Transplanting and rooting workers in London and Brussels: A comparative history

Journal of Modern History

Volumn 73, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 528-560

  Polasky, Janet ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 12944262652     PISSN: 00222801     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/339122     Document Type: Review

References (208)

1. Emile Vandervelde, L'Exode rural et le retour aux champs (Brussels, 1901), p. 45.
2. J. N. Tarn, "French Flats for the English in Nineteenth-Century London," in Multi-Storey Living, ed. A. Sutcliffe (London, 1974), pp. 19-40;
3. Paul Meuriot, Des Agglomérations urbaines dans l'Europe contemporaine (Paris, 1898), p. 160,
4. Les Recensements de 1910 (Brussels, 1912);
5. County of London, Census of London 1901 (London, 1903);
6. Omer Tulippe, Atlas de Belgique, Planche 23 (Brussels, 1962).
7. Meuriot, Les Recensements de 1910.
8. On the importance of capitals, see Anthony Sutcliffe, "Environmental Control and Planning in European Capitals, 1850-1914: London, Paris, and Berlin," in Growth and Transformation of the Modern City, ed. Ingrid Hammarstrom and Thomas Hall (Stockholm, 1979), pp. 71-73;
9. Ken Young and Patricia Garside, Metropolitan London (London, 1982), p. 1.
10. When Fernand Braudel dismissed the economic significance of the capitals, he failed to acknowledge the role of the service sectors in generating economic prosperity and overlooked the manufacturing that developed in Brussels as well as London. For summaries of this economic activity, see Roy Porter, London: A Social History (Cambridge, 1995);
11. Jean Puissant and Michel De Beule, "La première région industrielle belge," in Arlette Smolar-Meynart and Jean Stengers, La région de Bruxelles (Brussels, 1989), pp. 262-91.
12. While I recognize the importance of housing schemes in cities such as Birmingham and Verviers, the constraints of an article make such a wider investigation impossible.
13. See Nancy Green on the choice of the unit of analysis for comparative study. Nancy Green, "L'histoire comparative et le champ des études migratoires," Annales: Economies, Sociétés, Civilisations 45, no. 6 (1990): 1337.
14. M. J. Daunton, ed., Housing the Workers: A Comparative History, 1850-1914 (London, 1990);
15. Colin G. Pooley, ed., Housing Strategies in Europe, 1880-1930 (London, 1992);
16. Nicholas Bullock and James Read, The Movement for Housing Reform in Germany and France, 1840-1914 (Cambridge, 1985).
17. See also Michael Ball, Michael Harloe, and Maartje Martens, Housing and Social Change in Europe and the USA (New York, 1985).
18. See Gareth Stedman Jones's discussion of the theory of degeneration in Gareth Stedman Jones, Outcast London (Oxford, 1971), p. 313.
19. Susan Pedersen, Family, Dependence, and the Origins of the Welfare State: Britain and France, 1914-1945 (Cambridge, 1993), p. 413.
20. Alisa Klaus, Every Child a Lion: The Origins of Maternal and Infant Health Policy in the United States and France, 1890-1920 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993), p. 283.
21. Ann Shola Orloff and Theda Skocpol, "Why Not Equal Protection? Explaining the Politics of Public Social Spending in Britain, 1900-1911, and the United States, 1880s-1920," American Sociological Review 49 (December 1984): 726-46;
22. Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass., 1992);
23. Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Theda Skocpol, States, Social Knowledge, and the Origins of Modern Social Policies (Princeton, N.J., 1996);
24. Ann Shola Orloff, The Politics of Pensions: A Comparative Analysis of Britain, Canada, and the United States, 1880-1940 (Madison, 1993).
25. Theda Skocpol and Margaret Somers, "The Uses of Comparative History in Macrosocial Inquiry," Comparative Studies in Society and History 22 (April 1980): 181.
26. Green, p. 1342.
27. Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1995), p. 2.
28. Nancy Green, Ready to Wear and Ready to Work (Durham, N.C., 1993), pp. 123-24.
29. George Godwin, London Shadows: A Glance at the "Homes" of the Thousands (London, 1854), p. 2.
30. Henry Roberts, "Efforts on the Continent for Improving the Dwellings of the Labouring Classes" (Florence, 1874).
31. Enquête sur la condition des classes ouvrières (Brussels, 1846).
32. For discussions of these projects see, among others, Sean Damer, "State, Class and Housing: Glasgow, 1885-1919," in Housing, Social Policy and the State, ed. Joseph Melling (London, 1980);
33. Enid Gauldie, Cruel Habitations: A History of Working-Class Housing, 1780-1915 (London, 1974);
34. Hugh Quigley and Ismay Goldie, Housing and Slum Clearance in London (London, 1934);
35. Henry Roberts, Improvement of the Dwellings of the Labouring Classes (London, 1859);
36. John Nelson Tarn, Five per Cent Philanthropy: An Account of Housing in Urban Areas between 1840 and 1914 (Cambridge, 1973);
37. J. A. Yelling, Slums and Slum Clearance in Victorian London (London, 1986).
38. Conseil supérieur d'hygiène publique, Habitations ouvrières (Brussels, 1887). The same questions are posed today as Belgian television commentators and newspaper editors continue to probe the striking lack of volunteerism and of charitable contributions in their country.
39. Ville de Gand, Proposition du College concernant la construction d'habitations pour les ouvriers (Ghent, 1868).
40. De Camps, L'evolution sociale en Belgique (Brussels, 1890).
41. Historian Patricia Hilden explains that, while other European governments met threats of unrest with reforms, the Belgian government instead appointed commissions to study the problems. Patricia Penn Hilden, Women, Work, and Politics: Belgium, 1890-1914 (Oxford, 1993).
42. Roger-Henri Guerrand, Une Europe en construction: Deux siècles d'habitat social en Europe (Paris, 1992).
43. Charles Woeste, "Les Catholiques beiges et les intérêts ouvriers," Revue générale 65 (April 1897): 481-501;
44. Charles Cambier, Het Boek der goede Werklieden. Handboek van Voorzienigheid of Middelen tot Verbetering van den Toestand der Werkersklassen (Ghent, 1887);
45. E. Vliebergh, De Boeren en de maatschappelijke Zaak (Eernegem, 1894), pp. 12-13;
46. Paul Berryer, De 1884 à 1900 (Bruxelles, 1900);
47. Carl Strikwerda, A House Divided: Catholics, Socialists, and Flemish Nationalists in Nineteenth-Century Belgium (Lanham, Md., 1997);
48. Leen Van Molle, "Katholiken en Landbouwpolitiek in Belgie, 1884-1914," Symbolae facultatis literarum et philosophiae lovaniensis, series B/vol. 5 (Louvain, 1989).
49. See, e.g., Bernard Bosanquet, Aspects of the Social Problem by Various Writers (London, 1895);
50. S. Collini, "Hobhouse, Bosanquet, and the State: Philosophical Idealism and Political Argument in England, 1880-1918," Past and Present 72 (1976): 86-111.
51. Gauldie, p. 20; and Jones (n. 8 above), p. 196.
52. Charles Booth, Life and Labour in London (New York, 1969).
53. Reprint of 1889 edition. E. P. Hennock reminds us that the Pall Mall Gazette had undertaken a house-to-house survey of East London in the same month in which Booth launched his study. E. P. Hennock, "Poverty and Social Theory in England: The Experience of the 1880s," Social History 1 (1976): 67-91.
54. See also Rosemary O'Day and David Englander, Mr. Charles Booth's Inquiry (London, 1993);
55. T. S. Simey and M. B. Simey, Charles Booth, Social Scientist (London, 1960);
56. Martin Balmer, Kevin Bales, and Kathryn Kish Sklar, The Social Science Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880-1940 (Cambridge, 1991).
57. Robert A. Woods, cited by H. J. Dyos, "The Slums of Victorian London," Victorian Studies 11, no. 1 (September 1967): 18.
58. London County Council, The Housing Question in London (London, 1900).
59. On the legislation, see Gauldie (n. 19 above); London County Council, The Housing Question in London; Quigley and Goldie (n. 19 above);
60. Mark Swenarton, Homes Fit for Heroes (London, 1981);
61. Tarn, Five per Cent Philanthropy (n. 19 above).
62. Commission du Travail, Questionnaire relatif au travail industriel (Brussels, 1887).
63. Emile Cacheux argued that the French and Belgian governments followed the British lead. Emile Cacheux, Etat des habitations ouvrières à la fin du XIXe siècle (Paris, 1891).
64. Commission du Travail.
65. Hippolyte de Royer de Dour, Les habitations ouvrières (Brussels, 1889), p. 79.
66. Ch. Cambier, Réflexions sur la situation de la classe ouvrière (Ghent, 1880), p. 15;
67. "Eigen Heerde is Goud weerd," cited by Willy Steensels, "De Tussenkomst van de Overheid in de Arbeidershuisvesting: Gent, 1850-1914," Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Nieuwste Geschiedenis/Revue belge d'histoire contemporaine 3-4 (1977): 447-99.
68. W. Thompson, The Housing Handbook (London, 1903), p. 9.
69. C. M. Allan, "The Genesis of British Urban Redevelopment," Economic History Review 28 (1965): 598-613.
70. Henry Jephson, The Making of Modern London: 21 Years of the London County Council: Progressive Rule, 1889-1917 (London, 1910);
71. Andrew Saint, "'Spread the People': The LCC's Dispersal Policy, 1889-1965," in Andrew Saint, Politics and the People of London: The London County Council (London, 1989).
72. Alfred Smith, The Housing Question (London, 1900), p. 29.
73. However, as Arthur Morrison recounted, the evicted tenants from the Bethnal Green and Shoreditch neighborhoods who could not afford the council rents within "the crude yellow brick of the barrack dwelling" crowded into rings of tenements surrounding Boundary Street. Arthur Morrison, A Child of the Jago (Chicago, 1896), p. 322.
74. W. Thompson, "Powers of Local Authorities in the Housing Famine and How to Relieve It," Fabian Tracts 101:19, as cited by J. A. Yelling (n. 19 above), p. 65.
75. Alan A. Jackson, Semi-Detached London: Suburban Development, Life, and Transport, 1900-1939, 2d ed. (Didcot, Oxon, 1991), p. 33.
76. Martin Daunton, House and Home in the Victorian City: Working-Class Housing, 1850-1914 (London, 1983).
77. For lists of occupations, see Moniteur des comités de patronage et des sociétés d'habitations ouvrières (December 10, 1893),
78. and London County Council, Housing of the Working Classes in London (London, 1913), p. 158. Unfortunately, the Brussels list of residents in Ixelles housing does not provide numbers and the London list does not differentiate according to the housing development, so that lodging houses are included as well.
79. "Notre programme," Le Cottage 1 (June 1903). The Belgians adopted the English word "home" without translating it into Dutch or French.
80. Barry Parker and Raymond Unwin cited by Susan Beattie, A Revolution in Housing: LCC Housing Architects and Their Work, 1893-1914 (London, 1980), p. 89.
81. H. D. Davies, The Way Out: A Letter Addressed (by permission) to the Earl of Derby, K. G., in which the Evils of the Overcrowded Town Hovel and the Advantages of the Suburban Cottage Are Contrasted (London, 1861), pp. 16-17.
82. See also B. Seebohm Rowntree and A. C. Pigou, Lectures on Housing (Manchester, 1914), p. 30.
83. M. Harmant de Wasmes, Membre du comité de patronage de Boussu-Dour, Paturages, Congrès national des habitations ouvrières et des institutions de prévoyance. Rapports et compte rendu des séances tenues à Bruxelles les 2, 3, et 4 juillet 1910 (Brussels, 1910).
84. Fonds Charles Buls. III 20 A-D. "Habitations ouvrières et à bon marché," 1887-1914, Archives de la Ville de Bruxelles, Brussels.
85. See also "Notes de M. Wilmart relative à la visite des logements collectifs et des maisons ouvrières à l'étranger," Ville de Bruxelles, Bulletin Communal (1909) (Brussels, 1911), pp. 606-19.
86. Pedersen (n. 9 above), p. 47. During this same period, Pedersen contends, on questions of family policy, British reformers looked to the "high politics" of the national government for a solution.
87. N. F. R. Crafts, "Some Dimensions of the 'Quality of Life' during the British Industrial Revolution," Economic History Review 50, no. 4 (November 1997): 617-39;
88. Simon Szreter, "Urbanization, Mortality, and the Standard of Living Debate: New Estimates of the Expectation of Life at Birth in Nineteenth-Century British Cities," Economic History Review 51, no. 1 (February 1998): 84-112;
89. Martin Daunton in Valerie Braithwaite and Margaret Levi, Trust and Governance (New York, 1998). I am grateful to Martin Daunton for sharing his knowledge of municipal finance and initiative with me.
90. Young and Garside (n. 4 above); Sir George Laurence Gomme, The London County Council: Its Duties and Powers according to the Local Government Act of 1888 (London, 1888);
91. Jephson (n. 37 above); H. J. Dyos, "Greater and Greater London: Notes on Metropolis and Provinces in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries," in Britain and the Netherlands, ed. J. S. Bromley and E. H. Kossmann (The Hague, 1971), vol. 4;
92. Susan S. Fainstein, Ian Gordon, and Michael Harloe, Divided Cities: New York and London in the Contemporary World (Oxford, 1992).
93. The progressive municipal spirit prevailed in London before the First World War, contemporaries explained, because "municipal life in London had been starved and frustrated for decades." Sidney Webb, The Work of the London County Council (London, 1895).
94. Dyos, "Greater and Greater London," p. 94.
95. Dyos, "Greater and Greater London," p. 94. Ibid. See also Young and Garside (n. 4 above).
96. G. Jacquemyns, "Le problème de la 'Cuve' de Bruxelles de 1795 à 1854," Revue de l'université de Bruxelles (1932): 347-75;
97. Xavier Carton de Wiart, "Le problème des grandes agglomérations," La revue générale 70 (December 15, 1937): 702-19;
98. Pierre Gourou, "L'agglomération Bruxelloise: Eléments d'une géographie urbaine," Bulletin de la Société Royale belge de Géographie 82, no. 1 (1958): 3-84;
99. Louis Verniers, Bruxelles et son agglomération. De 1830 à nos jours (Brussels, 1958).
100. Belgian Socialists in particular called for the unification of the Brussels communes. Camille Huysmans, Moniteur des comités de patronage et des sociétés d'habitations ouvrières 415 (April 25, 1911).
101. John Davis, "The Progressive Council, 1889-1907," in Saint, ed. (n. 37 above), p. 27.
102. Adolphe Max, Conseil Communal, Moniteur des comités de patronage (April 25, 1911).
103. Louis Bertrand in Commune de Schaerbeek, Construction d'habitations à bon marché par la commune (Brussels, 1898). Louis Bertrand was one of the leaders in the municipal socialist movement in Belgium.
104. See A. Sutcliffe, "The Growth of Public Interventions in the British Urban Environment during the Nineteenth Century: A Structural Approach," in The Structure of Nineteenth-Century Cities, ed. J. H. Johnson and C. G. Pooley (London, 1982), p. 107.
105. M. Kervyn de Lettenhove, Annales parlementaires: Chambre des représentants, 1868-69 (April 21, 1869), p. 735.
106. M. Jamar, Annales parlementaires: Chambre des représentants, 1868-69 (April 22, 1869), p. 765.
107. The lack of debate at the turn of the century is echoed today by a total historical neglect of the question. Since the publication of Ernest Mahaim's monograph in 1910, the phenomenon of Belgian commuting has become such a part of everyday life that it goes unnoticed.
108. Kervyn de Lettenhove had argued in Parliament three years earlier that: "The true mission of the government is to favor the development of local liberties and to appeal to individual initiative." Joseph Kervyn de Lettenhove, Annales parlementaires (April 1, 1866)
109. as cited by H. Kervyn de Lettenhove, Le Baron de Kervyn de Lettenhove (1817-91), Notes et souvenirs réunis par un de ses enfants (Bruges, 1900), p. 244.
110. P. De Vuyst, Le rôle social de la fermière (Brussels, 1911), pp. 14-15.
111. See, among others, L. Bertrand, Le logement de l'ouvrier et des pauvres en Belgique (Brussels, 1888);
112. P. Thuysbaert, Het land van waes. Bijdrage tot de geschiedenis der landelijke bevolking in de 19e eeuw (Kortrijk, 1913);
113. M. Mermillod, Congrès des oeuvres sociales. Liège, September 26-29 (Liège, 1886), pp. 130-31;
114. M. le comte Goblet d'Alviella, Annales parlementaires: Chambre des représentants, 1902-1903: (January 22, 1903), p. 130;
115. and E. Vliebergh, De Boeren en de maatschappelijke Zaak (Eernegem, 1894).
116. H. J. Dyos, "Railways and Housing in Victorian London," Journal of Transport History 2 (1955): 14.
117. C. E. Lee, Passenger Class Distinctions (London, 1946), pp. 49-58.
118. Paul M. Olyslager, De Localiseering der belgische Nijverheid (Antwerp, 1947).
119. Ernest Mahaim, Les abonnements d'ouvriers sur les Lignes de Chemins de fer belges et leurs effets sociaux (Brussels, 1910), p. 38.
120. The British railways provided statistics to Parliament on train rather than passenger miles. That makes direct statistical comparison between the Belgian and the British systems difficult. One economist complained: "In plain English our railway managers have landed us completely in the dark as to the passenger traffic." W. R. Lawson, British Railways: A Financial and Commercial Survey (London, 1913). However, the Railway Gazette responded to criticism of the British railways for not providing sufficient information by charging that the Belgian State Railways overburdened them with too many figures in their reports.
121. Railway Gazette (February 25, 1910): 209.
122. London County Council Report on Workmen's Trains, London Statistics 2, no. 325 (1891-92): 299-317.
123. Mahaim, p. 80.
124. H. J. Dyos, "Workmen's Fares in South London, 1860-1914," Journal of Transport History 1 (1953): 16; and Mahaim, p. 51. Again, it is difficult to compare statistically because the British counted trains rather than passenger miles. We know that 40 percent of all tickets issued at stations between six and eight miles from London were sold to workmen, as compared to 20 percent from stations in a twelve- to fifteen-mile radius.
125. A. DeWinne, A travers les Flanders (Ghent, 1902), pp. 81-84.
126. Mahaim, p. 67.
127. George Dew, Select Committee on Workmen's Trains, British Parliamentary Papers (1904), p. vii.
128. Mahaim; Les Recensements de 1910 (Brussels, 1912);
129. Royal Commission on London Traffic: Report of the Royal Commission Appointed to Inquire into and Report upon the Means of Locomotion and Transport in London (London, 1905-6);
130. André-Claude Content, "L'habitat ouvrier à Bruxelles au XIXe siècle," Belgische Tijdschrift voor nieuwste Geschiedenis/Revue belge d'histoire contemporaine (1977): 501-17.
131. Select Committee on Artizan's and Labourers' Dwellings Improvements, British Parliamentary Papers (1882).
132. Workmen's trains, General, CL/HSG/1/78, Greater London Records Office.
133. "Third and Concluding Report of the Public Health and Housing Committee giving the results of a comparison of the cost of workmen's and other privilege tickets on the London railways with those of the principal metropolitan cities on the continent." LCC\MIN\7336 E 16, Greater London Records Office.
134. "The Workmen's Trains: How They Defied the Act of Parliament," The Enfield Chronicle (February 3, 1899): 1. See also, for an example of one among many grievances, Cockshoft, Great Northern Railway to Metropolitan Railway, October 14, 1881, RAIL 236 338 15, Public Records Office.
135. Andrew Bonar Law, Harry Samuel, Mr. Lough and Colonel Bowles, Select Committee on Workmen's Trains (July 29, 1903), British Parliamentary Papers (1903), 7-8.
136. CL/HSC/1/79, Workmen's Trains, Misc. Printed Papers 1898-1902, London Reform Union and Great Eastern Railway Co., Greater London Records Office.
137. The Enfield Chronicle (January 27, 1899).
138. The Enfield Chronicle (February 17, 1899).
139. A notice of a public meeting called by Edmonton Workmen's Trains Committee for October 7, 1901, to protest the Great Eastern Railway's cancellation of one of the additional trains is in LCC/MIN/7378 38, Greater London Records Office. See also Select Committee on Workmen's Trains, July 25, 1904, British Parliamentary Papers (1904), p. vii.
140. Later Workmen's Trains Committee, Enfield, April 24, 1893, Public Health and Housing Committee Papers, January 1893-December 1894, LCC/MIN/7336 E 16, Greater London Records Office.
141. Ernest Mahaim, "The Belgian Experience of State Railways" (London, 1912).
142. James Hole, National Railways, An Argument for State Purchase (London, 1893);
143. Edwin A. Pratt, Railways and Nationalisation (London, 1911),
144. State Railways: Object Lessons from Other Lands (London, 1907);
145. H. Cattin, Etat ou compagnies: Etude sur l'exploitation des chemins de fer (Cognac, 1907);
146. F. Ulrich, Traité général des tarifs de chemins de fer (Paris, 1890);
147. Ch. L'Evesque, La mobilisation du travail et le transport des ouvriers par chemin defer (Paris, 1905).
148. Henry Parris, Government and the Railways in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1965), p. 12.
149. Timothy Alborn, Conceiving Companies: Joint-Stock Politics in Victorian England (New York, 1998), p. 250.
150. As most British rail historians note in their explanations of the hands-off policy, ninety directors of railways or auxiliary companies sat in Parliament in 1886. P. M. Williams, "Public Opinion and the Railway Rates Question in 1886," English Historical Review 67 (1952): 52-53, 70-71;
151. P. S. Bagwell, "The Railway Interest: Its Organisation and Influence, 1839-1914," Journal of Transport History 7 (1965-66): 83-84. Opposing the railway interest in lobbying Parliament was the Railway and Canal Traders' Association.
152. Hole, p. xvii.
153. Georges de Leener, Les chemins defer en Belgique (Brussels, 1927), p. 10.
154. M. Julliot, January 21, 1872, Annales parlementaires, Chambre des Représentants (1871-72), p. 317.
155. Minister Van Hoorebeke, cited by Joseph Pauly, Le chemin defer et le parlement, 1835-1860 (Brussels, 1935), p. 125.
156. Guy Vanthemsche, Les paradoxes de l'état. L'état face à l'économie de marché de XIX et XX siècles (Brussels, 1997), pp. 55-56.
157. Orloff and Skocpol (n. 11 above), p. 731.
158. Alborn, p. 256.
159. Select Committee on Workmen's Trains, July 20, 1904, British Parliamentary Papers (1904), pp. vii, 92. See also Rail 410 367, Public Records Office.
160. Select Committee on Workmen's Trains, British Parliamentary Papers, House of Commons (1905), p. viii.
161. Report of the Royal Commission Appointed to Inquire into and Report upon the Means of Locomotion and Transport in London, British Parliamentary Papers (1905).
162. For examples of some of the correspondence and testimony of the Great Eastern and the Great Northern, see January 8, 1902, Minutes of the Board of the Great Eastern Rail, Rail 2 27/26, Public Records Office; Rail 236 373/4, Public Records Office; Rail 236 384, Public Records Office; Rail 410 367, Public Records Office; and Rail 235 353 6, Public Records Office.
163. H. J. Dyos and D. H. Aldcroft, British Transport (Leicester, 1969), p. 157.
164. C. E. Lee, Passenger Class Distinctions (London, 1946), p. 58.
165. A comparison of the private Brussels trams and the semiprivate light Belgian rail with the municipal trams, the private buses, and the underground in London would be an obvious addition to this study. The questions of municipal regulation, convenience of service, the opening of new areas to settlement, and the occupations and gender of commuters are all raised in different ways with the other modes of transport.
166. Ville de Bruxelles, Comité de patronage des habitations ouvrières et des institutions de prévoyance. Rapport sur l'exercise 1896 (Brussels, 1897), pp. 6-7.
167. Ville de Bruxelles, Bulletin Communal 1911, vol. 1. Compte rendu des séances (Brussels, 1911), p. 581.
168. Bruno De Meulder, "De 'Cité Hellemans,' 1906-1915," Wonen TABK (November 1985): 27-36;
169. Bruno De Meulder, "Gallerijwoningen te Brüssel," Eind verhandeling voorgedragen voor het behalen van de graad van burgerlijk ingenieur architect Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 1982-83. With thanks to Professor De Meulder for sharing his work with me.
170. Tarn, Five per Cent Philanthropy (n. 19 above), p. 117.
171. R. Williams, London Rookeries and Collier's Slums: A Plea for More Breathing Room (London, 1893).
172. Tarn, "French Rats for the English in Nineteenth-Century London" (n. 2 above), pp. 19-40.
173. See also Andrew Saint, London Suburbs (London, 1999).
174. Edouard Van der Linden, Etude sur l'amélioration des habitations ouvrières et sur l'organisation du domicile de secours (Brussels, 1875), pp. 26-27.
175. See, e.g., Charles Lagasse, Quelques mots sur l'habitation ouvrière (Brussels, 1889);
176. Charles Buls, Esthétiques des villes (1894; Brussels, 1981), p. 28.
177. Moniteur des comités de patronage et des sociétés d'habitations ouvrières (October 25, 1900).
178. Rene Schoonbrodt, Sociologie de l'habitat social (Brussels, n.d.), p. 35.
179. Charles De Quéker, "Des maisons ouvrières à appartements en ville" (Brussels, 1904), p. 4.
180. M. Dausi in Commune de Schaerbeek, Construction d'habitations à bon marché par la commune (Brussels, 1898).
181. Charles De Quéker, "Congrès international des habitations à bon marché" (London, August 1907).
182. Ellen Ross, "'Not the Sort That Would Sit on the Doorstep': Respectability in Pre-World War I London Neighborhoods," International Labor and Working Class History 27 (1985): 39-59;
183. Elizabeth A. M. Roberts, "Women's Strategies," in Labour and Love: Women's Experience of Home and Family, 1850-1940, ed. Jane Lewis (Oxford, 1986);
184. Standish Meacham, A Life Apart: The English Working Class, 1890-1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); and Jones (n. 8 above).
185. London County Council, Workmen's Trains and Trams, with Particular Reference to the Council's Dwellings for Workmen (February 2, 1914), Greater London Records Office. The pamphlets and time schedules are filed under Workmen's Trains as well as Housing at the Greater London Record Office, Minutes of the London County Council.
186. Daunton (n. 42 above), pp. 12-15.
187. Caisse générale d'épargne et de retraite, Une habitation à bon marché (Brussels, 1910).
188. Charles Booth, cited by Donald J. Olsen, The Growth of Victorian London (London, 1978), p. 289.
189. Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley, 1986).
190. Mahaim, Les abonnements d'ouvriers.
191. See also H. Demain, Les migrations ouvrières à travers la Belgique (Louvain, 1919).
192. Mahaim, Les abonnements d'ouvriers, p. 141.
193. Statistique de la Belgique: Recensement général des industries et des métiers (October 31, 1896) (Brussels, 1902),
194. Recensement de l'industrie et du commerce (December 31, 1910) (Brussels, 1913-21). Mahaim's precisely detailed charts and graphs included no category for women workers, although he divided and specified practically everything else.
195. Recensement de l'industrie et du commerce de 1910 (Brussels, 1913).
196. B. Seebohm Rowntree, Land and Labour: Lessons from Belgium (London, 1911), pp. 292, 593.
197. Emile Vandervelde, L'exode rural et le retour au champs (Brussels, 1901), p. 138.
198. Rowntree, p. 526.
199. Mahaim, Les abonnements, p. 205.
200. Mahaim, "La législation sociale en Belgique, 1869-1919."
201. For an example of a contemporary aware of the social segregation engendered by the suburban development, see Henrietta Barnett's justification for the garden suburb of Hampstead in which "the classes will not be estranged." Henrietta O. Barnett, "A Garden Suburb at Hampstead," Contemporary Review 87 (February 1905): 231-37.
202. Marc Bloch, "Pour une histoire comparée des sociétés européennes," Mélanges historiques (Paris, 1983), 1:34.
203. e congrès international des sciences historiques, ed. G. Des Marez and F. L. Ganshof (Brussels, 1923), pp. 19-23;
204. Raymond Grew, "The Case for Comparing Histories," The American Historical Review 85, no. 4 (October 1980);
205. George M. Fredrickson, "From Exceptionalism to Variability: Recent Developments in Cross-National Comparative History," Journal of American History 82, no. 2 (Spring 1995): 587-684.
206. See Martin Daunton's introduction (n. 42 above) for a discussion of the historians' failure to acknowledge the private market's construction of housing for the working class at the end of the nineteenth century.
207. Ian Cole and Robert Furbey argue that there is a significant disjunctive between prewar government initiatives and those of the interwar period. Ian Cole and Robert Furbey, The Eclipse of Council Housing (New York, 1994).
208. Robert E. Skinner, "The Transportation-Land Use Interaction," TR News 187 (November-December 1996): 6.