Struggle in the Bisbee Deportation," Labor History 34:2/3 (1993): 256-73; and Colleen O'Neill, "A Community Divided: A Social History of the Bisbee Deportation" (master's thesis, New Mexico State University, 1989). The most recent study is Christopher Capozzola, "The Only Badge Needed is Your Patriotic Fervor: Vigilance, Coercion, and the Law in World War I America," Journal of American History 88:4 (2002): 1354-82.
15. Kristin L. Hoganson, Fighting For Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998). Other works that have influenced my focus on manliness and masculinity include Susan Lee Johnson, "'A Memory Sweet to Soldiers': The Significance of Gender," in A New Significance: Re-envisioning the History of the American West, ed. Clyde A. Milner II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 255-78; Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995); and Matthew Basso, Laura McCall, and Dee Garceau, eds., Across the Great Divide: Cultures of Manhood in the American West (New York: Routledge, 2001).
16. Kristin L. Hoganson, Fighting For Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998). Other works that have influenced my focus on manliness and masculinity include Susan Lee Johnson, "'A Memory Sweet to Soldiers': The Significance of Gender," in A New Significance: Re-envisioning the History of the American West, ed. Clyde A. Milner II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 255-78; Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995); and Matthew Basso, Laura McCall, and Dee Garceau, eds., Across the Great Divide: Cultures of Manhood in the American West (New York: Routledge, 2001).
17. Kristin L. Hoganson, Fighting For Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998). Other works that have influenced my focus on manliness and masculinity include Susan Lee Johnson, "'A Memory Sweet to Soldiers': The Significance of Gender," in A New Significance: Re-envisioning the History of the American West, ed. Clyde A. Milner II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 255-78; Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995); and Matthew Basso, Laura McCall, and Dee Garceau, eds., Across the Great Divide: Cultures of Manhood in the American West (New York: Routledge, 2001).
18. Kristin L. Hoganson, Fighting For Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998). Other works that have influenced my focus on manliness and masculinity include Susan Lee Johnson, "'A Memory Sweet to Soldiers': The Significance of Gender," in A New Significance: Re-envisioning the History of the American West, ed. Clyde A. Milner II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 255-78; Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995); and Matthew Basso, Laura McCall, and Dee Garceau, eds., Across the Great Divide: Cultures of Manhood in the American West (New York: Routledge, 2001).
19. I focus here mainly on men. On women in Bisbee, see O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed," and "A Community Divided"; and Katherine A. Benton, "What about Women in the 'White Man's Camp?': Gender, Nation, and the Redefinition of Race in Cochise County, Arizona, 1853-1941" (Ph.D diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2002).
20. I focus here mainly on men. On women in Bisbee, see O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed," and "A Community Divided"; and Katherine A. Benton, "What about Women in the 'White Man's Camp?': Gender, Nation, and the Redefinition of Race in Cochise County, Arizona, 1853-1941" (Ph.D diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2002).
21. Bisbee's exclusion of the Chinese was in explicit contrast to Tombstone, its nearby silver-camp neighbor, which included a sizable Chinese population. See Odie B. Faulk, Tombstone: Myth and Reality (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 199; William B. Shillingberg, Tombstone, A.T.: A History of Early Mining, Milling, and Mayhem (Spokane, Wash.: Authur H. Clark, 1999), 130-32; and U.S. Bureau of the Census, Eleventh Census of the United States, 1890, Population, Part 1, Statistics of Population (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1892), 610.
22. Bisbee's exclusion of the Chinese was in explicit contrast to Tombstone, its nearby silver-camp neighbor, which included a sizable Chinese population. See Odie B. Faulk, Tombstone: Myth and Reality (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 199; William B. Shillingberg, Tombstone, A.T.: A History of Early Mining, Milling, and Mayhem (Spokane, Wash.: Authur H. Clark, 1999), 130-32; and U.S. Bureau of the Census, Eleventh Census of the United States, 1890, Population, Part 1, Statistics of Population (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1892), 610.
23. Bisbee's exclusion of the Chinese was in explicit contrast to Tombstone, its nearby silver-camp neighbor, which included a sizable Chinese population. See Odie B. Faulk, Tombstone: Myth and Reality (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 199; William B. Shillingberg, Tombstone, A.T.: A History of Early Mining, Milling, and Mayhem (Spokane, Wash.: Authur H. Clark, 1999), 130-32; and U.S. Bureau of the Census, Eleventh Census of the United States, 1890, Population, Part 1, Statistics of Population (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1892), 610.
24. "No Foreign Labor Wanted," Bisbee Daily Review, May 27, 1903. Robert Orsi, "The Religious Boundaries of an Inbetween People: Street Feste and the Problem of the Dark-skinned Other in Italian Harlem, 1920-1990," American Quarterly 44:3 (1992): 313-47. According to Orsi, John Higham coined the term "'in-between' races." James R. Barrett and David Roediger, "In-Between Peoples: Race, Nationality and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History 16:3 (1997): 3-44. Elizabeth Jameson, All That Glitters: Class, Conflict, and Community in Cripple Creek (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998), 140-60. "Census of the Columbus I.W.W. Refugee Camp," comp. by Ben H. Dorcy, Cavalry Major, Intelligence Officer, Columbus, New Mexico, Hunt Papers, ASLAPR.
25. "No Foreign Labor Wanted," Bisbee Daily Review, May 27, 1903. Robert Orsi, "The Religious Boundaries of an Inbetween People: Street Feste and the Problem of the Dark-skinned Other in Italian Harlem, 1920-1990," American Quarterly 44:3 (1992): 313-47. According to Orsi, John Higham coined the term "'in-between' races." James R. Barrett and David Roediger, "In-Between Peoples: Race, Nationality and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History 16:3 (1997): 3-44. Elizabeth Jameson, All That Glitters: Class, Conflict, and Community in Cripple Creek (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998), 140-60. "Census of the Columbus I.W.W. Refugee Camp," comp. by Ben H. Dorcy, Cavalry Major, Intelligence Officer, Columbus, New Mexico, Hunt Papers, ASLAPR.
26. "No Foreign Labor Wanted," Bisbee Daily Review, May 27, 1903. Robert Orsi, "The Religious Boundaries of an Inbetween People: Street Feste and the Problem of the Dark-skinned Other in Italian Harlem, 1920-1990," American Quarterly 44:3 (1992): 313-47. According to Orsi, John Higham coined the term "'in-between' races." James R. Barrett and David Roediger, "In-Between Peoples: Race, Nationality and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History 16:3 (1997): 3-44. Elizabeth Jameson, All That Glitters: Class, Conflict, and Community in Cripple Creek (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998), 140-60. "Census of the Columbus I.W.W. Refugee Camp," comp. by Ben H. Dorcy, Cavalry Major, Intelligence Officer, Columbus, New Mexico, Hunt Papers, ASLAPR.
27. "No Foreign Labor Wanted," Bisbee Daily Review, May 27, 1903. Robert Orsi, "The Religious Boundaries of an Inbetween People: Street Feste and the Problem of the Dark-skinned Other in Italian Harlem, 1920-1990," American Quarterly 44:3 (1992): 313-47. According to Orsi, John Higham coined the term "'in-between' races." James R. Barrett and David Roediger, "In-Between Peoples: Race, Nationality and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History 16:3 (1997): 3-44. Elizabeth Jameson, All That Glitters: Class, Conflict, and Community in Cripple Creek (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998), 140-60. "Census of the Columbus I.W.W. Refugee Camp," comp. by Ben H. Dorcy, Cavalry Major, Intelligence Officer, Columbus, New Mexico, Hunt Papers, ASLAPR.
28. "No Foreign Labor Wanted," Bisbee Daily Review, May 27, 1903. Robert Orsi, "The Religious Boundaries of an Inbetween People: Street Feste and the Problem of the Dark-skinned Other in Italian Harlem, 1920-1990," American Quarterly 44:3 (1992): 313-47. According to Orsi, John Higham coined the term "'in-between' races." James R. Barrett and David Roediger, "In-Between Peoples: Race, Nationality and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History 16:3 (1997): 3-44. Elizabeth Jameson, All That Glitters: Class, Conflict, and Community in Cripple Creek (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998), 140-60. "Census of the Columbus I.W.W. Refugee Camp," comp. by Ben H. Dorcy, Cavalry Major, Intelligence Officer, Columbus, New Mexico, Hunt Papers, ASLAPR.
29. "No Foreign Labor Wanted," Bisbee Daily Review, May 27, 1903. Robert Orsi, "The Religious Boundaries of an Inbetween People: Street Feste and the Problem of the Dark-skinned Other in Italian Harlem, 1920-1990," American Quarterly 44:3 (1992): 313-47. According to Orsi, John Higham coined the term "'in-between' races." James R. Barrett and David Roediger, "In-Between Peoples: Race, Nationality and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History 16:3 (1997): 3-44. Elizabeth Jameson, All That Glitters: Class, Conflict, and Community in Cripple Creek (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998), 140-60. "Census of the Columbus I.W.W. Refugee Camp," comp. by Ben H. Dorcy, Cavalry Major, Intelligence Officer, Columbus, New Mexico, Hunt Papers, ASLAPR.
30. Mexicans working at the Copper Queen smelter in nearby Douglas earned two-thirds what other men in the same jobs did. I have not found wage scales for Mexicans in Bisbee on the eve of the strike; but the proportional difference between white and Mexican wages would be similar. Copper Queen Smelter Rate Scales, May 16, 1917, Henry McCluskey Collection, MSS 54, box 2, Arizona Collection, Arizona State University. See Phelps-Dodge Corporation Payroll Records, 1885, Arizona Historical Society, hereafter cited as AHS, and "March 13, 1923 Report Re: Wage Scale for Reduction Works Employees in Douglas," Copper Queen Mining Company Wage Scales, Samuel Truett private collection, Albuquerque, New Mexico. The author wishes to thank Truett for access to these materials. See Michael Parrish, Mexican Workers, Progressives, and Copper: The Failure of Industrial Democracy in Arizona During the Wilson Years (San Diego: Chicano Research Publications, University of California, San Diego, 1979), 12-13. Linda Gordon describes the ways that Phelps-Dodge manipulated the dual-wage system in her book, The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), 181. The racial underpinnings of American identity were best articulated by Theodore Roosevelt, who believed that, as Gail Bederman has summarized, "the manly American race was forged of various immigrant races, [and] all of those contributing races were European" (Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, 179).
31. Mexicans working at the Copper Queen smelter in nearby Douglas earned two-thirds what other men in the same jobs did. I have not found wage scales for Mexicans in Bisbee on the eve of the strike; but the proportional difference between white and Mexican wages would be similar. Copper Queen Smelter Rate Scales, May 16, 1917, Henry McCluskey Collection, MSS 54, box 2, Arizona Collection, Arizona State University. See Phelps-Dodge Corporation Payroll Records, 1885, Arizona Historical Society, hereafter cited as AHS, and "March 13, 1923 Report Re: Wage Scale for Reduction Works Employees in Douglas," Copper Queen Mining Company Wage Scales, Samuel Truett private collection, Albuquerque, New Mexico. The author wishes to thank Truett for access to these materials. See Michael Parrish, Mexican Workers, Progressives, and Copper: The Failure of Industrial Democracy in Arizona During the Wilson Years (San Diego: Chicano Research Publications, University of California, San Diego, 1979), 12-13. Linda Gordon describes the ways that Phelps-Dodge manipulated the dual-wage system in her book, The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), 181. The racial underpinnings of American identity were best articulated by Theodore Roosevelt, who believed that, as Gail Bederman has summarized, "the manly American race was forged of various immigrant races, [and] all of those contributing races were European" (Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, 179).
32. Mexicans working at the Copper Queen smelter in nearby Douglas earned two-thirds what other men in the same jobs did. I have not found wage scales for Mexicans in Bisbee on the eve of the strike; but the proportional difference between white and Mexican wages would be similar. Copper Queen Smelter Rate Scales, May 16, 1917, Henry McCluskey Collection, MSS 54, box 2, Arizona Collection, Arizona State University. See Phelps-Dodge Corporation Payroll Records, 1885, Arizona Historical Society, hereafter cited as AHS, and "March 13, 1923 Report Re: Wage Scale for Reduction Works Employees in Douglas," Copper Queen Mining Company Wage Scales, Samuel Truett private collection, Albuquerque, New Mexico. The author wishes to thank Truett for access to these materials. See Michael Parrish, Mexican Workers, Progressives, and Copper: The Failure of Industrial Democracy in Arizona During the Wilson Years (San Diego: Chicano Research Publications, University of California, San Diego, 1979), 12-13. Linda Gordon describes the ways that Phelps-Dodge manipulated the dual-wage system in her book, The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), 181. The racial underpinnings of American identity were best articulated by Theodore Roosevelt, who believed that, as Gail Bederman has summarized, "the manly American race was forged of various immigrant races, [and] all of those contributing races were European" (Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, 179).
33. Ralph Rollins, "Labor Situation in Arizona Points to Mexicanization," Arizona Mining Journal 4:4 (1920): 13-14. Bisbee Daily Review, World's Pair Edition (1904). "Nationality Report of Men Employed on June 26th, and of Men Deported to Columbus on July 12th, Who Were in the Employ of the Calumet & Arizona Mining Company When Strike Was Called on June 26th," PMC reports, 288-89. The Mexican workers were also the only ones whose marital status was not recorded. Roediger and Barrett found that managers drew up elaborate lists of which races should do which work ("In-Between Peoples," 17). On the average Mexican and white wages, see Joseph F. Park, "The History of Mexican Labor in the Territorial Period" (master's thesis, University of Arizona, 1961), 245. Park found the average wage for Anglo workers to be about $4.00, and the average Mexican wage to be about $2.05 during the early 1910s. Phylis Cancilla Martinelli, unpublished manuscript.
34. Ralph Rollins, "Labor Situation in Arizona Points to Mexicanization," Arizona Mining Journal 4:4 (1920): 13-14. Bisbee Daily Review, World's Pair Edition (1904). "Nationality Report of Men Employed on June 26th, and of Men Deported to Columbus on July 12th, Who Were in the Employ of the Calumet & Arizona Mining Company When Strike Was Called on June 26th," PMC reports, 288-89. The Mexican workers were also the only ones whose marital status was not recorded. Roediger and Barrett found that managers drew up elaborate lists of which races should do which work ("In-Between Peoples," 17). On the average Mexican and white wages, see Joseph F. Park, "The History of Mexican Labor in the Territorial Period" (master's thesis, University of Arizona, 1961), 245. Park found the average wage for Anglo workers to be about $4.00, and the average Mexican wage to be about $2.05 during the early 1910s. Phylis Cancilla Martinelli, unpublished manuscript.
35. Ralph Rollins, "Labor Situation in Arizona Points to Mexicanization," Arizona Mining Journal 4:4 (1920): 13-14. Bisbee Daily Review, World's Pair Edition (1904). "Nationality Report of Men Employed on June 26th, and of Men Deported to Columbus on July 12th, Who Were in the Employ of the Calumet & Arizona Mining Company When Strike Was Called on June 26th," PMC reports, 288-89. The Mexican workers were also the only ones whose marital status was not recorded. Roediger and Barrett found that managers drew up elaborate lists of which races should do which work ("In-Between Peoples," 17). On the average Mexican and white wages, see Joseph F. Park, "The History of Mexican Labor in the Territorial Period" (master's thesis, University of Arizona, 1961), 245. Park found the average wage for Anglo workers to be about $4.00, and the average Mexican wage to be about $2.05 during the early 1910s. Phylis Cancilla Martinelli, unpublished manuscript.
36. Ralph Rollins, "Labor Situation in Arizona Points to Mexicanization," Arizona Mining Journal 4:4 (1920): 13-14. Bisbee Daily Review, World's Pair Edition (1904). "Nationality Report of Men Employed on June 26th, and of Men Deported to Columbus on July 12th, Who Were in the Employ of the Calumet & Arizona Mining Company When Strike Was Called on June 26th," PMC reports, 288-89. The Mexican workers were also the only ones whose marital status was not recorded. Roediger and Barrett found that managers drew up elaborate lists of which races should do which work ("In-Between Peoples," 17). On the average Mexican and white wages, see Joseph F. Park, "The History of Mexican Labor in the Territorial Period" (master's thesis, University of Arizona, 1961), 245. Park found the average wage for Anglo workers to be about $4.00, and the average Mexican wage to be about $2.05 during the early 1910s. Phylis Cancilla Martinelli, unpublished manuscript.
37. Linda Gordon defines the family wage usefully as "the sex/gender/family system that prescribes earning as the sole responsibility of husbands and unpaid domestic labor as the only proper long-term occupation for women," in Pitied but not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994), 53. For more on the family wage, see Martha May and Ron Rothbart, "'Homes Are What Any Strike Is About': Immigrant Labor and the Family Wage," Journal of Social History 23:2 (1989): 267-84. See Martha May, "The Historical Problem of the Family Wage: The Ford Motor Company and the Five Dollar Day," Feminist Studies 8: 2 (1982): 404, 419. Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage: Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1990), 1.
38. Linda Gordon defines the family wage usefully as "the sex/gender/family system that prescribes earning as the sole responsibility of husbands and unpaid domestic labor as the only proper long-term occupation for women," in Pitied but not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994), 53. For more on the family wage, see Martha May and Ron Rothbart, "'Homes Are What Any Strike Is About': Immigrant Labor and the Family Wage," Journal of Social History 23:2 (1989): 267-84. See Martha May, "The Historical Problem of the Family Wage: The Ford Motor Company and the Five Dollar Day," Feminist Studies 8: 2 (1982): 404, 419. Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage: Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1990), 1.
39. Linda Gordon defines the family wage usefully as "the sex/gender/family system that prescribes earning as the sole responsibility of husbands and unpaid domestic labor as the only proper long-term occupation for women," in Pitied but not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994), 53. For more on the family wage, see Martha May and Ron Rothbart, "'Homes Are What Any Strike Is About': Immigrant Labor and the Family Wage," Journal of Social History 23:2 (1989): 267-84. See Martha May, "The Historical Problem of the Family Wage: The Ford Motor Company and the Five Dollar Day," Feminist Studies 8: 2 (1982): 404, 419. Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage: Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1990), 1.
40. Linda Gordon defines the family wage usefully as "the sex/gender/family system that prescribes earning as the sole responsibility of husbands and unpaid domestic labor as the only proper long-term occupation for women," in Pitied but not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994), 53. For more on the family wage, see Martha May and Ron Rothbart, "'Homes Are What Any Strike Is About': Immigrant Labor and the Family Wage," Journal of Social History 23:2 (1989): 267-84. See Martha May, "The Historical Problem of the Family Wage: The Ford Motor Company and the Five Dollar Day," Feminist Studies 8: 2 (1982): 404, 419. Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage: Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1990), 1.
41. Cleveland Van Dyke report to Kendric C. Babcock, president of the University of Arizona, December 16, 1907, Warren Company Papers, Private Collection of Charles Parrott, Lowell, Massachusetts, 8-9. My thanks to Parrott for sharing these valuable materials with me. On the family wage ideology and its relationship to the homeowning plans in the Bisbee suburb of Warren, see Benton, "'What about Women,"' 192-253. David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (1991; reprint, New York: Verso Books, 1999).
42. Cleveland Van Dyke report to Kendric C. Babcock, president of the University of Arizona, December 16, 1907, Warren Company Papers, Private Collection of Charles Parrott, Lowell, Massachusetts, 8-9. My thanks to Parrott for sharing these valuable materials with me. On the family wage ideology and its relationship to the homeowning plans in the Bisbee suburb of Warren, see Benton, "'What about Women,"' 192-253. David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (1991; reprint, New York: Verso Books, 1999).
43. Byrkit, Forging the Copper Collar, 158. John O. Dunbar, "Editorial Comment," Dunbar's Weekly, July 7, 1917, 8.
44. Byrkit, Forging the Copper Collar, 158. John O. Dunbar, "Editorial Comment," Dunbar's Weekly, July 7, 1917, 8.
45. Lawrence Glickman, "Inventing the 'American Standard of Living": Gender, Race and Working-Class Identity, 1880-1925," Labor History 23:2/3 (1993): 221-35. On its relationship to the family wage, see May and Rothbart, "Homes," passim, and, in the Jacksonian period, Jeanne Boydston, Home and Work: Housework, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor in the Early Republic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). Glickman, "Inventing the 'American Standard,'" 221; quotation from 226. Dunbar, "Editorial Comment: Kill The Strikers," Dunbar's Weekly, July 14, 1917, 6.
46. Lawrence Glickman, "Inventing the 'American Standard of Living": Gender, Race and Working-Class Identity, 1880-1925," Labor History 23:2/3 (1993): 221-35. On its relationship to the family wage, see May and Rothbart, "Homes," passim, and, in the Jacksonian period, Jeanne Boydston, Home and Work: Housework, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor in the Early Republic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). Glickman, "Inventing the 'American Standard,'" 221; quotation from 226. Dunbar, "Editorial Comment: Kill The Strikers," Dunbar's Weekly, July 14, 1917, 6.
47. Lawrence Glickman, "Inventing the 'American Standard of Living": Gender, Race and Working-Class Identity, 1880-1925," Labor History 23:2/3 (1993): 221-35. On its relationship to the family wage, see May and Rothbart, "Homes," passim, and, in the Jacksonian period, Jeanne Boydston, Home and Work: Housework, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor in the Early Republic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). Glickman, "Inventing the 'American Standard,'" 221; quotation from 226. Dunbar, "Editorial Comment: Kill The Strikers," Dunbar's Weekly, July 14, 1917, 6.
48. Lawrence Glickman, "Inventing the 'American Standard of Living": Gender, Race and Working-Class Identity, 1880-1925," Labor History 23:2/3 (1993): 221-35. On its relationship to the family wage, see May and Rothbart, "Homes," passim, and, in the Jacksonian period, Jeanne Boydston, Home and Work: Housework, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor in the Early Republic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). Glickman, "Inventing the 'American Standard,'" 221; quotation from 226. Dunbar, "Editorial Comment: Kill The Strikers," Dunbar's Weekly, July 14, 1917, 6.
49. Lawrence Glickman, "Inventing the 'American Standard of Living": Gender, Race and Working-Class Identity, 1880-1925," Labor History 23:2/3 (1993): 221-35. On its relationship to the family wage, see May and Rothbart, "Homes," passim, and, in the Jacksonian period, Jeanne Boydston, Home and Work: Housework, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor in the Early Republic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). Glickman, "Inventing the 'American Standard,'" 221; quotation from 226. Dunbar, "Editorial Comment: Kill The Strikers," Dunbar's Weekly, July 14, 1917, 6.
50. World's Fair Edition, Bisbee Daily Review. The census of deportees in Columbus found 773 out of 1003 to be "men owning property," including Mexican and those of Mexican descent (Dorcy, "Census," Hunt Papers). For a published example of such defense, see Edward T. Divine, "The Bisbee Deportations," Survey, July 21, 1917, 353.
51. World's Fair Edition, Bisbee Daily Review. The census of deportees in Columbus found 773 out of 1003 to be "men owning property," including Mexican and those of Mexican descent (Dorcy, "Census," Hunt Papers). For a published example of such defense, see Edward T. Divine, "The Bisbee Deportations," Survey, July 21, 1917, 353.
52. Victor Clark, "Mexican Labor in the United States," Bureau of Labor Bulletin, 78 (1908): 477-92, as cited in Dru McGinnis, "The Influence of Organized Labor on the Making of the Arizona Constitution" (master's thesis, University of Arizona, 1930), 18. See Glickman, "Inventing the 'American Standard,'" 228. Walter Douglas, president of Phelps Dodge Corporation, to A.T. Thompson, assistant to the president, Douglas, Arizona, March 7, 1918, Truett collection.
53. Victor Clark, "Mexican Labor in the United States," Bureau of Labor Bulletin, 78 (1908): 477-92, as cited in Dru McGinnis, "The Influence of Organized Labor on the Making of the Arizona Constitution" (master's thesis, University of Arizona, 1930), 18. See Glickman, "Inventing the 'American Standard,'" 228. Walter Douglas, president of Phelps Dodge Corporation, to A.T. Thompson, assistant to the president, Douglas, Arizona, March 7, 1918, Truett collection.
54. Victor Clark, "Mexican Labor in the United States," Bureau of Labor Bulletin, 78 (1908): 477-92, as cited in Dru McGinnis, "The Influence of Organized Labor on the Making of the Arizona Constitution" (master's thesis, University of Arizona, 1930), 18. See Glickman, "Inventing the 'American Standard,'" 228. Walter Douglas, president of Phelps Dodge Corporation, to A.T. Thompson, assistant to the president, Douglas, Arizona, March 7, 1918, Truett collection.
55. Gordon, Great Arizona Orphan Abduction, 180. Clark, as cited in McGinnis, "The Influence of Organized Labor," 18. My discussion of Mexican workers is indebted to A. Yvette Huginnie's "A New Hero Comes to Town: The Anglo Mining Engineer and 'Mexican Labor' as Contested Terrain in Southeastern Arizona, 1880-1920," New Mexico Historical Review 69:4 (1994): 323-44. Alonzo Crittenden, "Management of Mexican Labor," Mining and Scientific Press 123 (1921), 267, as cited in Huginnie, "A New Hero," 330.
56. Gordon, Great Arizona Orphan Abduction, 180. Clark, as cited in McGinnis, "The Influence of Organized Labor," 18. My discussion of Mexican workers is indebted to A. Yvette Huginnie's "A New Hero Comes to Town: The Anglo Mining Engineer and 'Mexican Labor' as Contested Terrain in Southeastern Arizona, 1880-1920," New Mexico Historical Review 69:4 (1994): 323-44. Alonzo Crittenden, "Management of Mexican Labor," Mining and Scientific Press 123 (1921), 267, as cited in Huginnie, "A New Hero," 330.
57. Gordon, Great Arizona Orphan Abduction, 180. Clark, as cited in McGinnis, "The Influence of Organized Labor," 18. My discussion of Mexican workers is indebted to A. Yvette Huginnie's "A New Hero Comes to Town: The Anglo Mining Engineer and 'Mexican Labor' as Contested Terrain in Southeastern Arizona, 1880-1920," New Mexico Historical Review 69:4 (1994): 323-44. Alonzo Crittenden, "Management of Mexican Labor," Mining and Scientific Press 123 (1921), 267, as cited in Huginnie, "A New Hero," 330.
58. Gordon, Great Arizona Orphan Abduction, 180. Clark, as cited in McGinnis, "The Influence of Organized Labor," 18. My discussion of Mexican workers is indebted to A. Yvette Huginnie's "A New Hero Comes to Town: The Anglo Mining Engineer and 'Mexican Labor' as Contested Terrain in Southeastern Arizona, 1880-1920," New Mexico Historical Review 69:4 (1994): 323-44. Alonzo Crittenden, "Management of Mexican Labor," Mining and Scientific Press 123 (1921), 267, as cited in Huginnie, "A New Hero," 330.
59. Gordon, Great Arizona Orphan Abduction, 180. Clark, as cited in McGinnis, "The Influence of Organized Labor," 18. My discussion of Mexican workers is indebted to A. Yvette Huginnie's "A New Hero Comes to Town: The Anglo Mining Engineer and 'Mexican Labor' as Contested Terrain in Southeastern Arizona, 1880-1920," New Mexico Historical Review 69:4 (1994): 323-44. Alonzo Crittenden, "Management of Mexican Labor," Mining and Scientific Press 123 (1921), 267, as cited in Huginnie, "A New Hero," 330.
60. O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed," 258. Other scholars have made a similar choice. When Michael Parrish tried to offer evidence of Mexican workers' attitudes in Bisbee, he was forced to cite the testimony of Antonio Rodriguez, an immigrant from Spain who lived on Chihuahua Hill. Rodriguez was the only Spanish-surnamed or Spanish-speaking witness at the Presidential Mediation Commission hearings in Bisbee (Parrish, Mexican Workers, 16-7; and PMC, 546-57). On the 1907 strike, see Mellinger, Race and Labor in Western Copper, 73-79; and Benton, '"What about Women,'" 216-20.
61. O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed," 258. Other scholars have made a similar choice. When Michael Parrish tried to offer evidence of Mexican workers' attitudes in Bisbee, he was forced to cite the testimony of Antonio Rodriguez, an immigrant from Spain who lived on Chihuahua Hill. Rodriguez was the only Spanish-surnamed or Spanish-speaking witness at the Presidential Mediation Commission hearings in Bisbee (Parrish, Mexican Workers, 16-7; and PMC, 546-57). On the 1907 strike, see Mellinger, Race and Labor in Western Copper, 73-79; and Benton, '"What about Women,'" 216-20.
62. O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed," 258. Other scholars have made a similar choice. When Michael Parrish tried to offer evidence of Mexican workers' attitudes in Bisbee, he was forced to cite the testimony of Antonio Rodriguez, an immigrant from Spain who lived on Chihuahua Hill. Rodriguez was the only Spanish-surnamed or Spanish-speaking witness at the Presidential Mediation Commission hearings in Bisbee (Parrish, Mexican Workers, 16-7; and PMC, 546-57). On the 1907 strike, see Mellinger, Race and Labor in Western Copper, 73-79; and Benton, '"What about Women,'" 216-20.
63. O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed," 258. Other scholars have made a similar choice. When Michael Parrish tried to offer evidence of Mexican workers' attitudes in Bisbee, he was forced to cite the testimony of Antonio Rodriguez, an immigrant from Spain who lived on Chihuahua Hill. Rodriguez was the only Spanish-surnamed or Spanish-speaking witness at the Presidential Mediation Commission hearings in Bisbee (Parrish, Mexican Workers, 16-7; and PMC, 546-57). On the 1907 strike, see Mellinger, Race and Labor in Western Copper, 73-79; and Benton, '"What about Women,'" 216-20.
64. Of the two thousand two hundred one surface and underground workers as of June 26,1917, three hundred fourteenwere Mexican (PMC, 217). These numbers are generally consistent with the testimony of Copper Queen General Manager G. H. Dowell in the PMC reports. Secretary Wilson had eased immigration restrictions from Mexico in June (Parrish, Mexican Workers, 18). Mellinger, Race and Labor in Western Copper, 188. This figure comes from Dorcy, "Census."
65. Of the two thousand two hundred one surface and underground workers as of June 26,1917, three hundred fourteenwere Mexican (PMC, 217). These numbers are generally consistent with the testimony of Copper Queen General Manager G. H. Dowell in the PMC reports. Secretary Wilson had eased immigration restrictions from Mexico in June (Parrish, Mexican Workers, 18). Mellinger, Race and Labor in Western Copper, 188. This figure comes from Dorcy, "Census."
66. Of the two thousand two hundred one surface and underground workers as of June 26,1917, three hundred fourteenwere Mexican (PMC, 217). These numbers are generally consistent with the testimony of Copper Queen General Manager G. H. Dowell in the PMC reports. Secretary Wilson had eased immigration restrictions from Mexico in June (Parrish, Mexican Workers, 18). Mellinger, Race and Labor in Western Copper, 188. This figure comes from Dorcy, "Census."
67. Figures cited by witnesses ranged from 50 percent to 85 percent (Strickland testimony, PMC, 502; and Wheeler testimony, PMC, 166, 256). Workforce numbers compiled from statistics at two major companies on June 26, 1917, the last day before the strike. Percentage of strikers (which no doubt included people born in Mexico as well as Mexican Americans) compiled from Army census of deportees conducted in August, the most reliable figures available. Company officials and IWW leaders concurred on this (G. H. Dowell testimony, PMC, 353; and Grover H. Perry, secretary-treasurer of Metal Mine Workers' Industrial Union No. 800 to William [Big Bill] Haywood, July 6, 1917, Exhibits in State of Arizona v. Henry Waters, and Michael Simmons v. El Paso and Southwestern Railroad [1919], hereafter cited as Simmons v. EPS W Railroad, box 1, University of Arizona Special Collections,).
68. O'Neill briefly suggests these same points in "Domesticity Deployed," 258.
69. Jack Norman, Columbus, New Mexico, to Perry, July 25, 1917, Simmons v. EPSW Railroad, box 1.
70. O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed," 82, 83. J. L. P., Report on "Mexican Matters," to Harry Wheeler, June 5, 1916, in Simmons v. EPSW, box 8. The best source on the strike is Michael Gonzales, "United States Copper Companies, the State, and Labour Conflict in Mexico, 1900-1910," Journal of Latin American Studies 26:3 (1994): 651-81. For a typical example of the claim that the Cananea strike was the opening shot in the revolutionary battle, see Ramón E. Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries: Mexico, 1911-1923 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1993), 3; and the classic, though now outdated, Rodney D. Anderson, "Mexican Workers and the Politics of Revolution, 1906-1911," Hispanic American Historical Review 54:1 (1974): 94-113. Other sources include Jonathan C. Brown, "Foreign and Native-Born Workers in Porfirian Mexico," American Historical Review 98:2 (1993): 786-818; and Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1890-1950 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1965), 65. See also C. L. Sonnichsen, Colonel Greene and the Copper Skyrocket (Tucson: University of Arizona Press), 1994.
71. O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed," 82, 83. J. L. P., Report on "Mexican Matters," to Harry Wheeler, June 5, 1916, in Simmons v. EPSW, box 8. The best source on the strike is Michael Gonzales, "United States Copper Companies, the State, and Labour Conflict in Mexico, 1900-1910," Journal of Latin American Studies 26:3 (1994): 651-81. For a typical example of the claim that the Cananea strike was the opening shot in the revolutionary battle, see Ramón E. Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries: Mexico, 1911-1923 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1993), 3; and the classic, though now outdated, Rodney D. Anderson, "Mexican Workers and the Politics of Revolution, 1906-1911," Hispanic American Historical Review 54:1 (1974): 94-113. Other sources include Jonathan C. Brown, "Foreign and Native-Born Workers in Porfirian Mexico," American Historical Review 98:2 (1993): 786-818; and Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1890-1950 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1965), 65. See also C. L. Sonnichsen, Colonel Greene and the Copper Skyrocket (Tucson: University of Arizona Press), 1994.
72. O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed," 82, 83. J. L. P., Report on "Mexican Matters," to Harry Wheeler, June 5, 1916, in Simmons v. EPSW, box 8. The best source on the strike is Michael Gonzales, "United States Copper Companies, the State, and Labour Conflict in Mexico, 1900-1910," Journal of Latin American Studies 26:3 (1994): 651-81. For a typical example of the claim that the Cananea strike was the opening shot in the revolutionary battle, see Ramón E. Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries: Mexico, 1911-1923 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1993), 3; and the classic, though now outdated, Rodney D. Anderson, "Mexican Workers and the Politics of Revolution, 1906-1911," Hispanic American Historical Review 54:1 (1974): 94-113. Other sources include Jonathan C. Brown, "Foreign and Native-Born Workers in Porfirian Mexico," American Historical Review 98:2 (1993): 786-818; and Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1890-1950 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1965), 65. See also C. L. Sonnichsen, Colonel Greene and the Copper Skyrocket (Tucson: University of Arizona Press), 1994.
73. O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed," 82, 83. J. L. P., Report on "Mexican Matters," to Harry Wheeler, June 5, 1916, in Simmons v. EPSW, box 8. The best source on the strike is Michael Gonzales, "United States Copper Companies, the State, and Labour Conflict in Mexico, 1900-1910," Journal of Latin American Studies 26:3 (1994): 651-81. For a typical example of the claim that the Cananea strike was the opening shot in the revolutionary battle, see Ramón E. Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries: Mexico, 1911-1923 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1993), 3; and the classic, though now outdated, Rodney D. Anderson, "Mexican Workers and the Politics of Revolution, 1906-1911," Hispanic American Historical Review 54:1 (1974): 94-113. Other sources include Jonathan C. Brown, "Foreign and Native-Born Workers in Porfirian Mexico," American Historical Review 98:2 (1993): 786-818; and Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1890-1950 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1965), 65. See also C. L. Sonnichsen, Colonel Greene and the Copper Skyrocket (Tucson: University of Arizona Press), 1994.
74. O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed," 82, 83. J. L. P., Report on "Mexican Matters," to Harry Wheeler, June 5, 1916, in Simmons v. EPSW, box 8. The best source on the strike is Michael Gonzales, "United States Copper Companies, the State, and Labour Conflict in Mexico, 1900-1910," Journal of Latin American Studies 26:3 (1994): 651-81. For a typical example of the claim that the Cananea strike was the opening shot in the revolutionary battle, see Ramón E. Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries: Mexico, 1911-1923 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1993), 3; and the classic, though now outdated, Rodney D. Anderson, "Mexican Workers and the Politics of Revolution, 1906-1911," Hispanic American Historical Review 54:1 (1974): 94-113. Other sources include Jonathan C. Brown, "Foreign and Native-Born Workers in Porfirian Mexico," American Historical Review 98:2 (1993): 786-818; and Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1890-1950 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1965), 65. See also C. L. Sonnichsen, Colonel Greene and the Copper Skyrocket (Tucson: University of Arizona Press), 1994.
75. O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed," 82, 83. J. L. P., Report on "Mexican Matters," to Harry Wheeler, June 5, 1916, in Simmons v. EPSW, box 8. The best source on the strike is Michael Gonzales, "United States Copper Companies, the State, and Labour Conflict in Mexico, 1900-1910," Journal of Latin American Studies 26:3 (1994): 651-81. For a typical example of the claim that the Cananea strike was the opening shot in the revolutionary battle, see Ramón E. Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries: Mexico, 1911-1923 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1993), 3; and the classic, though now outdated, Rodney D. Anderson, "Mexican Workers and the Politics of Revolution, 1906-1911," Hispanic American Historical Review 54:1 (1974): 94-113. Other sources include Jonathan C. Brown, "Foreign and Native-Born Workers in Porfirian Mexico," American Historical Review 98:2 (1993): 786-818; and Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1890-1950 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1965), 65. See also C. L. Sonnichsen, Colonel Greene and the Copper Skyrocket (Tucson: University of Arizona Press), 1994.
76. O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed," 82, 83. J. L. P., Report on "Mexican Matters," to Harry Wheeler, June 5, 1916, in Simmons v. EPSW, box 8. The best source on the strike is Michael Gonzales, "United States Copper Companies, the State, and Labour Conflict in Mexico, 1900-1910," Journal of Latin American Studies 26:3 (1994): 651-81. For a typical example of the claim that the Cananea strike was the opening shot in the revolutionary battle, see Ramón E. Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries: Mexico, 1911-1923 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1993), 3; and the classic, though now outdated, Rodney D. Anderson, "Mexican Workers and the Politics of Revolution, 1906-1911," Hispanic American Historical Review 54:1 (1974): 94-113. Other sources include Jonathan C. Brown, "Foreign and Native-Born Workers in Porfirian Mexico," American Historical Review 98:2 (1993): 786-818; and Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1890-1950 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1965), 65. See also C. L. Sonnichsen, Colonel Greene and the Copper Skyrocket (Tucson: University of Arizona Press), 1994.
77. O'Neill, "Domesticity Deployed," 82, 83. J. L. P., Report on "Mexican Matters," to Harry Wheeler, June 5, 1916, in Simmons v. EPSW, box 8. The best source on the strike is Michael Gonzales, "United States Copper Companies, the State, and Labour Conflict in Mexico, 1900-1910," Journal of Latin American Studies 26:3 (1994): 651-81. For a typical example of the claim that the Cananea strike was the opening shot in the revolutionary battle, see Ramón E. Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries: Mexico, 1911-1923 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1993), 3; and the classic, though now outdated, Rodney D. Anderson, "Mexican Workers and the Politics of Revolution, 1906-1911," Hispanic American Historical Review 54:1 (1974): 94-113. Other sources include Jonathan C. Brown, "Foreign and Native-Born Workers in Porfirian Mexico," American Historical Review 98:2 (1993): 786-818; and Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1890-1950 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1965), 65. See also C. L. Sonnichsen, Colonel Greene and the Copper Skyrocket (Tucson: University of Arizona Press), 1994.
78. Robert Bruére, Following the Trail of the IWW: A First-Hand Investigation into Labor Troubles in the West - A Trip into the Copper Camps
79. Robert Bruére, Following the Trail of the IWW: A First-Hand Investigation into Labor Troubles in the West - A Trip into the Copper Camps and the Lumber Camps of the Inland Empire with the Views of the Men on the Job (New York: New York Evening Post, 1918), 3. Frankfurter, as cited in Parrish, Mexican Workers, 30, 29. Critics as cited in Parrish, Mexican Workers, 14. See Glickman, 222-23. On immigrant workers and free labor's meanings, see Gunther Peck, Reinventing Free Labor. Padrones and Immigrant Workers in the North American West, 1880-1930 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
80. Robert Bruére, Following the Trail of the IWW: A First-Hand Investigation into Labor Troubles in the West - A Trip into the Copper Camps and the Lumber Camps of the Inland Empire with the Views of the Men on the Job (New York: New York Evening Post, 1918), 3. Frankfurter, as cited in Parrish, Mexican Workers, 30, 29. Critics as cited in Parrish, Mexican Workers, 14. See Glickman, 222-23. On immigrant workers and free labor's meanings, see Gunther Peck, Reinventing Free Labor. Padrones and Immigrant Workers in the North American West, 1880-1930 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
81. Robert Bruére, Following the Trail of the IWW: A First-Hand Investigation into Labor Troubles in the West - A Trip into the Copper Camps and the Lumber Camps of the Inland Empire with the Views of the Men on the Job (New York: New York Evening Post, 1918), 3. Frankfurter, as cited in Parrish, Mexican Workers, 30, 29. Critics as cited in Parrish, Mexican Workers, 14. See Glickman, 222-23. On immigrant workers and free labor's meanings, see Gunther Peck, Reinventing Free Labor. Padrones and Immigrant Workers in the North American West, 1880-1930 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
82. Robert Bruére, Following the Trail of the IWW: A First-Hand Investigation into Labor Troubles in the West - A Trip into the Copper Camps and the Lumber Camps of the Inland Empire with the Views of the Men on the Job (New York: New York Evening Post, 1918), 3. Frankfurter, as cited in Parrish, Mexican Workers, 30, 29. Critics as cited in Parrish, Mexican Workers, 14. See Glickman, 222-23. On immigrant workers and free labor's meanings, see Gunther Peck, Reinventing Free Labor. Padrones and Immigrant Workers in the North American West, 1880-1930 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
83. Worker as cited in Parrish, Mexican Workers, 11.
84. Wheeler testimony, PMC, 138.
85. "Arizona Sheriff Ships 1,100 IWW's Out in Cattle Cars," 1. Sheriff John White to Gov. Joseph Kibbey, August 15, 1907, Arizona Ranger Papers, ADLAPR, as cited by Bill O'Neill, "Captain Harry Wheeler, Arizona Lawman," Journal of Arizona History 27:3 (1986): 303. There is inconsistency regarding documentation of Wheeler's participation in the Spanish-American War. The soundest overview of Harry Wheeler is Bill O'Neill, "Captain Harry Wheeler."
86. "Arizona Sheriff Ships 1,100 IWW's Out in Cattle Cars," 1. Sheriff John White to Gov. Joseph Kibbey, August 15, 1907, Arizona Ranger Papers, ADLAPR, as cited by Bill O'Neill, "Captain Harry Wheeler, Arizona Lawman," Journal of Arizona History 27:3 (1986): 303. There is inconsistency regarding documentation of Wheeler's participation in the Spanish-American War. The soundest overview of Harry Wheeler is Bill O'Neill, "Captain Harry Wheeler."
87. "Arizona Sheriff Ships 1,100 IWW's Out in Cattle Cars," 1. Sheriff John White to Gov. Joseph Kibbey, August 15, 1907, Arizona Ranger Papers, ADLAPR, as cited by Bill O'Neill, "Captain Harry Wheeler, Arizona Lawman," Journal of Arizona History 27:3 (1986): 303. There is inconsistency regarding documentation of Wheeler's participation in the Spanish-American War. The soundest overview of Harry Wheeler is Bill O'Neill, "Captain Harry Wheeler."
88. Bill O'Neill, "Captain Harry Wheeler," 304. Capt. Harry Wheeler, Naco, Arizona, to Gov. Kibbey, Phoenix, Arizona, October 30, 1908, Arizona Ranger Papers, RG 42, ASLAPR, emphasis added.
89. See John Greenway's correspondence during these years, passim, John C. Greenway Collection, MS 311, AHS, and discussion of Douglas in Byrkit, Forging the Copper Collar, 32, 87, 99, 139, 178, 299, 301. Mellinger, Race and Labor in Western Copper, 24. Philip Foner, ed., Mother Jones Speaks: Collected Writings and Speeches (New York: Monad Press, 1983), 372. Capt. Harry Wheeler to Mr. Sims Ely, secretary to governor, Phoenix, Arizona, February 23, 1908, Arizona Ranger Papers.
90. See John Greenway's correspondence during these years, passim, John C. Greenway Collection, MS 311, AHS, and discussion of Douglas in Byrkit, Forging the Copper Collar, 32, 87, 99, 139, 178, 299, 301. Mellinger, Race and Labor in Western Copper, 24. Philip Foner, ed., Mother Jones Speaks: Collected Writings and Speeches (New York: Monad Press, 1983), 372. Capt. Harry Wheeler to Mr. Sims Ely, secretary to governor, Phoenix, Arizona, February 23, 1908, Arizona Ranger Papers.
91. See John Greenway's correspondence during these years, passim, John C. Greenway Collection, MS 311, AHS, and discussion of Douglas in Byrkit, Forging the Copper Collar, 32, 87, 99, 139, 178, 299, 301. Mellinger, Race and Labor in Western Copper, 24. Philip Foner, ed., Mother Jones Speaks: Collected Writings and Speeches (New York: Monad Press, 1983), 372. Capt. Harry Wheeler to Mr. Sims Ely, secretary to governor, Phoenix, Arizona, February 23, 1908, Arizona Ranger Papers.
92. Walker testimony, PMC, 589, William B. Wilson testimony, 492.
93. "Sheriff Wheeler's Statement on Strike," Courtland Arizonan, July 21, 1917, 2.
94. On the impact of the Zimmermann telegram, see Friedrich Katz, The Life and Times of Pancho Villa (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), 612, 660, 663-64. Wheeler testimony, PMC, 161.
95. This pro-company miner thought that around 50 percent of the strikers were Mexican (I. H. Strickland testimony, PMC, 502). See testimony cited in reports to Gov. George W.P. Hunt, July, 1917, probably from sworn statements to Arizona Attorney General Wiley Jones, 20-21, box 8, Hunt Papers. Wheeler testimony, PMC, 166, 256, emphasis added.
96. [J.L.P.], police informant, to Sheriff Wheeler, "Re: Mexican Matters," June 5, 1916, in Simmons v. El Paso, box 8. Wheeler testimony, PMC, 224.
97. Linda Hall, "The Mexican Revolution and the Crisis in Naco: 1914-15," Journal of the West 16 (July 1977): 27-35. Wheeler testimony, PMC, 161-62. See also Bruére, Following the I.W.W. Trail, 13-14. A[ndrea] Yvette Huginnie appropriately named her dissertation for these ongoing challenges to management. "'Strikitos': Race, Class, and Work in the Arizona Copper Industry, 1870-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1991).
98. Linda Hall, "The Mexican Revolution and the Crisis in Naco: 1914-15," Journal of the West 16 (July 1977): 27-35. Wheeler testimony, PMC, 161-62. See also Bruére, Following the I.W.W. Trail, 13-14. A[ndrea] Yvette Huginnie appropriately named her dissertation for these ongoing challenges to management. "'Strikitos': Race, Class, and Work in the Arizona Copper Industry, 1870-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1991).
99. Linda Hall, "The Mexican Revolution and the Crisis in Naco: 1914-15," Journal of the West 16 (July 1977): 27-35. Wheeler testimony, PMC, 161-62. See also Bruére, Following the I.W.W. Trail, 13-14. A[ndrea] Yvette Huginnie appropriately named her dissertation for these ongoing challenges to management. "'Strikitos': Race, Class, and Work in the Arizona Copper Industry, 1870-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1991).
100. Bruére, "Following the I.W.W. Trau," 1.
101. Wheeler testimony, PMC, 165.
102. Wheeler testimony, PMC, 253.
103. "Bisbee, the Most Southern Mile-High City in North America," Arizona Labor Journal, May 31, 1929, 27.