Spaniards on the silver roll: Labor troubles and liminality in the Panama Canal Zone, 1904-1914

International Labor and Working-Class History

Volumn , Issue 66, 2004, Pages 78-98

  Greene, Julie ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

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EID: 12144275638     PISSN: 01475479     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0147547904000183     Document Type: Review

References (89)

1. A.S. Brook, General Inspector, Memo for Mr. Zinn, July 28, 1911; Paul S. Wilson, "Memore. the European laborers of the Culebra District..." July 28, 1911; Chairman George Goethals, "Notice to the Spanish Laborers on Strike," August 2, 1911: all Records of the Second Isthmian Canal Commission, 2-P-59, United States National Archives, Record Group 185, College Park, Maryland (hereafter cited as ICC Records).
2. A.S. Brook, General Inspector, Memo for Mr. Zinn, July 28, 1911; Paul S. Wilson, "Memore. the European laborers of the Culebra District..." July 28, 1911; Chairman George Goethals, "Notice to the Spanish Laborers on Strike," August 2, 1911: all Records of the Second Isthmian Canal Commission, 2-P-59, United States National Archives, Record Group 185, College Park, Maryland (hereafter cited as ICC Records).
3. A.S. Brook, General Inspector, Memo for Mr. Zinn, July 28, 1911; Paul S. Wilson, "Memore. the European laborers of the Culebra District..." July 28, 1911; Chairman George Goethals, "Notice to the Spanish Laborers on Strike," August 2, 1911: all Records of the Second Isthmian Canal Commission, 2-P-59, United States National Archives, Record Group 185, College Park, Maryland (hereafter cited as ICC Records).
4. On the history of Panama, see Aims McGuinness, "In the Path of Empire: Land, Labor, and Liberty in Panama during the California Gold Rush, 1848-1860," (Ph.D. Diss., University of Michigan, 2001); Michael L. Conniff, Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904-1981 (Pittsburgh, 1985); Marco A. Gandásegui, Alejandro Saavedra, Andrés Achong, and Iván Quintero, Las Lucas Obreras en Panama, 1850-1978, 2a edition (Panama City, 1990); Steve Marquardt, '"Green Havoc': Panama Disease, Environmental Change, and Labor Process in the Central American Banana Industry'" American Historical Review (Feb. 2001), 49-80.
5. On the history of Panama, see Aims McGuinness, "In the Path of Empire: Land, Labor, and Liberty in Panama during the California Gold Rush, 1848-1860," (Ph.D. Diss., University of Michigan, 2001); Michael L. Conniff, Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904-1981 (Pittsburgh, 1985); Marco A. Gandásegui, Alejandro Saavedra, Andrés Achong, and Iván Quintero, Las Lucas Obreras en Panama, 1850-1978, 2a edition (Panama City, 1990); Steve Marquardt, '"Green Havoc': Panama Disease, Environmental Change, and Labor Process in the Central American Banana Industry'" American Historical Review (Feb. 2001), 49-80.
6. On the history of Panama, see Aims McGuinness, "In the Path of Empire: Land, Labor, and Liberty in Panama during the California Gold Rush, 1848-1860," (Ph.D. Diss., University of Michigan, 2001); Michael L. Conniff, Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904-1981 (Pittsburgh, 1985); Marco A. Gandásegui, Alejandro Saavedra, Andrés Achong, and Iván Quintero, Las Lucas Obreras en Panama, 1850-1978, 2a edition (Panama City, 1990); Steve Marquardt, '"Green Havoc': Panama Disease, Environmental Change, and Labor Process in the Central American Banana Industry'" American Historical Review (Feb. 2001), 49-80.
7. On the history of Panama, see Aims McGuinness, "In the Path of Empire: Land, Labor, and Liberty in Panama during the California Gold Rush, 1848-1860," (Ph.D. Diss., University of Michigan, 2001); Michael L. Conniff, Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904-1981 (Pittsburgh, 1985); Marco A. Gandásegui, Alejandro Saavedra, Andrés Achong, and Iván Quintero, Las Lucas Obreras en Panama, 1850-1978, 2a edition (Panama City, 1990); Steve Marquardt, '"Green Havoc': Panama Disease, Environmental Change, and Labor Process in the Central American Banana Industry'" American Historical Review (Feb. 2001), 49-80.
8. This article has been influenced by in James R. Barrett and David Roediger's "Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History (Spring 1997), 3-44. My perception of Spanish workers is very close to their notion of "inbetween-ness." With the concept of liminality, however, I hope to highlight the mutability of Spaniards' position and also detach it from purely racial considerations. Spaniards' marginalization was linked closely not only to race but also to nationality and their position in an imperial world. On liminality, see Victor Turner, The Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual (Ithaca, 1967), especially Chapter Four, "Betwixt and Between: The Liminal Period in Rites de Passage," 93-111; for useful discussions of Turner's concept see Brian Morris, Anthropological Studies of Religion: An Introductory Text (Cambridge, 1987), especially 252-63; and Donald Weber, "From Limen to Border: A Meditation on the Legacy of Victor Turner for American Cultural Studies," American Quarterly, 47 (3), Sept. 1995, 525-36. For a rather different way of using liminality to understand working people's actions, see Eric Rothenbuhler, "The Liminal fight: mass strikes as ritual and interpretation," in Jeffrey C. Alexander, ed., Durkheimian Sociology: Cultural Studies (Cambridge, 1988), 66-89. Thomas Guglielmo's recent book, White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890-1945 (Oxford, 2003), also revises Barrett and Roediger's thesis. Distinguishing between "race" and "color," Guglielmo argues that Italians in the US were never consistently perceived as non-white but that they were, nonetheless, perceived as racially inferior. His argument is quite persuasive for Chicago, but in the highly stratified environment of the US Canal Zone things played out rather differently. Southern Europeans were clearly classified as inferior and this involved a racial judgment as well as judgments about nationality, ethnicity, class, and imperial status.
9. This article has been influenced by in James R. Barrett and David Roediger's "Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History (Spring 1997), 3-44. My perception of Spanish workers is very close to their notion of "inbetween-ness." With the concept of liminality, however, I hope to highlight the mutability of Spaniards' position and also detach it from purely racial considerations. Spaniards' marginalization was linked closely not only to race but also to nationality and their position in an imperial world. On liminality, see Victor Turner, The Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual (Ithaca, 1967), especially Chapter Four, "Betwixt and Between: The Liminal Period in Rites de Passage," 93-111; for useful discussions of Turner's concept see Brian Morris, Anthropological Studies of Religion: An Introductory Text (Cambridge, 1987), especially 252-63; and Donald Weber, "From Limen to Border: A Meditation on the Legacy of Victor Turner for American Cultural Studies," American Quarterly, 47 (3), Sept. 1995, 525-36. For a rather different way of using liminality to understand working people's actions, see Eric Rothenbuhler, "The Liminal fight: mass strikes as ritual and interpretation," in Jeffrey C. Alexander, ed., Durkheimian Sociology: Cultural Studies (Cambridge, 1988), 66-89. Thomas Guglielmo's recent book, White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890-1945 (Oxford, 2003), also revises Barrett and Roediger's thesis. Distinguishing between "race" and "color," Guglielmo argues that Italians in the US were never consistently perceived as non-white but that they were, nonetheless, perceived as racially inferior. His argument is quite persuasive for Chicago, but in the highly stratified environment of the US Canal Zone things played out rather differently. Southern Europeans were clearly classified as inferior and this involved a racial judgment as well as judgments about nationality, ethnicity, class, and imperial status.
10. This article has been influenced by in James R. Barrett and David Roediger's "Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History (Spring 1997), 3-44. My perception of Spanish workers is very close to their notion of "inbetween-ness." With the concept of liminality, however, I hope to highlight the mutability of Spaniards' position and also detach it from purely racial considerations. Spaniards' marginalization was linked closely not only to race but also to nationality and their position in an imperial world. On liminality, see Victor Turner, The Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual (Ithaca, 1967), especially Chapter Four, "Betwixt and Between: The Liminal Period in Rites de Passage," 93-111; for useful discussions of Turner's concept see Brian Morris, Anthropological Studies of Religion: An Introductory Text (Cambridge, 1987), especially 252-63; and Donald Weber, "From Limen to Border: A Meditation on the Legacy of Victor Turner for American Cultural Studies," American Quarterly, 47 (3), Sept. 1995, 525-36. For a rather different way of using liminality to understand working people's actions, see Eric Rothenbuhler, "The Liminal fight: mass strikes as ritual and interpretation," in Jeffrey C. Alexander, ed., Durkheimian Sociology: Cultural Studies (Cambridge, 1988), 66-89. Thomas Guglielmo's recent book, White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890-1945 (Oxford, 2003), also revises Barrett and Roediger's thesis. Distinguishing between "race" and "color," Guglielmo argues that Italians in the US were never consistently perceived as non-white but that they were, nonetheless, perceived as racially inferior. His argument is quite persuasive for Chicago, but in the highly stratified environment of the US Canal Zone things played out rather differently. Southern Europeans were clearly classified as inferior and this involved a racial judgment as well as judgments about nationality, ethnicity, class, and imperial status.
11. This article has been influenced by in James R. Barrett and David Roediger's "Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History (Spring 1997), 3-44. My perception of Spanish workers is very close to their notion of "inbetween-ness." With the concept of liminality, however, I hope to highlight the mutability of Spaniards' position and also detach it from purely racial considerations. Spaniards' marginalization was linked closely not only to race but also to nationality and their position in an imperial world. On liminality, see Victor Turner, The Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual (Ithaca, 1967), especially Chapter Four, "Betwixt and Between: The Liminal Period in Rites de Passage," 93-111; for useful discussions of Turner's concept see Brian Morris, Anthropological Studies of Religion: An Introductory Text (Cambridge, 1987), especially 252-63; and Donald Weber, "From Limen to Border: A Meditation on the Legacy of Victor Turner for American Cultural Studies," American Quarterly, 47 (3), Sept. 1995, 525-36. For a rather different way of using liminality to understand working people's actions, see Eric Rothenbuhler, "The Liminal fight: mass strikes as ritual and interpretation," in Jeffrey C. Alexander, ed., Durkheimian Sociology: Cultural Studies (Cambridge, 1988), 66-89. Thomas Guglielmo's recent book, White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890-1945 (Oxford, 2003), also revises Barrett and Roediger's thesis. Distinguishing between "race" and "color," Guglielmo argues that Italians in the US were never consistently perceived as non-white but that they were, nonetheless, perceived as racially inferior. His argument is quite persuasive for Chicago, but in the highly stratified environment of the US Canal Zone things played out rather differently. Southern Europeans were clearly classified as inferior and this involved a racial judgment as well as judgments about nationality, ethnicity, class, and imperial status.
12. This article has been influenced by in James R. Barrett and David Roediger's "Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History (Spring 1997), 3-44. My perception of Spanish workers is very close to their notion of "inbetween-ness." With the concept of liminality, however, I hope to highlight the mutability of Spaniards' position and also detach it from purely racial considerations. Spaniards' marginalization was linked closely not only to race but also to nationality and their position in an imperial world. On liminality, see Victor Turner, The Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual (Ithaca, 1967), especially Chapter Four, "Betwixt and Between: The Liminal Period in Rites de Passage," 93-111; for useful discussions of Turner's concept see Brian Morris, Anthropological Studies of Religion: An Introductory Text (Cambridge, 1987), especially 252-63; and Donald Weber, "From Limen to Border: A Meditation on the Legacy of Victor Turner for American Cultural Studies," American Quarterly, 47 (3), Sept. 1995, 525-36. For a rather different way of using liminality to understand working people's actions, see Eric Rothenbuhler, "The Liminal fight: mass strikes as ritual and interpretation," in Jeffrey C. Alexander, ed., Durkheimian Sociology: Cultural Studies (Cambridge, 1988), 66-89. Thomas Guglielmo's recent book, White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890-1945 (Oxford, 2003), also revises Barrett and Roediger's thesis. Distinguishing between "race" and "color," Guglielmo argues that Italians in the US were never consistently perceived as non-white but that they were, nonetheless, perceived as racially inferior. His argument is quite persuasive for Chicago, but in the highly stratified environment of the US Canal Zone things played out rather differently. Southern Europeans were clearly classified as inferior and this involved a racial judgment as well as judgments about nationality, ethnicity, class, and imperial status.
13. This article has been influenced by in James R. Barrett and David Roediger's "Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History (Spring 1997), 3-44. My perception of Spanish workers is very close to their notion of "inbetween-ness." With the concept of liminality, however, I hope to highlight the mutability of Spaniards' position and also detach it from purely racial considerations. Spaniards' marginalization was linked closely not only to race but also to nationality and their position in an imperial world. On liminality, see Victor Turner, The Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual (Ithaca, 1967), especially Chapter Four, "Betwixt and Between: The Liminal Period in Rites de Passage," 93-111; for useful discussions of Turner's concept see Brian Morris, Anthropological Studies of Religion: An Introductory Text (Cambridge, 1987), especially 252-63; and Donald Weber, "From Limen to Border: A Meditation on the Legacy of Victor Turner for American Cultural Studies," American Quarterly, 47 (3), Sept. 1995, 525-36. For a rather different way of using liminality to understand working people's actions, see Eric Rothenbuhler, "The Liminal fight: mass strikes as ritual and interpretation," in Jeffrey C. Alexander, ed., Durkheimian Sociology: Cultural Studies (Cambridge, 1988), 66-89. Thomas Guglielmo's recent book, White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890-1945 (Oxford, 2003), also revises Barrett and Roediger's thesis. Distinguishing between "race" and "color," Guglielmo argues that Italians in the US were never consistently perceived as non-white but that they were, nonetheless, perceived as racially inferior. His argument is quite persuasive for Chicago, but in the highly stratified environment of the US Canal Zone things played out rather differently. Southern Europeans were clearly classified as inferior and this involved a racial judgment as well as judgments about nationality, ethnicity, class, and imperial status.
14. This article has been influenced by in James R. Barrett and David Roediger's "Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History (Spring 1997), 3-44. My perception of Spanish workers is very close to their notion of "inbetween-ness." With the concept of liminality, however, I hope to highlight the mutability of Spaniards' position and also detach it from purely racial considerations. Spaniards' marginalization was linked closely not only to race but also to nationality and their position in an imperial world. On liminality, see Victor Turner, The Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual (Ithaca, 1967), especially Chapter Four, "Betwixt and Between: The Liminal Period in Rites de Passage," 93-111; for useful discussions of Turner's concept see Brian Morris, Anthropological Studies of Religion: An Introductory Text (Cambridge, 1987), especially 252-63; and Donald Weber, "From Limen to Border: A Meditation on the Legacy of Victor Turner for American Cultural Studies," American Quarterly, 47 (3), Sept. 1995, 525-36. For a rather different way of using liminality to understand working people's actions, see Eric Rothenbuhler, "The Liminal fight: mass strikes as ritual and interpretation," in Jeffrey C. Alexander, ed., Durkheimian Sociology: Cultural Studies (Cambridge, 1988), 66-89. Thomas Guglielmo's recent book, White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890-1945 (Oxford, 2003), also revises Barrett and Roediger's thesis. Distinguishing between "race" and "color," Guglielmo argues that Italians in the US were never consistently perceived as non-white but that they were, nonetheless, perceived as racially inferior. His argument is quite persuasive for Chicago, but in the highly stratified environment of the US Canal Zone things played out rather differently. Southern Europeans were clearly classified as inferior and this involved a racial judgment as well as judgments about nationality, ethnicity, class, and imperial status.
15. th Congress, 2d Session, Document No. 401, vol. III, (Washington, 1907) vol. 1, 47. David McCullough notes in The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870-1914 (NY, 1977) that workers came to the Zone from ninety-seven different countries around the world (471).
16. th Congress, 2d Session, Document No. 401, vol. III, (Washington, 1907) vol. 1, 47. David McCullough notes in The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870-1914 (NY, 1977) that workers came to the Zone from ninety-seven different countries around the world (471).
17. Stevens quoted in Conniff, Black Labor on the White Canal, 25.
18. th Congress, 2d Session, Document No. 539 (Washington, 1908), 7; and Quartermaster's Department, Census of the Canal Zone (Mount Hope, Canal Zone, 1912), especially 29-31.
19. th Congress, 2d Session, Document No. 539 (Washington, 1908), 7; and Quartermaster's Department, Census of the Canal Zone (Mount Hope, Canal Zone, 1912), especially 29-31.
20. th Congress, 2d Session, Document No. 539 (Washington, 1908), 7; and Quartermaster's Department, Census of the Canal Zone (Mount Hope, Canal Zone, 1912), especially 29-31.
21. David McCullough, The Path Between the Seas; Michael Conniff, Black Labor on a White Canal. 8. On efforts to police sexual relations between white men and "native or colored women," consult ICC Records, 62-B-248 Part 1, Box 364.
22. David McCullough, The Path Between the Seas; Michael Conniff, Black Labor on a White Canal. 8. On efforts to police sexual relations between white men and "native or colored women," consult ICC Records, 62-B-248 Part 1, Box 364.
23. Assistant Chief Engineer J.G. Sullivan to D.W. Bolich, Aug. 4, 1906, ICC Records, 2-F-14, "Transfers, Gold to Silver"; E.A.M. McIlvaine to Mrs. William Swiget, Jan. 1, 1916, ICC Records, 28-B-233, Part I.
24. For this and the preceding paragraph see ICC Records, 2-F-14, especially: E.S. Bisson, General Auditor, to Charles E. Magoon, Sept. 4, 1905; Assistant Chief Engineer to D.W. Bolich, August 4, 1906; M.G. Tucker, Chief Clerk to General Manager, to E.P. Shannon, Secretary to Vice President, Sept. 1, 1906; H.W. Reed to John F. Stevens, Feb. 15, 1907; Hiram J. Slifer to Major D.D. Gaillard, Feb 12, 1908.
25. During this same period diplomatic maneuvering established that Puerto Ricans, while not considered eligible for the same privileges as US citizens, would be given preference over other aliens. The government thus ensured that colonial subjects would benefit from their status. President Roosevelt's Executive Order, Feb. 8, 1908; Executive Order, by Authority of the President, Dec. 23, 1908; George Weitzel, American Charge D'Affairs, American Legation, Panama, to Goethals, Nov. 17, 1908; Goethals to Heads of Departments, Nov. 23, 1908; all preceding from ICC Records, 2-E-11, on employment of aliens. ICC Records, Isthmian Canal Commission Records, 2-F-14, especially George W. Goethals to W.W. Warwick, Nov. 16, 1909.
26. See Julie Greene, "As I am a True American: White U.S. Workers, Race, Empire, and Citizenship in the Canal Zone, 1904 to 1914," unpublished paper presented at the Organization of American Historians annual conference, Memphis, April 4, 2003.
27. th Congress, 2d Session, Document No. 401, vol. III (Washington, 1907), 2265-66 and 617; Supplement to Hearings Concerning Estimates, passim, and 347-48; Supplement to Hearings on the Panama Canal, Senate Committee on Interoceanic Canals (Washington, 1908), 52, 89.
28. th Congress, 2d Session, Document No. 401, vol. III (Washington, 1907), 2265-66 and 617; Supplement to Hearings Concerning Estimates, passim, and 347-48; Supplement to Hearings on the Panama Canal, Senate Committee on Interoceanic Canals (Washington, 1908), 52, 89.
29. th Congress, 2d Session, Document No. 401, vol. III (Washington, 1907), 2265-66 and 617; Supplement to Hearings Concerning Estimates, passim, and 347-48; Supplement to Hearings on the Panama Canal, Senate Committee on Interoceanic Canals (Washington, 1908), 52, 89.
30. Investigation of Panama Canal Matters, 616, 798; G. Bonhamy, Consulate of France, to Charles Magoon, Nov. 16, 1905, ICC Records, 2-P-69.
31. A note on terminology: the so-called "Spanish-American War" is now customarily referred to as the Spanish-American-Cuban-Filipino War. As even this cumbersome title does not fully grasp the spatial reach of this conflict (Puerto Rico, Guam, etc.), I refer to it simply as the War of 1898.
32. On Spaniards in Cuba, see Louis A. Pérez, Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution (Oxford, 1988); Ada Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba: Race, Nation, and Revolution, 1868-1898 (Chapel Hill, 1999); Joan Casanovas, Bread, or Bullets! Urban Labor and Spanish Colonialism in Cuba, 1850-1898 (Pittsburgh, 1998); Jackson Smith, "European Labor on the Isthmian Canal," March 25, 1907, ICC Records, 2-E-3.
33. On Spaniards in Cuba, see Louis A. Pérez, Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution (Oxford, 1988); Ada Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba: Race, Nation, and Revolution, 1868-1898 (Chapel Hill, 1999); Joan Casanovas, Bread, or Bullets! Urban Labor and Spanish Colonialism in Cuba, 1850-1898 (Pittsburgh, 1998); Jackson Smith, "European Labor on the Isthmian Canal," March 25, 1907, ICC Records, 2-E-3.
34. On Spaniards in Cuba, see Louis A. Pérez, Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution (Oxford, 1988); Ada Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba: Race, Nation, and Revolution, 1868-1898 (Chapel Hill, 1999); Joan Casanovas, Bread, or Bullets! Urban Labor and Spanish Colonialism in Cuba, 1850-1898 (Pittsburgh, 1998); Jackson Smith, "European Labor on the Isthmian Canal," March 25, 1907, ICC Records, 2-E-3.
35. On Spaniards in Cuba, see Louis A. Pérez, Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution (Oxford, 1988); Ada Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba: Race, Nation, and Revolution, 1868-1898 (Chapel Hill, 1999); Joan Casanovas, Bread, or Bullets! Urban Labor and Spanish Colonialism in Cuba, 1850-1898 (Pittsburgh, 1998); Jackson Smith, "European Labor on the Isthmian Canal," March 25, 1907, ICC Records, 2-E-3.
36. See Jackson Smith, "European Labor on the Isthmian Canal," March 25, 1907, ICC Records, 2-E-3; Census of the Canal Zone, 30; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers: Spanish Immigrants in Buenos Aires, 1850-1930 (Berkeley, 1998); Salvador Palazón, Los Espanoles en America Latino, 1850-1990 (Madrid, 1995), 130-34; Walter Nugent, Crossings: The Great Transatlantic Migrations, 1870-1914 (Bloomington, IN, 1992), 101-105; Adrian Schubert, A Social History of Modern Spain (London, 1990); Yolanda Marco Serra, Los obreros espanoles en la construcción del Canal de Panama: la emigración espanola hacia Panamá vista a través de la prensa espanola (Panamá, 1997).
37. See Jackson Smith, "European Labor on the Isthmian Canal," March 25, 1907, ICC Records, 2-E-3; Census of the Canal Zone, 30; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers: Spanish Immigrants in Buenos Aires, 1850-1930 (Berkeley, 1998); Salvador Palazón, Los Espanoles en America Latino, 1850-1990 (Madrid, 1995), 130-34; Walter Nugent, Crossings: The Great Transatlantic Migrations, 1870-1914 (Bloomington, IN, 1992), 101-105; Adrian Schubert, A Social History of Modern Spain (London, 1990); Yolanda Marco Serra, Los obreros espanoles en la construcción del Canal de Panama: la emigración espanola hacia Panamá vista a través de la prensa espanola (Panamá, 1997).
38. See Jackson Smith, "European Labor on the Isthmian Canal," March 25, 1907, ICC Records, 2-E-3; Census of the Canal Zone, 30; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers: Spanish Immigrants in Buenos Aires, 1850-1930 (Berkeley, 1998); Salvador Palazón, Los Espanoles en America Latino, 1850-1990 (Madrid, 1995), 130-34; Walter Nugent, Crossings: The Great Transatlantic Migrations, 1870-1914 (Bloomington, IN, 1992), 101-105; Adrian Schubert, A Social History of Modern Spain (London, 1990); Yolanda Marco Serra, Los obreros espanoles en la construcción del Canal de Panama: la emigración espanola hacia Panamá vista a través de la prensa espanola (Panamá, 1997).
39. See Jackson Smith, "European Labor on the Isthmian Canal," March 25, 1907, ICC Records, 2-E-3; Census of the Canal Zone, 30; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers: Spanish Immigrants in Buenos Aires, 1850-1930 (Berkeley, 1998); Salvador Palazón, Los Espanoles en America Latino, 1850-1990 (Madrid, 1995), 130-34; Walter Nugent, Crossings: The Great Transatlantic Migrations, 1870-1914 (Bloomington, IN, 1992), 101-105; Adrian Schubert, A Social History of Modern Spain (London, 1990); Yolanda Marco Serra, Los obreros espanoles en la construcción del Canal de Panama: la emigración espanola hacia Panamá vista a través de la prensa espanola (Panamá, 1997).
40. See Jackson Smith, "European Labor on the Isthmian Canal," March 25, 1907, ICC Records, 2-E-3; Census of the Canal Zone, 30; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers: Spanish Immigrants in Buenos Aires, 1850-1930 (Berkeley, 1998); Salvador Palazón, Los Espanoles en America Latino, 1850-1990 (Madrid, 1995), 130-34; Walter Nugent, Crossings: The Great Transatlantic Migrations, 1870-1914 (Bloomington, IN, 1992), 101-105; Adrian Schubert, A Social History of Modern Spain (London, 1990); Yolanda Marco Serra, Los obreros espanoles en la construcción del Canal de Panama: la emigración espanola hacia Panamá vista a través de la prensa espanola (Panamá, 1997).
41. See Jackson Smith, "European Labor on the Isthmian Canal," March 25, 1907, ICC Records, 2-E-3; Census of the Canal Zone, 30; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers: Spanish Immigrants in Buenos Aires, 1850-1930 (Berkeley, 1998); Salvador Palazón, Los Espanoles en America Latino, 1850-1990 (Madrid, 1995), 130-34; Walter Nugent, Crossings: The Great Transatlantic Migrations, 1870-1914 (Bloomington, IN, 1992), 101-105; Adrian Schubert, A Social History of Modern Spain (London, 1990); Yolanda Marco Serra, Los obreros espanoles en la construcción del Canal de Panama: la emigración espanola hacia Panamá vista a través de la prensa espanola (Panamá, 1997).
42. See Jackson Smith, "European Labor on the Isthmian Canal," March 25, 1907, ICC Records, 2-E-3; Census of the Canal Zone, 30; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers: Spanish Immigrants in Buenos Aires, 1850-1930 (Berkeley, 1998); Salvador Palazón, Los Espanoles en America Latino, 1850-1990 (Madrid, 1995), 130-34; Walter Nugent, Crossings: The Great Transatlantic Migrations, 1870-1914 (Bloomington, IN, 1992), 101-105; Adrian Schubert, A Social History of Modern Spain (London, 1990); Yolanda Marco Serra, Los obreros espanoles en la construcción del Canal de Panama: la emigración espanola hacia Panamá vista a través de la prensa espanola (Panamá, 1997).
43. Gertrude Beeks, "Report for the National Civic Federation," issued to William H. Taft, Jan. 28, 1908, especially pp. 43-46, ICC Records, 28-A-5; and "Statements made by a Delegation of European Laborers," Aug. 9, 1911, ICC Records, 2-P-59.
44. Gertrude Beeks, "Report for the National Civic Federation," issued to William H. Taft, Jan. 28, 1908, especially pp. 43-46, ICC Records, 28-A-5; and "Statements made by a Delegation of European Laborers," Aug. 9, 1911, ICC Records, 2-P-59.
45. The Assistant Chief Engineer referred to Europeans as semi-white in a letter to D.W. Bolich, August 4, 1906, ICC Records, 2-F-14: "The point that I have always maintained is that in deciding whether or not a white foreigner, or semi-white foreigner (Dago) should be put on a gold basis is the fact as to whether or not they would take or whether or not they need, a trip to the States every year. We know that many of these men who have always lived in the tropics, or that come from warm climates, do not require a trip to the States, nor would they take it if they were given the opportunity. They would simply lay around the Isthmus and be less efficient for work when their vacation was over than they were when it started." For an example where Spaniards are unambiguously referred to as white, see Acting Chief of Police to Commanding Officer, Culebra, Feb. 25, 1909, ICC Records, 2-P-59.
46. . Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham, NC, 1993), especially the article by Amy Kaplan, "Black and Blue on San Juan Hill"; Theodore Roosevelt, The Rough Riders (New York, 1899).
47. . Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham, NC, 1993), especially the article by Amy Kaplan, "Black and Blue on San Juan Hill"; Theodore Roosevelt, The Rough Riders (New York, 1899).
48. Juan Potous to Joseph Blackburn, Oct. 5, 1907; G. Garibaldi to Joseph Bucklin Bishop, Oct. 16, 1907; Joseph Blackburn to Juan Potous, June 18, 1907: all ICC Records, 2-P-69. Only very rarely did the French or British Consul get involved to assist Caribbean workers, and I have seen no evidence of involvement by the Italian or Greek Consuls.
49. Spanish workmen to Juan Potous, Oct. 30, 1907; Potous to Joseph Blackburn, Oct. 31, 1907; and governmental memo, Nov. 1, 1907: all ICC Records, 2-P-69.
50. George Shanton, Chief of Police, to H.D. Reed, Executive Secretary, Feb. 26, 1907; S.B. Schenk to George Shanton, Feb. 26, 1907; Benjamin Wood to George Shanton, Dec. 13, 1906: all ICC Records, 2-P-59.
51. William Sibert to Joseph Blackburn, September 6, 1907; George Shanton to Blackburn, June 1, 1908; A.K. Evans, Zone Policeman, to George Shanton, May 2, 1907: all ICC Records, 2-P-59.
52. J.P. Cooper, Sergeant, Zone Policemen, to George Shanton, March 13, 1907; George Shanton to H.D. Reed, March 14, 1907: ICC Records, 2-P-59.
53. Clipping from the Panama Sunday Sun, March 31, 1907; Stanley Ross, Zone Policeman, to George Shanton, May 2, 1907: ICC Records, 2-P-59. 27. Sgt. Kennedy to George Shanton, Chief of Police, Feb. 25, 1909; Capt. G.A. Porter, Acting Chief of Police, to Commanding Officer of Culebra, Feb. 26, 1909; Porter to Juan Potous, Feb. 26, 1909; Charles Palacio, Zone Policeman, to Porter, Feb. 26, 1909: ICC Records, 2-P-59.
54. Memo, March 7, 1911, to Col. C.A. Devol, Chief Quartermaster; Devol to Chairman Goethals, March 17, 1911; J.B. Cooper, Zone Policeman, to Chief of Division, August 24, 1911; M.J. Thatcher to Goethals, Sept. 9, 1911; Devol to Goethals, Sept. 12, 1911; all ICC Records, 28-B-233.
55. George Shanton to Redd, Executive Secretary, April 9, 1907, forwarding a letter written by G.H. Skinner, Zone Police, ICC Records, 2-P-59.
56. Shubert, Social History of Modern Spain, 124-25.
57. Jose C. Moya found this to be the case in Argentina as well. See his Cousins and Strangers, 15.
58. On the decline of the Spanish empire and its impact on Spanish immigrants see Sebastian Balfour, The End of the Spanish Empire, 1898-1923 (Oxford, 1997); and Jordi Maluquer de Motes Bernet, Espana en la Crisis de 1898: de la gran depresión a la modernizatión económica del siglo XX (Barcelona, 1999). For the experiences of Spaniards in Cuba or Argentina, see Casanovas, Bread, or Bullets!; and Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
59. On the decline of the Spanish empire and its impact on Spanish immigrants see Sebastian Balfour, The End of the Spanish Empire, 1898-1923 (Oxford, 1997); and Jordi Maluquer de Motes Bernet, Espana en la Crisis de 1898: de la gran depresión a la modernizatión económica del siglo XX (Barcelona, 1999). For the experiences of Spaniards in Cuba or Argentina, see Casanovas, Bread, or Bullets!; and Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
60. On the decline of the Spanish empire and its impact on Spanish immigrants see Sebastian Balfour, The End of the Spanish Empire, 1898-1923 (Oxford, 1997); and Jordi Maluquer de Motes Bernet, Espana en la Crisis de 1898: de la gran depresión a la modernizatión económica del siglo XX (Barcelona, 1999). For the experiences of Spaniards in Cuba or Argentina, see Casanovas, Bread, or Bullets!; and Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
61. On the decline of the Spanish empire and its impact on Spanish immigrants see Sebastian Balfour, The End of the Spanish Empire, 1898-1923 (Oxford, 1997); and Jordi Maluquer de Motes Bernet, Espana en la Crisis de 1898: de la gran depresión a la modernizatión económica del siglo XX (Barcelona, 1999). For the experiences of Spaniards in Cuba or Argentina, see Casanovas, Bread, or Bullets!; and Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
62. See Julie Greene, "Race and the Tensions of Empire: The United States and the Construction of the Panama Canal, 1904-1914," unpublished paper presented at the Johns Hopkins Conference "Between Two Empires," November, 2000; and George Brooke to Goethals, Feb. 1, 1909, ICC Records, 2-P-49/P; Jackson Smith, memo, March 25, 1907, ICC Records, 2-E-3.
63. nd Congress, 1908, p. 90.
64. "Notes of Investigation held on Sunday, July 30, 1911, in Office of Division Engineer at Empire Regarding Complains [sic] of Spanish Laborers in Culebra District," p.6, ICC Records, 2-P-59.
65. A.S. Brouk, memo to Mr. Zinn, July 28, 1911; Petitions of the Strikers, n.d.; Jose Buigas de Dalmau, Spanish Consul, to Goethals, July 28, 1911: ICC Records, 2-P-59. Traditionally Spaniards drank only coffee at breakfast time. Prohibiting eating on the job meant they would eat nothing between 6:20 a.m., when they arrived on the job, until lunchtime at 1:00 p.m.
66. J.P. Fyffe to M.H. Thatcher, Head of Dept. of Civil Administration, Aug. 3, 1911; George Goethals, "Notice to the Spanish Laborers on Strike," Aug. 2, 1911; for the workers' petition to the government see La Asamblia A La I.C.C., n.d.; Goethals to D.D. Gaillard, Division Engineer, Aug. 7, 1911; "Notes of Investigation Held on Sunday, July 30,1911"; C.A.S. Zinn, Acting Division Engineer, to Joseph Little, Superintendent of Construction, July 31, 1911: all ICC Records, 2-P-59.
67. J.P. Fyffe to M.H. Thatcher, Head of Dept. of Civil Administration, Aug. 3, 1911; George Goethals, "Notice to the Spanish Laborers on Strike," Aug. 2, 1911; for the workers' petition to the government see La Asamblia A La I.C.C., n.d.; Goethals to D.D. Gaillard, Division Engineer, Aug. 7, 1911; "Notes of Investigation Held on Sunday, July 30,1911"; C.A.S. Zinn, Acting Division Engineer, to Joseph Little, Superintendent of Construction, July 31, 1911: all ICC Records, 2-P-59.
68. A. Cornelison to Assistant Division Engineer, August 10, 1911; Cornelison to Division Engineer, Sept. 2, 1911: both ICC Records, 2-P-59.
69. Shubert, Social History of Modern Spain (90-103, 193-96).
70. nd Edition (NY, 1963); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885-1985 (Urbana, 1987); Maxine Molyneux, "No God, No Boss, No Husband; Anarchist Feminism in Nineteenth-Century Argentina," Latin American Perspectives 13,1, Winter 1986, 119-45; Barry Carr, "Marxism and Anarchism in the Formation of the Mexican Communist Party, 1910-1919," The Hispanic American Historical Review 63,2, May 1983, 277-305; John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978); Vicente Díaz Fuentes, La close obrera: entre el anarquismo y religion (Mexico City, 1994); Anton Rosenthal, "The Arrival of the Electric Streetcar and the Conflict over Progress in Early Twentieth-Century Montevideo," Journal of Latin American Studies 27,2, May 1995, 319-41; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
71. nd Edition (NY, 1963); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885-1985 (Urbana, 1987); Maxine Molyneux, "No God, No Boss, No Husband; Anarchist Feminism in Nineteenth-Century Argentina," Latin American Perspectives 13,1, Winter 1986, 119-45; Barry Carr, "Marxism and Anarchism in the Formation of the Mexican Communist Party, 1910-1919," The Hispanic American Historical Review 63,2, May 1983, 277-305; John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978); Vicente Díaz Fuentes, La close obrera: entre el anarquismo y religion (Mexico City, 1994); Anton Rosenthal, "The Arrival of the Electric Streetcar and the Conflict over Progress in Early Twentieth-Century Montevideo," Journal of Latin American Studies 27,2, May 1995, 319-41; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
72. nd Edition (NY, 1963); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885-1985 (Urbana, 1987); Maxine Molyneux, "No God, No Boss, No Husband; Anarchist Feminism in Nineteenth-Century Argentina," Latin American Perspectives 13,1, Winter 1986, 119-45; Barry Carr, "Marxism and Anarchism in the Formation of the Mexican Communist Party, 1910-1919," The Hispanic American Historical Review 63,2, May 1983, 277-305; John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978); Vicente Díaz Fuentes, La close obrera: entre el anarquismo y religion (Mexico City, 1994); Anton Rosenthal, "The Arrival of the Electric Streetcar and the Conflict over Progress in Early Twentieth-Century Montevideo," Journal of Latin American Studies 27,2, May 1995, 319-41; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
73. nd Edition (NY, 1963); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885-1985 (Urbana, 1987); Maxine Molyneux, "No God, No Boss, No Husband; Anarchist Feminism in Nineteenth-Century Argentina," Latin American Perspectives 13,1, Winter 1986, 119-45; Barry Carr, "Marxism and Anarchism in the Formation of the Mexican Communist Party, 1910-1919," The Hispanic American Historical Review 63,2, May 1983, 277-305; John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978); Vicente Díaz Fuentes, La close obrera: entre el anarquismo y religion (Mexico City, 1994); Anton Rosenthal, "The Arrival of the Electric Streetcar and the Conflict over Progress in Early Twentieth-Century Montevideo," Journal of Latin American Studies 27,2, May 1995, 319-41; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
74. nd Edition (NY, 1963); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885-1985 (Urbana, 1987); Maxine Molyneux, "No God, No Boss, No Husband; Anarchist Feminism in Nineteenth-Century Argentina," Latin American Perspectives 13,1, Winter 1986, 119-45; Barry Carr, "Marxism and Anarchism in the Formation of the Mexican Communist Party, 1910-1919," The Hispanic American Historical Review 63,2, May 1983, 277-305; John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978); Vicente Díaz Fuentes, La close obrera: entre el anarquismo y religion (Mexico City, 1994); Anton Rosenthal, "The Arrival of the Electric Streetcar and the Conflict over Progress in Early Twentieth-Century Montevideo," Journal of Latin American Studies 27,2, May 1995, 319-41; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
75. nd Edition (NY, 1963); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885-1985 (Urbana, 1987); Maxine Molyneux, "No God, No Boss, No Husband; Anarchist Feminism in Nineteenth-Century Argentina," Latin American Perspectives 13,1, Winter 1986, 119-45; Barry Carr, "Marxism and Anarchism in the Formation of the Mexican Communist Party, 1910-1919," The Hispanic American Historical Review 63,2, May 1983, 277-305; John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978); Vicente Díaz Fuentes, La close obrera: entre el anarquismo y religion (Mexico City, 1994); Anton Rosenthal, "The Arrival of the Electric Streetcar and the Conflict over Progress in Early Twentieth-Century Montevideo," Journal of Latin American Studies 27,2, May 1995, 319-41; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
76. nd Edition (NY, 1963); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885-1985 (Urbana, 1987); Maxine Molyneux, "No God, No Boss, No Husband; Anarchist Feminism in Nineteenth-Century Argentina," Latin American Perspectives 13,1, Winter 1986, 119-45; Barry Carr, "Marxism and Anarchism in the Formation of the Mexican Communist Party, 1910-1919," The Hispanic American Historical Review 63,2, May 1983, 277-305; John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978); Vicente Díaz Fuentes, La close obrera: entre el anarquismo y religion (Mexico City, 1994); Anton Rosenthal, "The Arrival of the Electric Streetcar and the Conflict over Progress in Early Twentieth-Century Montevideo," Journal of Latin American Studies 27,2, May 1995, 319-41; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
77. nd Edition (NY, 1963); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and their Latin Neighbors in Tampa,
78. nd Edition (NY, 1963); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885-1985 (Urbana, 1987); Maxine Molyneux, "No God, No Boss, No Husband; Anarchist Feminism in Nineteenth-Century Argentina," Latin American Perspectives 13,1, Winter 1986, 119-45; Barry Carr, "Marxism and Anarchism in the Formation of the Mexican Communist Party, 1910-1919," The Hispanic American Historical Review 63,2, May 1983, 277-305; John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978); Vicente Díaz Fuentes, La close obrera: entre el anarquismo y religion (Mexico City, 1994); Anton Rosenthal, "The Arrival of the Electric Streetcar and the Conflict over Progress in Early Twentieth-Century Montevideo," Journal of Latin American Studies 27,2, May 1995, 319-41; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
79. nd Edition (NY, 1963); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885-1985 (Urbana, 1987); Maxine Molyneux, "No God, No Boss, No Husband; Anarchist Feminism in Nineteenth-Century Argentina," Latin American Perspectives 13,1, Winter 1986, 119-45; Barry Carr, "Marxism and Anarchism in the Formation of the Mexican Communist Party, 1910-1919," The Hispanic American Historical Review 63,2, May 1983, 277-305; John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978); Vicente Díaz Fuentes, La close obrera: entre el anarquismo y religion (Mexico City, 1994); Anton Rosenthal, "The Arrival of the Electric Streetcar and the Conflict over Progress in Early Twentieth-Century Montevideo," Journal of Latin American Studies 27,2, May 1995, 319-41; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
80. nd Edition (NY, 1963); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885-1985 (Urbana, 1987); Maxine Molyneux, "No God, No Boss, No Husband; Anarchist Feminism in Nineteenth-Century Argentina," Latin American Perspectives 13,1, Winter 1986, 119-45; Barry Carr, "Marxism and Anarchism in the Formation of the Mexican Communist Party, 1910-1919," The Hispanic American Historical Review 63,2, May 1983, 277-305; John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978); Vicente Díaz Fuentes, La close obrera: entre el anarquismo y religion (Mexico City, 1994); Anton Rosenthal, "The Arrival of the Electric Streetcar and the Conflict over Progress in Early Twentieth-Century Montevideo," Journal of Latin American Studies 27,2, May 1995, 319-41; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
81. nd Edition (NY, 1963); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885-1985 (Urbana, 1987); Maxine Molyneux, "No God, No Boss, No Husband; Anarchist Feminism in Nineteenth-Century Argentina," Latin American Perspectives 13,1, Winter 1986, 119-45; Barry Carr, "Marxism and Anarchism in the Formation of the Mexican Communist Party, 1910-1919," The Hispanic American Historical Review 63,2, May 1983, 277-305; John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978); Vicente Díaz Fuentes, La close obrera: entre el anarquismo y religion (Mexico City, 1994); Anton Rosenthal, "The Arrival of the Electric Streetcar and the Conflict over Progress in Early Twentieth-Century Montevideo," Journal of Latin American Studies 27,2, May 1995, 319-41; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
82. nd Edition (NY, 1963); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885-1985 (Urbana, 1987); Maxine Molyneux, "No God, No Boss, No Husband; Anarchist Feminism in Nineteenth-Century Argentina," Latin American Perspectives 13,1, Winter 1986, 119-45; Barry Carr, "Marxism and Anarchism in the Formation of the Mexican Communist Party, 1910-1919," The Hispanic American Historical Review 63,2, May 1983, 277-305; John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978); Vicente Díaz Fuentes, La close obrera: entre el anarquismo y religion (Mexico City, 1994); Anton Rosenthal, "The Arrival of the Electric Streetcar and the Conflict over Progress in Early Twentieth-Century Montevideo," Journal of Latin American Studies 27,2, May 1995, 319-41; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
83. nd Edition (NY, 1963); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885-1985 (Urbana, 1987); Maxine Molyneux, "No God, No Boss, No Husband; Anarchist Feminism in Nineteenth-Century Argentina," Latin American Perspectives 13,1, Winter 1986, 119-45; Barry Carr, "Marxism and Anarchism in the Formation of the Mexican Communist Party, 1910-1919," The Hispanic American Historical Review 63,2, May 1983, 277-305; John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978); Vicente Díaz Fuentes, La close obrera: entre el anarquismo y religion (Mexico City, 1994); Anton Rosenthal, "The Arrival of the Electric Streetcar and the Conflict over Progress in Early Twentieth-Century Montevideo," Journal of Latin American Studies 27,2, May 1995, 319-41; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
84. nd Edition (NY, 1963); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City: Italians and their Latin Neighbors in Tampa, 1885-1985 (Urbana, 1987); Maxine Molyneux, "No God, No Boss, No Husband; Anarchist Feminism in Nineteenth-Century Argentina," Latin American Perspectives 13,1, Winter 1986, 119-45; Barry Carr, "Marxism and Anarchism in the Formation of the Mexican Communist Party, 1910-1919," The Hispanic American Historical Review 63,2, May 1983, 277-305; John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978); Vicente Díaz Fuentes, La close obrera: entre el anarquismo y religion (Mexico City, 1994); Anton Rosenthal, "The Arrival of the Electric Streetcar and the Conflict over Progress in Early Twentieth-Century Montevideo," Journal of Latin American Studies 27,2, May 1995, 319-41; Jose C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers.
85. Paul Wilson to Joseph Bucklin Bishop (Secretary of the ICC), Aug. 31, 1911; William Gorgas to Goethals, Sept. 9, 1911: ICC Records, 2-P-59.
86. Wilson to Bishop, Aug. 31, 1911; Corporal #5, Zone Police, to Chief of Police, Sept. 19, 1911; Father Collins to Goethals, Oct. 13, 1911: ICC Records, 2-P-59.
87. El Unico, Suplemento al número 1, Sept. 12, 1911; P.V. (Police spy) to Chief of Police, Sept. 25, 1911; F.H. Sheibley to Joseph Bucklin Bishop, Sept. 25, 1911: ICC Records, 2-P-59.
88. Father Collins to Goethals, Oct. 10, 1911; F.B. alias Punatazot to Goethals, Nov. 6, 1911; R.J. Cochran to Goethals, Oct. 24, 1911; C.A.M. to the Chairman, August 17, 1911: ICC Records, 2-P-59.
89. Father D. Quijano to Charles Mason, Sept. 26, 1911; Father Henry Collins to Goethals, Oct. 13, 1911; Gorgas to Goethals, Sept. 30, 1911; M. H. Thatcher to Goethals, Sept. 29, 1911; J.K.B. to Goethals, n.d.; Eugene T. Wilson to Acting Chairman, March 21, 1912: ICC Records, 2-P-59.