Comparing types of transitions: Spain and Mexico

Democratization

Volumn 7, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 65-92

  Ortega Ortíz, Reynaldo Yunuen ^a  

^a EL COLEGIO DE MÉXICO   (Mexico)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AUTHORITARIANISM; COMPARATIVE STUDY; DEMOCRATIC TRANSITION; DEMOCRATIZATION; PARTY POLITICS;

MEXICO; SPAIN;

EID: 12944276912     PISSN: 13510347     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13510340008403672     Document Type: Article

References (74)

1. For general models see: Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschmeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992). A recent work which uses dyad comparisons is: Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow and Charles Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, forthcoming.
2. For general models see: Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschmeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992). A recent work which uses dyad comparisons is: Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow and Charles Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, forthcoming.
3. For general models see: Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschmeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992). A recent work which uses dyad comparisons is: Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow and Charles Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, forthcoming.
4. For general models see: Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschmeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992). A recent work which uses dyad comparisons is: Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow and Charles Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, forthcoming.
5. Following Angelo Panebianco, Political Parties: Organization and Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982). I would argue that 'Institutionalization designates the party's passage from a system of solidarity oriented to the realization of its official aims ... to a system of interests oriented toward its own survival ...', pp.18-19. 'The level of institutionalization can be measured on two scales: (1) that of the organization's degree of autonomy vis-à-vis its environment and (2) that of its degree of systemness, that is the degree of independence of its different internal sectors', p.55.
6. Josep Colomer, Game Theory and the Transition to Democracy: the Spanish Model (Bookfield, V.: Edward Elgar, 1995).
7. Víctor Pérez Díaz, España puesta a prueba 1976-1996, (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1996).
8. Some of the most noted scholars of the elitist school of democratization are: Joseph A. Schumpeter, who in Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (New York: Harper Bros, 1950) defined democracy mainly as a competition among elites, and more recently, O' Donnell and Schmitter, op. cit., who argued that the most important actors in the democratization process are the elites. An author who has explained the Spanish transition in those terms is Josep Colomer, op. cit.
9. Some of the most noted scholars of the elitist school of democratization are: Joseph A. Schumpeter, who in Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (New York: Harper Bros, 1950) defined democracy mainly as a competition among elites, and more recently, O' Donnell and Schmitter, op. cit., who argued that the most important actors in the democratization process are the elites. An author who has explained the Spanish transition in those terms is Josep Colomer, op. cit.
10. Richard Rose, 'Dynamics of Democratic Regimes', in Jack Hayward and Edward C. Page (eds.), Governing the New Europe (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), p.74.
11. There are multiple definitions of democracy, but for this article I understand democracy as a regime Of protected consultation'. We can distinguish four dimensions in this type of regimes: breadth of polity membership; equality of polity membership; strength of collective consultation among polity members with respect to governmental personnel, policy and resources, considered as a multiple of (a) how binding that consultation is, (b) how effectively that consultation controls the full range of governmental personnel, policy and resources, and protection of polity members and persons from arbitrary action by governmental agents. See Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow and Charles Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, Ch.5, p.8. This is a much broader, and in my opinion, better definition of democracy than the minimalist definition of Joseph A. Schumpeter, later developed by Adam Przeworski, of political systems in which 'parties lose elections'. Free and fair elections are a necessary condition for democracy, but they are not a sufficient one.
12. For a general discussion about the definition of an authoritarian regime and the different subtypes see: Juan J. Linz, 'Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes', in Fred I. Greenstein and NelsonW. Polsby (eds), Macropolitical Theory, Vol.3 of Handbook of Political Science (Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Publishing Company, 1975). Susan Kaufman Purcell, The Mexican Profit Sharing Decision: Politics in an Authoritarian Regime (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1975).
13. For a general discussion about the definition of an authoritarian regime and the different subtypes see: Juan J. Linz, 'Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes', in Fred I. Greenstein and NelsonW. Polsby (eds), Macropolitical Theory, Vol.3 of Handbook of Political Science (Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Publishing Company, 1975). Susan Kaufman Purcell, The Mexican Profit Sharing Decision: Politics in an Authoritarian Regime (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1975).
14. See Todd Eisenstadt, 'Eddies in the Third Wave', paper presented at the Seminar on Pathways to Democracy: The Protracted Transitions', México, DF: El Colegio de Mexico, May 1999. A revised version appears as the introduction to this collection.
15. Giovanni Sartori, 'The Typology of Party Systems', in Robert Dahl, Political Oppositions in Western Democracies (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1966).
16. The 'Coordinación Democratica o Platajunta' was the result of the unification of the Junta Democrática, formed by the Partido Comunista de España (PCE), Partido del Trabajo de España (PTE), Partido Socialista Popular (PSP) and Comisiones Obreras (CCOO), together with the Platafonna de Convergencia Democrática, formed by Partido Socialista Obrero Español ( PSOE), Izquierda Democrática (ID), Union General de Trabajadores (UGT), Movimiento Comunista de España (MCE), Unión Socialista Democrática (USD), and Organizatión Revolucionaria de Trabajadores (ORT).
17. The Falange was the fascist organization of Franco's regime. See Stanley G. Payne, Falange (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1961).
18. José María Maravall, Dictatorship and Political Dissent (London: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 103.
19. Ibid., p.109.
20. Ibid., p.116.
21. Ibid., p.117.
22. Raymond Carr, 'El fracaso del almirante', in Carlos Juliá et al., Memoria de la Transitión (Madrid: Taurus, 1996), p.33 (the translation is by the article's author).
23. José Maria Maravall and Julián Santamaría, 'Political Change in Spain and Prospects for Democracy', in Guillermo O'Donnell et al., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Southern Europe (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp.78-79.
24. Carr, op. cit., p.33.
25. Nancy Bermeo, 'Myths of Moderation: Confrontation and Conflict during Democratic Transitions', Comparative Politics, Vol.29 (1997), p.309.
26. ETA is the Basque separatist organization.
27. See Maravall, op. cit, Ch.4, and Bermeo, op. cit., p.30S.
28. See Maravall, op. cit, Ch.4, and Bermeo, op. cit., p.30S.
29. Ramón Adell, 'El estudio de la movilización, como indicador de participación sociopolítica: paramètres analíticos y significado', paper presented in the VI Spanish Congress of Sociology, Coruña, Spain (Sept. 1998), p.21.
30. See note 11 above.
31. Adolfo Suárez, Fue posible la concordia (Madrid: Espasa, 1996), p.22 (the translation is by the article's author).
32. José Casanova, 'The Lessons of Spanish Transition to Democracy', published in Spanish in Ayer, No.15 (1994), p.20.
33. Ibid., pp. 19-20.
34. Ibid., p.21.
35. Josep Colomer, La transicín a la democracia: el modela español (Barcelona: Anacrama, 1998), p.97.
36. In a personal interview with José María Maravall, he agreed that the electoral law was mainly designed by Suárez, without much input from the opposition. Personal interview, Madrid June 1998.
37. Simón Sánchez Montera, Caminos de libertad: Memorias (Madrid: Temas de hoy, 1997), pp.327-40.
38. Abdón Mateos, 'Una transición dentro de la transición, auge, unidad y "conversión" de los socialistas', in Javier Tusell and Alvaro Soto, Historia de la transitín, 1975-1986 (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1996), p.230.
39. The concept of social citizenship was developed by: Thomas H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1950).
40. José María Maravall, la política de la transicín (Madrid: Taurus, 1981), p.58.
41. Mateos, op. cit., p.221.
42. Raymond Carr and J. P. Fusi, Spain Dictatorship to Democracy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1981).
43. See Adell, op. cit., pp.22-3.
44. For a vision of Vasconcelos' campaign, see: Mauricio Magdaleno, Las palabras perdidas (México: Fondo de Cultura Ecońomica, 1956).
45. Luis Javier Garrido, El partido de la Revolutín institucionalizada: La formatín del nuevo Estado en México (1928-1945) (México, DF: SEP, Siglo XXI), p. 140.
46. For an in-depth analysis of the process of the PNR formation, see Garrido, op. cit., Ch.2.
47. Enrique Krauze, La presidencia imperial: Ascenso v caída del sistema político mexicano (1940-1996) (México, DF: Tusquets editores, 1997), pp.117-18.
48. Guy Hermet et al., Elections Without Choice (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1978).
49. Pablo Gonzalez Casanova, La democracia en México (México, DF: Era, 1965).
50. The 'Maximato' was the period during which Plutarco Elias Galles the 'jefe máximo' controlled the Mexican political system 1929-34.
51. For an analysis of these movements, see Barry Carr, La izquieda mexicana a través del siglo XX (México, DF: Era, 1996), p.194.
52. See ibid., p.209.
53. Ibid., p.211.
54. Ibid., p.212.
55. For an in-depth analysis of the doctors' movement, see Pozas Horcasitas, La democracia en blanco: el movimiento médico en México, 1964-1965 (México, DF: Siglo XXI, 1993), Chs.2-5.
56. For a recent analysis of the events of 1968, see Sergio Aguayo, 1968 Los archivos de la violencia (México: Grijalbo, 1998).
57. Soledad Loaeza, El Partido Acción National: la larga marcha, 1939-1994: Oposición leal y partido de protesta (México: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1999), p.253.
58. Rafael Segovia, Lapidaria político, (México, DF: FCE, 1996), p.94.
59. Ibid., p.115.
60. Loaeza, op. cit., p.47.
61. Viviane Brachet-Márquez, El pacto de dominatión: Estado, clase y reforma social en México (1910-1995) (México, DF: El Colegio de México, 1996), p.212.
62. Alfonso Lujambio, Federalisme y Congreso en el cambio político de México (México, DF:UNAM, 1996), p. 118 (translation by the article's author).
63. The idea was to transform the PRI from a party of corporations into a party of citizens. The core of the PRI memberships are the workers and peasants, organized around the three main umbrella organizations, the Confederatión de Trabajadores de México (CTM), the Confederatión Nacional Campesina (CNC) and the Confederación National de Organizaciones Populares (CNOP). This effort failed, in part because of the opposition led by the main corporations of the PRI, in particular the CTM.
64. Víctor Quintana, 'Chihuahua 92 Anatomía de un voto' en Jorge Alonso and Jaime Tamayo (coord.), Elecciones con alternativas (México: La Jornada, Centro de Investigaciones Interdisciplinarias en Humanidades UNAM, 1994) p.45.
65. Stephen Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), p.303.
66. Secretaría de Derechos Humanos del Partido de la Revolución Democrática, En defensa de los derechos humanos: Un sexenio de violencia polítlca (México: Secretaría de Derechos Humanos y Grupo Parlamentario del PRD, 1994).
67. Kathleen Bruhn, Taking on Goliath: The Emergence of a New Left Party and the Struggle for Democracy in México (PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997), pp.192-3.
68. Ibid., p.190.
69. Cárdenas has argued, not without reason, that the decision not to use the mass media was more a problem of the lack of financial resources to execute an effective media campaign.
70. Eric Magar and Juan Molinar Horcasitas, 'Medios de comunicación y democracia', in Jorge Alcocer V., Elecciones, diálogo y reforma: México, 1994 (México, DF: Nuevo Horizonte, 1995), p.135.
71. José Luis Reyna, Control politico, estabilidad y desarrollo (México, DF: El Colegio de México-Cuadernos del CES, 1976). Rafael Segovia, 'La reforma política: el ejecutivo federal, el PRI y las elecciones de 1973', Foro International, Vol.XIV, No.3 (1974). Juan Molinar Horcasitas, El tiempo de la legitimidad: Elecciones, autoritarismo y democracia en México (México, DF: Cal y Arena, 1991).
72. José Luis Reyna, Control politico, estabilidad y desarrollo (México, DF: El Colegio de México-Cuadernos del CES, 1976). Rafael Segovia, 'La reforma política: el ejecutivo federal, el PRI y las elecciones de 1973', Foro International, Vol.XIV, No.3 (1974). Juan Molinar Horcasitas, El tiempo de la legitimidad: Elecciones, autoritarismo y democracia en México (México, DF: Cal y Arena, 1991).
73. José Luis Reyna, Control politico, estabilidad y desarrollo (México, DF: El Colegio de México-Cuadernos del CES, 1976). Rafael Segovia, 'La reforma política: el ejecutivo federal, el PRI y las elecciones de 1973', Foro International, Vol.XIV, No.3 (1974). Juan Molinar Horcasitas, El tiempo de la legitimidad: Elecciones, autoritarismo y democracia en México (México, DF: Cal y Arena, 1991).
74. Juan Molinar, op. cit., pp. 166-70.