Quahogs in Eastern North America: Part I, Biology, ecology, and historical uses

Marine Fisheries Review

Volumn 64, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 1-55

  MacKenzie Jr , Clyde L ^a   Morrison, Allan ^b   Taylor, David L ^c   Burrell Jr , Victor G ^d   Arnold, William S ^e   Wakida Kusunoki, Armando T ^f  

^a NORTHEAST FISHERIES SCIENCE CENTER   (United States)

^b Prince Edward Island Department of Health and Wellness   (Canada)

^c Division of Marine Fisheries   (United States)

^d Mar Rsrc and Research Institute   (United States)

^e FLORIDA MARINE RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

^f National Fisheries Institute   (Mexico)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGY; CLAM FISHERY; ECOLOGY; FISHERY MANAGEMENT; FISHING GEAR; FISHING INDUSTRY; HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE;

ATLANTIC COAST [NORTH AMERICA]; NORTH AMERICA;

BIVALVIA; MERCENARIA CAMPECHIENSIS; MERCENARIA MERCENARIA; VENERIDAE;

EID: 1342310539     PISSN: 00901830     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (181)

1. Adair, J. 1775. The history of the American Indians. London. (New ed., edited by S. C. Williams under the auspices of the Nat. Soc. Colonial Dames, Amer., in Tenn. The Watauga Press, Johnson City, Tenn., 1930.).
2. Anderson, A. W., and C. E. Peterson, 1953. Fishery statistics of the United States 1950. U.S. Gov. Print. Off., Wash. D.C., 492 p.
3. Andrews, J. D. 1954. Notes on fungus parasites of bivalve mollusks in Chesapeake Bay. Proc. Natl. Shellfish Assoc. 45:157-163.
4. Anonymous. 1897. The oyster in summer. The Fishing Gazette 14(36):576.
5. Anonymous. 1925. The Penn wampum belts. Leaflets of the Museum of the American Indian Heye Foundation, New York. No. 4:20 p.
6. Anonymous. 1944. Your friend, William Penn. The Welcome Soc. of Penn. Philadelphia, Pa., 24 p.
7. Anonymous. 1981. Dictionary of daily life of Indians of the Americas. Am. Indian Publ., Inc., Newport Beach, Calif., 1,139 p.
8. Anonymous. 1985. Suffolk County's hard clam industry: an overview and an analysis of management objectives. Mar. Sci. Res. Cent., SUNY. Stony Brook. Spec. Rep. 63, 374 p.
9. Ansell, A. D. 1967. Egg production of Mercenaria mercenaria. Limnol. Oceanogr. 12: 172-176.
10. Ansell, A. D. 1968. The rate of growth of the hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria (L) throughout the geographic range, Cons. Int. Explor. Mer, J. Cons. 31:364-409..
11. Arnold, W. S., D. C. Marelli, T. M. Bert, D. S. Jones, and I. R. Quitmyer. 1991. Habitat-specific growth of hard clams Mercenaria mercenaria (L.) from the Indian River, Florida, J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 147:245-265.
12. Arnold, W. S., T. M. Bert, D. C. Marelli, H. Cruz-Lopez, and P. A. Gill. 1996. Genotype-specific growth of hard clams (genus Mercenaria) in a hybrid zone: variation among habitats. Mar. Biol. 125:129-39.
13. Axtell, J. 1981. The European and the Indian. Oxford University Press, N. Y., 402 p.
14. Barber, J. W., and H. Howe. 1844. Historical collections of the State of New Jersey. Publ. by Benjamin Olds. New Haven, Conn., 520 p.
15. Beauchamp, W. M. 1901. Wampum and shell articles used by the New York Indians. Bull. New York State Mus. 8(41).
16. Beauchamp, W. M. 1981 (1907 reprint). Civil, religious and mourning councils and ceremonies of adoption of the New York Indians, N. Y. State Mus. Bull. 113:341-451.
17. Becker, M. J. 1980. Wampum: the development of an early American currency. Bull. Archaeol. Soc. N.J. 36.
18. Belding, D. L . 1912. The quahog fishery of Massachusetts, including the natural history of the quahog and a discussion of quahog farming. Commonw. Mass., Mar. Fish. Ser. 2, 41 p.
19. Belding, D. L. 1931. The quahog fishery of Massachusetts. Mass. Dep. Conserv., Div. Fish. Game, Mar. Fish. Serv. 2, 41 p.
20. Bert, T. M., D. M. Hesselman, W. S. Arnold, W. S. Moore, H. Cruz-Lopez, and D. C. Merelli. 1993. High frequency of gonadal neoplasia in a hard clam (Mercenaria spp.) hybrid zone. Mar. Biol. 117:97-104.
21. Beverley, R. 1705. The history and present state of Virginia, in four parts.... By a native inhabitant of the place. London.
22. Black, J. A., and J. Kassner. 1988. Small forms and brown tides. The Dolphin, p. 4-5.
23. Boisvert, D. J. 1993. The Rhode Island clambake: A gustatory tribute to Mya arenaria. Old Rhode Island 3(7):48-53.
24. Bower, S. M., S. F. McGladdery, and I. A. Rice. 1994. Synopsis of infectious diseases and parasites of commercially exploited shellfish. Annu. Rev. Fish Dis. 4:1-199.
25. Bricelj, V. M. 1993. Aspects of the biology of the northern quahog, Mercenaria mercenaria, with emphasis on growth and survival during the early life history. In M. A. Rice and D. Grossman-Garber (Editors), Proceedings of the Second Rhode Island Shellfish Industry Conference. p. 29-48. R.I. Sea Grant, Univ. R.I., Kingston.
26. Bricelj, V. M. and R. E. Malouf. 1980. Aspects of reproduction of hard clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) in Great South Bay, New York. Proc. Natl. Shellfish. Assoc. 70(2):216-229.
27. Buckner, S. C. 1984. Shellfish management in the Town of Islip. In Proceedings of a symposium on mariculture in New York State, p. 13-18. N.Y. Sea Grant Inst., Cornell Univ., Ithaca. NUSG-I-RP-79-01.
28. Burggraf, J. 1938. Some notes on the manufacture of wampum prior to 1654. Am. Antiquity 1:53-58.
29. Butterworth, H. 1924. The wampum belt; or, "the fairest page of history." D. Appleton and Co., N.Y. and Lond., 276 p.
30. Campbell, R. 1967. A report on the shellfish resources of Raritan Bay. Proc. Conf. Pollut. of Raritan Bay and Adjacent Interstate Waters. 3rd Sess., App. A., p. 653-681.
31. Carriker, M. R. 1961. Interrelation of functional morphology, behavior, and autecology in early stages of the bivalve Mercenaria mercenaria. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 77(2): 168-241.
32. Castagna, M., and D. S. Haven. 1972. The hard clam industry. In V. G. Burrell, Jr., M. Castagna, and R. K. Dias (Editors), A study of the commercial and recreational fisheries of the eastern shore of Virginia. Accomack and Northampton Counties. p. 64-82. Spec. Rep. Appl. Mar. Sci. and Ocean Engr. 20, Virginia Inst. Mar. Sci., Gloucester Point.
33. Castagna, M., and J. Kraeuter. 1977. Mercenaria culture using stone aggregate for predator protection. Proc. Natl. Shellfish. Assoc. 67:1-6.
34. Ceci, L. 1977. The effect of European contact and trade in the settlement patterns of Indians in coastal New York 1524-1665: the archaeological and documentary evidence. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms.
35. Ceci, L. 1980. The first fiscal crisis in New York. Econ. Develop. Cultural Change 28(4): 839-847.
36. de Charlevoix, P. 1744. Journal of a voyage to North America. Vol. 1. March of America Facsimile Series. No. 36, 383 p.
37. Chestnut, A. F. 1951. The oyster and other mollusks of North Carolina. in H. F. Taylor (Editor), Survey of marine fisheries of North Carolina, p. 141-190. Univ. N.C. Press, Chapel Hill.
38. Clarke, N. T. 1929. The Thacher wampum belts. N.Y. State Mus. Bull. 279:53-58.
39. Clarke, N. T. 1931. The wampum belt collection of the New York State museum. N.Y. State Mus. Bull. 288:85-121.
40. Collins, B. R., and E. B. Russell (Editors). 1988. Protecting the New Jersey Pinelands: A New direction in land-use management. Rutgers Univ. Press, New Brunswick, N.J.
41. Cronon, W. 1983. Changes in the land, Indians, Colonists, and the ecology of New England. Hill and Wang, N.Y., 241 p.
42. Dame, R. F. 1979. The abundance, diversity and biomass of macrobenthos on North Inlet, South Carolina, intertidal oyster reefs. Proc. Natl. Shellfish. Assoc. 69:6-10.
43. Davis, H. C. 1958. Survival and growth of clam and oyster larvae at different salinities. Biol. Bull 114:296-307.
44. Davis, H. C. and P. E. Chanley. 1956. Spawning and egg production of oysters and clams. Biol. Bull. 110:117-128.
45. Dillon, R. T., Jr., and J. J. Manzi. 1987. Hard clam. Mercenaria mercenaria brood stocks: Genetic drift and loss of rare alleles without reduction in heterozygosity. Aquaculture 60: 99-105.
46. Docring, P. H. 1980. Defenses of the hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria against predation by the sea star Asterias forbesi. Ph.D. Dissert. Univ. R.I., Kingston.
47. Docring, P. H. 1981. Observations on the behavior of Asterias forbesi feeding on Mercenaria mercenaria. Ophelia 20:169-177.
48. Docring, P. H. 1982. Reduction in attractiveness to the sea star Asterias forbesi (Desor) by the clam Mercenaria mercenaria (Linnaeus). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 60(1):47-61.
49. Drinnan, R. E., and E. B. Henderson. 1963. 1962 mortalities and a possible disease organism in Neguac quahogs. Biological Station, St. Andrews, N.B., Ann. Rep., p. B18-20.
50. Dulles, F. R. 1965. A history of recreation: America learns to play. 2nd ed. Appleton-Century-Crofts, N. Y.
51. Edwards, E. 1997. Molluscan fisheries in Britain. In C. L. MacKenzie, Jr., V. G. Burrell, Jr., A. Rosenfield, and W. L. Hobart (Editors), The history, present condition, and future of the molluscan fisheries of North and Central America and Europe. Vol. 3, Europe, p. 85-99. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. 127.
52. Eversole, A. G. 1987. Species profiles: Life histories and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates (South Atlantic) - hard clam. U.S. Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11-75), U.S. Army Corps Eng. TREL-82-4, 33 p.
53. Eversole, A. G., W. K. Michener, and P. J. Eldridge. 1980. Reproductive cycle of Mercenaria mercenaria in a South Carolina estuary, Proc. Natl. Shellfish. Assoc. 70:22-30.
54. Fenton, W. N. 1971. The New York State wampum collection: the case for the integrity of cultural treasures. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 116(6):437-461.
55. Festa, P. J. 1979. Analysis of the fish forage base of the Little Egg Harbor Estuary. N.J. Dep. Environ. Protect., Bur. Fish Tech. Rep. 24 M, 269 p.
56. Francis, P., Jr. 1986. The beads that did not buy Manhattan. N.Y. History 67(1):5-22.
57. Furnas, J. C. 1969. The Americans a social history of the United States 1587-1914. G. P. Putman's and Sons, N.Y., 1,015 p.
58. Glancy, J. 1943. Untitled, The Fishing Gazette 60(13):34-35, 88.
59. Godcharles, M. F. 1971. A study of a commercial hydraulic dredge on benthic communities in estuarine areas. Fla. Dep. Nat. Resour. Mar. Res. Lab. Tech. Ser. 64, 51 p.
60. Godcharles, M. F. and W. C. Jaap, 1973. Exploratory quahog survey of Florida nearshore and estuarine waters with commercial hydraulic dredging gear. Fla. Dep. Nat. Resour., Mar. Res. Lab., Prof. Pap. Ser. 21, 77 p.
61. Godwin, W. F. 1968. The distribution and density of the hard clam. Mercenaria mercenaria, on the Georgia coast. Ga. Game Fish Comm., Series 10, Brunswick.
62. Godwin, W. F., M. W. Street, and T. R. Rickman. 1971. History and status of North Carolina's marine fisheries. N.C. Dep. Conserv. Develop., Div. Commer. Sports Fish., Information Ser. 2, 77 p.
63. Greene, G. T. 1978. Population structure, growth and mortality of hard clams at selected locations in Great South Bay, New York. M.S. thesis, Mar. Sci. Res. Cent., State Univ. N.Y., Stony Brook, 199 p.
64. Guthrie, J. F., and C. W. Lewis. 1982. The quahog-kicking fishery of North Carolina. Mar. Fish. Rev. 44(1):16-21.
65. Hadley, N. H., J. J. Manzi, A. G. Eversole, R. T. Dillon, C. E. Battey, and N. M. Peacock. 1997. A manual for the culture of the hard clam Mercenaria spp. in South Carolina. S.C. Sea Grant Consort., Charleston, S.C., 135 p.
66. Hagerty, G. W. 1985. Wampum, war and trade goods west of the Hudson. Heart of Lakes Publ., Interlaken, N.Y., 297 p.
67. Hamell, G. R. 1996. Wampum. In F. E. Hoxie (Editor), Encyclopedia of American Indians, p. 662-664. Houghlin Mufflin Co., N.Y.
68. Hammett, J. E. 1998. Shell ornaments. In R. P. S. Davis, Jr., P. C. Livingood, H. T. Ward, and V. P. Steponaitis (Editors), Excavating Occaneechi Town: Archaeology of an eighteenth-century Indian village in North Carolina, p.109-119. CD-ROM. Univ. N.C. Press, Chapel Hill.
69. Harding, J. M. 1999. Selective feeding behavior of larval naked gobies Gobiosoma bosc and blennies Chasmodes bosquianus and Hypsoblennius hentzi: preferences for bivalve veligers. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 179:145-153.
70. Haven, D. S., J. P. Whitcomb, and O. C. Davis, 1979. A mechanical escalator for live oysters and shell. Mar. Fish. Rev. 41(12):17-20.
71. Hawkins, N., and A. Hawkins. 1976. The American regional cookbook. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 301 p.
72. Heisler, W. C. No date. Clambake! How to prepare a New England clambake-and more. Recreation Publications. A division of Narragansett Graphics, Inc., Wakefield, R.I., 91 p.
73. Hepburn, A. B. 1915. A history of currency, the United States. The Macmillan Co., N.Y. 552 p.
74. Holmes, W. H. 1881. Art in shell of the ancient Americans. In First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution., p. 179-305.
75. Hunt, J. H., W. G. Ambrose, and C. H. Peterson. 1987. Effects of the gastropod, Ilyanassa obseleta (Say), and the bivalve. Mercenaria mercenaria (L.), on larval settlement and juvenile recruitment of infauna. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 108:229-240.
76. Ingersoll, E. 1883. Wampum and its history. Am. Nat. 27(5):467-479.
77. Ingersoll, E. 1887. The oyster, scallop, quahog, mussel, and abalone industries. In G. B. Goode et al. (Editor). The fisheries and fishery industries of the United States, p. 507-626 Sect. II: U.S. Gov. Print Off., Wash.
78. Irlandi, E. A., and M. E. Mehlich. 1996. The effect of tissue cropping and disturbance by browsing fishes on growth of two species of suspension-feeding bivalves. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 197:279-293.
79. Irvin, F. 1987. Oyster Bay a sketch. Oyster Bay Historical Society. Oyster Bay, N.Y., 223 p.
80. James, T. 1984 [originally 1846]. Three years among the Indians and Mexicans (The 1846 Edition, Unabridged). Univ. Nebraska Press. Bison Book Printing. Lincoln and London, 181 p.
81. Jones, D. S., M. A. Arthur, and D. J. Allard, 1989. Sclerochronological records of temperature and growth from shells of Mercenaria mercenaria from Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. Mar. Biol. 102:225-234.
82. Jones, D. S., I. R. Quitmyer, W. S. Arnold, and D. C. Marelli, 1990. Annual shell banding, age, and growth rate of hard clams (Mercenaria spp.) from Florida, J. Shellfish Res. 9: 215-225.
83. Kalm, P. 1937. Peter Kalm's travels in North America: The English version of 1770, Vol. I, Dover Publ., Inc., N.Y., 401 p.
84. Kammen, M. G. 1975. Colonial New York: a history. Charles Scribner's Sons, 426 p.
85. Kaplan, E. H., J. R. Welker, M. G. Kraus, and S. McCourt. 1975. Some factors affecting the colonization of a dredged channel. Mar. Biol. (Berl.) 32:193-204.
86. Kelley, F. 1990. Narrative of my captivity among the Sioux Indians. Konecky & Konecky. New York, N. Y., 274 p.
87. Kennish, M. J. 1980. Shell microgrowth analysis: Mercenaria mercenaria as a type example for research in population dynamics. In D. C. Roads and R. A. Lutz (Editors). Skeletal growth of aquatic organisms, p. 255-294. Plenum Press, N.Y.
88. Kennish, M. J. and R. E. Loveland. 1980. Growth of the northern quahog, Mercenaria mercenaria (Linné). Proc. Natl. Shellfish. Assoc. 70: 230-239.
89. Knaub, R. S., and A. Eversole. 1988. Reproduction of different stocks of Mercenaria mercenaria. J. Shellfish Res. 3: 371-376.
90. Kobbe, G. 1982. New Jersey Coast and Pines. Reprint of 1889 edition. P.O. Box 352. New York, Walker News, Inc.
91. Kraeuter, J. N., and M. Castagna. 1980. Effects of large predators on the field culture of the hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria. Fish Bull. 78:538-541.
92. Kraft, H. C. 1986. The Lenape archaeology, history and ethnography. N.J. Historical Soc. Newark, 303 p.
93. Kurtz, R. J. 1975. Stomach content analysis in relation to difference in growth rates of winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus) for two Long Island bays. M.S. thesis, Long Island Univ., Greenvale, N.Y., 60 p.
94. Larocque, F. 1981 [originally 1804-05]. The journal of Francois Larocque. Ye Galleon Press. Fairfield, WA, 101 p.
95. Lawson, J. 1860. History of Carolina, containing the exact description and natural history of that country. Raleigh, N.C.
96. Leonard, T. H. 1923. From Indian Trail to Electric Rail. Atl. Highlands [N. J.] Historical Society, 665 p.
97. Loesch, J. F., and D. Haven. 1973. Estimated growth functions and size-age relationships of the hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria, in the York River, Virginia. Veliger 16:76-81.
98. Loosanoff, V. L. 1937. Spawning of Venus mercenaria (L.). Ecology 18: 506-515.
99. Loosanoff, V. L. W. S. Miller, and P. B. Smith. 1951. Growth and setting of larvae of Venus mercenaria in relation to temperature. J. Mar. Res. 10(1):59-81.
100. Lutz, R. A., and H. H. Haskin. 1985. Some observations on the longevity of the hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria (Linne). J. Shellfish Res. 5:39 (abstract).
101. Lyles, C. H. 1969. Historical catch statistics (shellfish). U.S. Dep. Inter., Fish Wildl. Serv., Curr. Fish. Stat. 5007. 116 p.
102. MacCallum, G. S., and S. E. McGladdery. 2000. Quahog parasite unknown (QPX) in the northern quahog Mercenaria mercenaria (Linnaeus, 1758) and M. mercenaria var. notata from Atlantic Canada, survey results from three Maritime Provinces. J. Shellfish. Res. 19(1):43-50.
103. MacKenzie, C. L., Jr. 1970. Feeding rates of starfish. Asterias forbesi (Desor), at controlled water temperatures and during different seasons of the year. U.S. Fish Wildl. Ser. Fish. Bull., 68:67-72.
104. MacKenzie, C. L., Jr. 1977. Predation on hard clam (Mercenaria mercenaria) populations. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 106:530-537.
105. MacKenzie, C. L., Jr. 1992a. The fisheries of Raritan Bay. Rutgers Univ. Press. New Brunswick, N.J., 304 p.
106. MacKenzie, C. L., Jr. 1992b. Shellfisheries on Martha's Vineyard. The Dukes County Intelligencer [Dukes county Hist. Soc., Mass.] 34(1): 1-34.
107. MacKenzie, C. L., Jr. and V. G. Burrell, Jr. 1997. Trends and status of molluscan fisheries on North and Central America and Europe-a synopsis. In C. L. MacKenzie, Jr., V. G. Burrell, Jr., A. Rosenfield, and W. L. Hobart (Editors). The history, present condition, and future of the molluscan fisheries of North and Central America and Europe, Vol. I. Atlantic and Gulf coasts, p. 1-14. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. 127.
108. MacPhail, J. S. 1961. A hydraulic escalator harvester. Fish. Res. Board Can. Bull. 128:24 p.
109. Massey, J. E. 1976. Early money substitutes, In E. P. Newman and R. Doty (Editors), Studies on money in early America, chapter 3. The American Numismatic Society. N.Y., 216 p.
110. McCloy, T. W. 1984. Draft report of the shellfish resources of the Raritan Bay complex. N.J. Dep. Environ. Prot., Div. Fish, Game Wildl., Bur. Shellfish., Trenton. N.J., 20 p.
111. McHugh, J. L. 1991. The hard clam fishery past and present. In J. R. Shubel, T. M. Bell, and H. H. Carter (Editors), The Great South Bay, p. 55-63. State Univ. N.Y. Press, Albany.
112. Merrill, A. S., and J. W. Ropes. 1967. Distribution of southern quahogs of the middle Atlantic coast. Comm. Fish. Rev. 29:62-64.
113. Molloy, A. 1977. Wampum. Hastings House, Publishers. N.Y., 128 p.
114. Morgan, L. G. 1852. Report on fabrics, inventions, implements and utensils of the Iroquois. 5th Ann. Rep. N.Y. State Cabinet of Nat. Hist., p. 1-117.
115. Nelson, T. C. 1925. The occurrence and food habits of ctenophores in New Jersey inland coastal waters. Biol. Bull. 48(2):92-111.
116. Nelson, T. C. and H. H. Haskin. 1949. On the spawning behavior of oysters and of Venus mercenaria with special reference to the effects of spermatic hormones. Anat. Rec. 105:484-485.
117. Neustadt, K. 1992. Clambake a history and celebration of an American tradition. Univ. Mass. Press, Amherst, 227 p.
118. Opitz, C. J. 1995. Wampum. First Impressions Printing. Inc., Ocala, Fla., 29 p.
119. Orchard, W. C. 1975. Beads and beadwork of the American Indians. New York: Mus. Am. Indian. Heye Foundation.
120. Parker, P. S. 1971. History and development of surf clam harvesting gear. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS Circ.-364, 15 p.
121. Pena, E. S. 1990. Wampum production in New Netherlands and colonial New York: the historical and archaeological context. Ph.D. Dissert., Boston Univ., 193 p.
122. Peterson, C. H. 1986. Quantitative allometry of gamete production by Mercenaria mercenaria into old age. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 29: 93-97.
123. Peterson, C. H., P. B., Duncan, H. C. Summerson, and G. W. Safrit, Jr. 1983. A mark-recapture test of annual periodicity of internal growth band deposition in shelld of hard clams. Mercenaria mercenaria, from a population along the southeastern United States. Fish. Bull. 81: 765-779.
124. Peterson, C. H., H. C. Summerson, and P. B. Duncan. 1984. The influence of seagrass cover on population structure and individual growth rate of a suspension-feeding bivalve, Mercenaria mercenaria. J. Mar. Res. 42:123-138.
125. Peterson, C. H., H. C. Summerson, and J. Huber. 1995. Replenishment of hard clam stocks using hatchery seed: combined importance of bottom type, seed size, planting season, and density. J. Shellfish Res. 14(2):293-300.
126. Pratt, D. M. 1953. Abundance and growth of Venus mercenaria and Callocardia morrhuana in relation to the character of bottom sediments. J. Mar. Res. 12:60-74.
127. Pratt, D. M. and D. A. Campbell. 1956. Environmental factors affecting growth in Venus mercenaria. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1:2-17.
128. Pratt, S. D. 1988. Status of the hard quahog fishery in Narragansett Bay. Final Rep. NBP-88-07 for Narragansett Bay Project. Grad. School Oceanogr., Univ. R.I., Narragansett, 89 p.
129. Ragone Calvo, L. M., J. G. Walker, and E. M. Burreson. 1997. Occurrence of QPX, Quahog Parasite Unknown in Virginia hard clams, Mercenaria mercenaria. J. Shellfish. Res. 16: 334 (Abstract).
130. Ragone Calvo, L. M., J. G. Walker, and. E. M. Burreson. 1998. Prevalence and distribution of Quahog Parasite Unknown, in hard clams, Mercenaria mercenaria. in Virginia, USA. Dis. Aquat. Org. 33:209-219.
131. Ray, S. M. 1954. Biological studies of Dermocystidium marinum, a fungus parasite of oysters. Rice Inst., Houston, Tex., 114 p.
132. Ray, S. M. and A. C. Chandler. 1955. Parasitological reviews: Dermosystidium marinum, a parasite of oysters. Exp. Parasitol. 4: 172-200.
133. Rhodes, R. J., W. J. Keith, P. J. Eldridge, and V. G. Burrell, Jr. 1977. An empirical evaluation of the Leslie-Delury method to estimating hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria, abundance in the Santee River estuary, South Carolina. Proc. Natl. Shellf. Assoc. 67:44-52.
134. Rice, M. A., C. Hickox, and I. Zehra. 1989. Effects of intensive fishing effort on the population structure of quahogs, Mercenaria mercenaria, (Linnaeus 1758), in Narragansett Bay. J. Shellfish Res. 8(2):345-354.
135. Roberts, D., D. Rittscof, D. J. Gerhart, A. R. Schmidt, and L. G. Hill. 1989. Vertical migration of the clam, Mercenaria mercenaria (L.) (Mollusca:Bivalvia): environmental correlates and ecological significance. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 126:271-280.
136. Robinson, R. H. 1981. Shellfish Heritage Cookbook. Part 1. Shellfish Digest Series 4(7): 10 p.
137. Ropes, J. W., and C. E. Martin. 1960. The abundance and distribution of hard clams in Nantucket Sound, Massachusetts, 1958. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci. Rep.-Fish. 354:1-11.
138. Rountree, H. C. 1989. The Powhatan Indians of Virginia. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman and Lond., 221 p.
139. Russell, H. J., Jr. 1972. Use of a commercial dredge to estimate a hard clam population by stratified random sampling. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 29:1731-1755.
140. Russell, H. S. 1969-1970. New England agriculture from Champlain and others. Bull. Mass. Archaeolog, Soc. 31(1, 2): 11-18.
141. Salwen, B. 1978. Indians of southern New England and Long Island: early period. Trigger. p. 160-176.
142. Sanders, H. L., E. M. Gouldsmit, E. L. Mills, and G. E. Hampson. 1962. A study of the intertidal fauna of Barnstable Harbor, Massachusetts. Limnol. Oceanogr. 7:63-79.
143. Scarlett, P. G. 1986. Life history investigations of marine fish. Occurrence, movements, food habits and age structure of winter flounder from select New Jersey estuaries. N.J. Dep. Environ. Prot., Div. Fish Game Wldl., Bur. Mar. Fish. Tech. Ser. 86-20, 57 p.
144. Scarlett, P. G. 1988. Life history investigations of marine fish: occurrence, movements, food habits, and age structure of winter flounder from selected New Jersey estuaries: N.J. Dep. Environ. Prot., Div. Fish Game Wildl., Bur. Mar. Fish. Tech. Ser. 88-20, 46 p.
145. Scarlett, P. G. and L. M. Guist. 1989. Results of stomach content analysis of selected finfish collected in the Manasquan River, 1984-86. N.J. Dep. Environ. Prot., Div. Fish Game Wildl., Bur. Mar. Fish. Tech. Ser., 44 p.
146. Schaaf, G. 1990. Wampum belts and peace trees: George Morgan, Native Americans and revolutionary diplomacy. Fulcrum Publishing. Golden, Colo., 272 p.
147. Schoolcraft, H. R. 1852. History, condition and prospects of Indian tribes of the United States. Lippincott, Grambo and Co., Phila., Vol. 2., 608 p.
148. Schroeder, W. C. 1924. Fisheries of Key West and the clam industry of southern Florida. U.S. Bur. Fish. Doc. 962, 74 p.
149. Sim, R. J. 1949. Pages from the past of rural New Jersey. N.J. Agric. Soc., Trenton, 121 p.
150. Sindermann, C. J. 1990. Principal diseases of marine fish and shellfish. Vol. 2, second ed. Acad. Press, Inc., N.Y., 516 p.
151. Slotkin, J. S., and K. Schmitt. 1949. Studies of wampum. Am. Anthropolo. 51(2):223-236.
152. Smolowitz, R., D. Leavitt, and F. Perkins. 1998. Observations of a protistan disease similar to QPX in Mercenaria mercenaria (hard clams) from the coast of Massachusetts. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 71:9-25.
153. S.C. Wildl. Mar. Resour. Dep. 1974. Report of the South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department for the Fiscal Year 1974. Columbia, S.C., 74 p.
154. S.C. Wildl. Mar. Resour. Dep. 1980. Report of the South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department for Fiscal year 1980. Columbia, S.C., 113 p.
155. S.C. Wildl. Mar. Resour. Dep. 1986. Report of the South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department. Report for fiscal year July 1, 1985-June 30, 1986. Columbia, S.C., 88 p.
156. S.C. Wildl. Mar. Resour. Dep. 1990. Report of the South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department for Fiscal year 1990. Columbia, S.C., 146 p.
157. Speck, F. G. 1974. Reprint of 1919 volume. The functions of wampum among the eastern Algonkian. Mem. Am. Anthropol. Assoc. 6(1):1-71.
158. Stanley, J. G., and R. DeWitt. 1983. Species profiles: life histories and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates (North Atlantic)- hard clam, U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., FWS/OBS-82/11.18. U.S. Army Corps of Engr., TP E1-82-4, 19 p.
159. Stanzeski, A. 1981. Quahog "shell tools." Bull. Archaeol. Soc. N.J. 37:15-18.
160. Stearns, R. E. C. 1887. Wampum and dentalium, a study of Native American shell money (Stearn's original title: A study of primitive money). Reprinted by Tucquan Publishing, 7096 Union Deposit Road, Hummelstown, PA, p. 297-334.
161. Steimle, F. W., R. Pikanowski, D. McMillan, and S. Wilk. 2000. Demersal fish and American lobster diets in Hudson-Raritan Bay, 1996-1997, as compared to their diets in other Middle Atlantic Bight estuaries. NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-NE-161, 106 p.
162. Stickney, A. P., and L. D. Stringer. 1957. A study of the invertebrate bottom fauna of Greenwich Bay, Rhode Island. Ecology 39:111-121.
163. Stoner, A. W. 1997. Shell middens as indicators of long-term distributional pattern in Strombus gigas, a heavily exploited marine gastropod. Bull. Mar. Sci. 61(3):559-570.
164. Stringer, L. D. 1955. Greenwich Bay hard clam productivity studies. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Clam Invest. Conf., Clam Research 5:1-9.
165. Summerson, H. C., C. H. Peterson, and M. Hooper. 1995. Aquacultural production of northern quahogs. Mercenaria mercenaria (Linnaeus. 1758): high water temperatures in the nursery and growth penalties of predator control by gravel. J. Shellfish Res. 14(1): 25-31.
166. Swanton, J. R. 1946. The Indians of the southeastern United States. Smithsonian Institution Bur. Am. Ethnol. Bull. 137, 943 p.
167. Taylor, D. L. 1995. North Carolina Fishery Management Plan Hard Clam. Unpubl. Rep., N.C. Dep. Environ. Health Nat. Resour., Div. Mar. Fish., Morehead City, 38 p.
168. Tehanetorens. 1993. Wampum belts. Iroqrafts Ltd., R.R. No. 2, Ohswelken, Ontario, Can., 71 p.
169. Tiller, R. E., J. B. Glude, and L. D. Stringer. 1952. Hard-clam fishery of the Atlantic coast. Commer. Fish. Rev. 14(10):1-25.
170. Tressler, D. K., and J. M. Lemon. 1951. Marine products of commerce. Reinhold Publishing Corp., N.Y., 782 p.
171. Turgeon, D. D., J. F. Quinn, Jr., A. E. Bogan, E.V. Coan, F. G. Hochberg, W. G. Lyons, P. M. Mikkelsen, R. J. Neves, C. F. E. Roper, G. Rosenberg, B. Roth, A. Scheltema, F. G. Thompson, M. Vecchione, and J. D. Williams. 1998. Common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the United States and Canada: Mollusks. 2nd Ed. Am. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 26, 526 p.
172. Walker, R. L., M. A. Fleetwood, and K. R. Tenore, 1980. The distribution of the hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria (Linne), and clam predators in Wassaw Sound, Georgia. Ga. Mar. Sci. Center, Tech. Rep. 80-8.
173. Walker, R. L., M. A. and M. V. Rawson. 1985. Subtidal hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria (Linne), resources in coastal Georgia. Ga. Mar. Sci. Center, Tech. Rep. 85-1.
174. Walker, R. L., M. A. and K. R. Tenore. 1984. The distribution and production of the hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria, in Wassaw Sound, Georgia. Estuaries 7:19-27.
175. Wallace, P. A. W. 1993. Indians in Pennsylvania. Penn. Hist. Mus. Comm. Commonw. Penn. Harrisburg, 200 p.
176. Wells, H. W. 1957. Abundance of the hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria, in relation to environmental factors. Ecology 38:123-128.
177. Westervelt, F. A. 1924. The final century of the wampum industry in Bergen County, New Jersey. Bergen County Historical Society. New Jersey. 24 p. (Selected sections reprinted in the Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society. Library at 16 West Park St., Newark, N.J., Vol. X, No. 3, p. 283-290, July, 1925)
178. Wilcox, U. V. 1976. The manufacture and use of wampum in the northeast. The Bead Journal 3(1):10-19.
179. Winters, H. D. 1968. Value systems and trade cycles of the late archaic in the midwest. In S. R. Binford and L. R. Binford (Editors), New Perspectives in Archaeology. p. 175-222.
180. Witty, A., and P. J. Johnson, 1988. An introduction to the catalog of artifacts. In P. J. Johnson (Editor), Working the water, the commercial fisheries of Maryland's Pauxent River, p. 55-180. Univ. Press Virginia, Charlottesville.
181. Woolman, H. C., and T. F. Rose. 1878. Historical and biographical atlas of the New Jersey coast. Philadelphia.