Gender delusions and exclusions in the democratization of schooling in Latin America

Comparative Education Review

Volumn 40, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 404-438

  Stromquist, Nelly P ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 12844282967     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/447401     Document Type: Article

References (69)

1. Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean and the United Nations Development Fund for Women, Regional Programme of Action for the Women of Latin America and the Caribbean, 1995-2001 (Santiago: United Nations, 1995).
2. U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), The Democracy Initiative (Washington, D.C.: USAID, December 1990); Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Education and Knowledge: Bask Pillars of Changing Production Patterns with Social Equity (Santiago: ECLAC, 1992); Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), Summary Report of the Conference on Strengthening Civil Society (Washington, D.C.: IDB, September 12-14, 1994); Inter-American Dialogue (IAD), Convergence and Community: The Americas in 1993 (Washington, D.C.: IAD, 1992).
3. U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), The Democracy Initiative (Washington, D.C.: USAID, December 1990); Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Education and Knowledge: Bask Pillars of Changing Production Patterns with Social Equity (Santiago: ECLAC, 1992); Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), Summary Report of the Conference on Strengthening Civil Society (Washington, D.C.: IDB, September 12-14, 1994); Inter-American Dialogue (IAD), Convergence and Community: The Americas in 1993 (Washington, D.C.: IAD, 1992).
4. U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), The Democracy Initiative (Washington, D.C.: USAID, December 1990); Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Education and Knowledge: Bask Pillars of Changing Production Patterns with Social Equity (Santiago: ECLAC, 1992); Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), Summary Report of the Conference on Strengthening Civil Society (Washington, D.C.: IDB, September 12-14, 1994); Inter-American Dialogue (IAD), Convergence and Community: The Americas in 1993 (Washington, D.C.: IAD, 1992).
5. U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), The Democracy Initiative (Washington, D.C.: USAID, December 1990); Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Education and Knowledge: Bask Pillars of Changing Production Patterns with Social Equity (Santiago: ECLAC, 1992); Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), Summary Report of the Conference on Strengthening Civil Society (Washington, D.C.: IDB, September 12-14, 1994); Inter-American Dialogue (IAD), Convergence and Community: The Americas in 1993 (Washington, D.C.: IAD, 1992).
6. See, e.g., Robert Connell, Gender and Power (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1987). Observers of the dynamics of gender creation and maintenance prefer "gender-identity formation" to "gender socialization" because it highlights the power-laden nature of the process as well as includes the possibility of agency in the transformation of structures. I will use "gender socialization" and "gender-identity formation" as equivalent.
7. Ibid.; Robert Connell, "The State, Gender, and Sexual Politics: Theory and Appraisal," in Power/Gender: Social Relations in Theory and Practice, ed. H. Lorraine Radtke and Henderikus Stam (London: Sage, 1994), pp. 136-73; Carole Pateman, The Sexual Contract (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1988); Sylvia Walby, Theorizing Patriarchy (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990); Elina Haavio-Mannila et al., eds., Unfinished Democracy: Women in Nordic Politics (Oxford: Pergamon, 1985). See also Nelly P. Stromquist, "Romancing the State: Gender and Power in Education," Comparative Education Review, 39, no. 4 (1995): 423-54.
8. Ibid.; Robert Connell, "The State, Gender, and Sexual Politics: Theory and Appraisal," in Power/Gender: Social Relations in Theory and Practice, ed. H. Lorraine Radtke and Henderikus Stam (London: Sage, 1994), pp. 136-73; Carole Pateman, The Sexual Contract (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1988); Sylvia Walby, Theorizing Patriarchy (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990); Elina Haavio-Mannila et al., eds., Unfinished Democracy: Women in Nordic Politics (Oxford: Pergamon, 1985). See also Nelly P. Stromquist, "Romancing the State: Gender and Power in Education," Comparative Education Review, 39, no. 4 (1995): 423-54.
9. Ibid.; Robert Connell, "The State, Gender, and Sexual Politics: Theory and Appraisal," in Power/Gender: Social Relations in Theory and Practice, ed. H. Lorraine Radtke and Henderikus Stam (London: Sage, 1994), pp. 136-73; Carole Pateman, The Sexual Contract (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1988); Sylvia Walby, Theorizing Patriarchy (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990); Elina Haavio-Mannila et al., eds., Unfinished Democracy: Women in Nordic Politics (Oxford: Pergamon, 1985). See also Nelly P. Stromquist, "Romancing the State: Gender and Power in Education," Comparative Education Review, 39, no. 4 (1995): 423-54.
10. Ibid.; Robert Connell, "The State, Gender, and Sexual Politics: Theory and Appraisal," in Power/Gender: Social Relations in Theory and Practice, ed. H. Lorraine Radtke and Henderikus Stam (London: Sage, 1994), pp. 136-73; Carole Pateman, The Sexual Contract (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1988); Sylvia Walby, Theorizing Patriarchy (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990); Elina Haavio-Mannila et al., eds., Unfinished Democracy: Women in Nordic Politics (Oxford: Pergamon, 1985). See also Nelly P. Stromquist, "Romancing the State: Gender and Power in Education," Comparative Education Review, 39, no. 4 (1995): 423-54.
11. Ibid.; Robert Connell, "The State, Gender, and Sexual Politics: Theory and Appraisal," in Power/Gender: Social Relations in Theory and Practice, ed. H. Lorraine Radtke and Henderikus Stam (London: Sage, 1994), pp. 136-73; Carole Pateman, The Sexual Contract (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1988); Sylvia Walby, Theorizing Patriarchy (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990); Elina Haavio-Mannila et al., eds., Unfinished Democracy: Women in Nordic Politics (Oxford: Pergamon, 1985). See also Nelly P. Stromquist, "Romancing the State: Gender and Power in Education," Comparative Education Review, 39, no. 4 (1995): 423-54.
12. Ibid.; Robert Connell, "The State, Gender, and Sexual Politics: Theory and Appraisal," in Power/Gender: Social Relations in Theory and Practice, ed. H. Lorraine Radtke and Henderikus Stam (London: Sage, 1994), pp. 136-73; Carole Pateman, The Sexual Contract (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1988); Sylvia Walby, Theorizing Patriarchy (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990); Elina Haavio-Mannila et al., eds., Unfinished Democracy: Women in Nordic Politics (Oxford: Pergamon, 1985). See also Nelly P. Stromquist, "Romancing the State: Gender and Power in Education," Comparative Education Review, 39, no. 4 (1995): 423-54.
13. Talcott Parsons, The Social System (Toronto: Collier-MacMillan, 1964).
14. Penny Gosetti and Edith Rusch, "Reexamining Educational Leadership: Challenging Assumptions," in Women Leading in Education, ed. Diane Dunlap (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995), pp. 11-35, esp. p. 15.
15. Patricia Collins, "Learning from the Outsider Within," in Beyond Methodology, ed. M. Fonow and J. Cook (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
16. Rubem Fernandas, Privado purém público: O terceiro setor na America Latina (Washington, D.C.: CIVICUS, 1994).
17. According to the UN Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Violence against Women, violence against women is defined as "physical, sexual, and psychological violence occurring in the family and in the community, including battering, sexual abuse of female children, dowry-related violence, marital rape, female genital mutilation, and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence, violence related to exploitation, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere, trafficking in women, forced prostitution, and violence perpetrated or condoned by the State."
18. Beatriz Schmukler, "Mother in the Poor Communities and the Social Democratization of Argentina," in Women, Children, and Human Rights in Latin America, ed. Marjorie Agosin (New York: Harper Collins, in press), p. 25.
19. June Nash and Helen Safa, Sex and Class in Latin America (Amhurst, Mass.: Bergin & Garvey, 1980), p. 25.
20. Anna Yeatman, "Despotism and Civil Society: The Limits of Patriarchal Citizenship," in Women's Views of the Political World of Men, ed. Judith Stiehm (Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Transnational, 1982), p. 162.
21. Charlotte Bunch, Roxanna Carrillo, and Rima Shore, "Violence against Women," in Encyclopedia of Third World Women, ed. Nelly P. Stromquist (New York: Garland, in press).
22. Lori Heise, with Jacqueline Pitanguy and Adrienne Germain, "Violence against Women: The Hidden Health Burden," Discussion Paper no. 225 (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), pp. 6-9.
23. Ibid., pp. 7-8.
24. Peggy Biaggi, "Domestic Violence," photocopy (Women for Racial and Economic Equality, Pittsburgh, 1992).
25. Nelly P. Stromquist, "The Political Experience of Women: Linking Micro- and Macro-Democracies," La educación 37, no. 116 (1993): 541-59; Violeta Sara-Lafosse, "Machismo in Latin America," in Stromquist, ed., Encyclopedia of Third World Women; see also Leonore Adler, ed., International Handbook on Gender Roles (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1995), particularly the cases of Mexico and Peru.
26. Nelly P. Stromquist, "The Political Experience of Women: Linking Micro- and Macro-Democracies," La educación 37, no. 116 (1993): 541-59; Violeta Sara-Lafosse, "Machismo in Latin America," in Stromquist, ed., Encyclopedia of Third World Women; see also Leonore Adler, ed., International Handbook on Gender Roles (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1995), particularly the cases of Mexico and Peru.
27. Nelly P. Stromquist, "The Political Experience of Women: Linking Micro- and Macro-Democracies," La educación 37, no. 116 (1993): 541-59; Violeta Sara-Lafosse, "Machismo in Latin America," in Stromquist, ed., Encyclopedia of Third World Women; see also Leonore Adler, ed., International Handbook on Gender Roles (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1995), particularly the cases of Mexico and Peru.
28. Schmukler.
29. IDB, Social Dimensions in the Agenda of the IDB (Copenhagen: World Summit for Social Development, March 6-12, 1995), p. 5.
30. Unesco, Statistical Yearbook 1995 (Paris: Unesco, 1995).
31. For an excellent qualitative study of hierarchies even among women in educational settings, see Marilia Carvalho, "Between Home and the School: Tensions in the Professional Identity of Teachers," in Gender Dimensions in the Education of Women in Latin America, ed. Nelly P. Stromquist (Washington, D.C.: Organization of American States, 1996).
32. IDB, Social Dimensions.
33. Ibid., p. 4.
34. USAID, The Democracy Initiative (n. 2 above).
35. Ibid., p. 6.
36. Ibid., p. 1.
37. USAID, Family and Development (Washington, D.C.: USAID, December 1990), p. 3.
38. Ibid.
39. ECLAC, Education and Knowledge (n. 2 above), pp. 52-53, 56.
40. Ibid., p. 53.
41. World Bank, "Mexico: The Initial Education Strategy" (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, October 1992); and Government of Chile, Un gobierno para los nuevos tiempos: Bases programáticas del segundo gobierno de la concertación (Santiago: Government of Chile, ca. 1996).
42. World Bank, "Mexico: The Initial Education Strategy" (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, October 1992); and Government of Chile, Un gobierno para los nuevos tiempos: Bases programáticas del segundo gobierno de la concertación (Santiago: Government of Chile, ca. 1996).
43. ECLAC, Education and Knowledge, pp. 56-57.
44. ECLAC and the United Nations Development Fund for Women, Regional Programme of Action (n. 1 above), p. 15.
45. Ibid., p. 11.
46. Ibid., Strategic Objective II. 4, p. 29.
47. Ibid., pp. 29-30.
48. Ibid., p. 29.
49. Ibid., Strategic Objective VII. 2, p. 57.
50. Ibid.
51. Paulina van der Aa, "Women in the Decision-Making Process in Latin America and the Caribbean," photocopy (United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Mar de la Plata, September 1994).
52. IDB, Summary Report of the Conference on Strengthening Civil Society (n. 2 above), p. 1.
53. Ibid., p. 6.
54. Ibid., p. 3.
55. Ibid., pp. 2-3.
56. Ibid., p. 7.
57. Program for the Promotion of Educational Reform in Latin America "PREAL." Brochure (Santiago: PREAL, ca. 1994).
58. Jeffrey Puryear and José Joaquín Brunner, eds., Educación, equidad y competitividad económica en las Americas: An Inter-American Dialogue Project, 2 vols., vol. 1, Key Issues (Washington, D.C.: Organization of American States, 1995).
59. Joseph Farrell, "Education Cooperation in the Americas: A Review," in Puryear and Brunner, eds., vol. 1, Key Issues, pp. 67-97, see pp. 88 and 97, respectively.
60. Puryear and Brunner, eds., vol. 2, Country Case Studies, pp. 346-47.
61. IDB, Social Dimensions (n. 19 above), p. 2.
62. Ibid., p. 20.
63. PREAL, PREAL Informa, vol. 1, no. 1 (Santiago: Programa de Promoción de la Reforma Educativa en América Latina, 1995), unpaginated.
64. Ibid.
65. Programa Interdisciplinares de Investigaciones de Educación, cited in Red de Educación popular entre Mujeres, "Primer informe de actividades del proyecto, 'Educación humana no sexista: Por una sociedad igualitaria que respete las diferencias,'" photocopy (Red de Educación popular entre Mujeres, Montevideo, September 1995).
66. Jane Gaskell, "A Feminist Agenda for Canadian Education," Our Schools, Ourselves 1, no. 1 (1988): 8-21, esp. 17.
67. Fernando Reimers, "The Role of Organization and Politics in Government Financing of Education: The Effects of 'Structural Adjustment,'" Comparative Education 27, no. 2 (1991): 35-51.
68. Anna Yeatman, "Contemporary Issues for Feminism: The Politics of the State," in Gender Matters in Educational Administration and Policy: A Feminist Introduction, ed. Jill Blackmore and Jane Kenway (London: Falmer, 1993).
69. There may also be reasons of a risk-averse behavior that shies away from political constructions. One example is the recent document by the World Bank on gender-based violence. The report "Violence against Women: The Hidden Health Burden," by Heise with Pitanguy and Germain (n. 14 above), explicitly ties wife battering and other forms of social control not to the existence/absence of democracy (i.e., equality in the home) but to their impact on women's health.