Unravelling Minangkabau Ethnicity

Itinerario

Volumn 24, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 20-43

  Andaya, Leonard Y ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 12144250400     PISSN: 01651153     EISSN: 20412827     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0165115300013000     Document Type: Article

References (143)

1. This twin concept of a Minangkabau is discussed in Tsuyoshi Kato, Matriliny and Migration: Evolving Minangkabau Traditions in Indonesia (Ithaca/London 1982).
2. See also the classic formulation of these characteristics in E. de Josselin de Jong, Minangkabau and Negri Sembilan: Socio-Political Structure in Indonesia [3rd. impression] (The Hague 1980).
3. See, for example, Joke Schrijvers and Els Postel-Coster, ‘Minangkabau Women: Change in a Matrilineal Society’, Archipel 13 (1977) 79–103.
4. Joanne Prindiville, ‘Mother, Mother's Brother, and Modernization: The Problems and Prospects of Minangkabau Matriliny in a Changing World’ in: L.L. Thomas and F. van Benda-Beckmann eds, Change and Continuity in Minangkabau (Ohio 1985) 29–45.
5. F. von Benda-Beckmann, ‘Development, Law, and Gender-skewing: An Examination of the Impact of Development on the Socio-legal Position of Indonesian Women, with Special Reference to Minangkabau’, Journal of Legal Pluralism 30/1 (1990).
6. Mayla, Stivens, ‘The Fate of Women's Land Rights: Gender, Matriliny and Capitalism in Rembau, Negri Sembilan, Malaysia’ in: H. Afshar ed., Women, Work, and Ideology in the Third World (London/New York 1985).
7. Nancy Tanner and Lynn L. Thomas, ‘Rethinking Matriliny: Decision-making and Sex Roles in Minangkabau’ in: L.L. Thomas and F. van Benda-Beckmann eds, Change and Continuity in Minangkabau (Ohio 1985) 45–73.
8. Peggy R. Sanday, ‘Androcentric and Matrifocal Gender Representations in Minangkabau Ideology’ in: Peggy R. Sanday and R.G. Goodenough eds, Beyond the Second Sex: New Directions in the Anthropology of Gender (Philadelphia 1992) 139–168.
9. Evelyn Blackwood, ‘The Politics of Daily Life: Gender, Kingship and Identity in a Minangkabau Village, West Sumatra, Indonesia’ (PhD Dissertation, Stanford University, 1993)
10. ‘Senior Women, Model Mothers, and Dutiful Wives: Managing Gender Contradictions in a Minangkabau Village’ in: A. Ong and M. Peletz eds, Bewitching Women, Pious Men: Gender and Body Politics in Southeast Asia (Berkeley 1995) 124–158.
11. Celia N.G., ‘The Weaving of Prestige: Village Women's Representations of the Social Categories of Minangkabau Society’ (PhD Dissertation, Australian National University, 1987).
12. Johanna Hendrika van Reenen, ‘Central Pillars of the House: Sisters, Wives, and Mothers in a Rural Community in Minangkabau, West Sumatra’ (PhD Dissertation, University of Leiden, 1996).
13. In 1975 a Minangkabau bibliography was compiled into disciplines and contained thirty-eight pages of entries on the economy, twenty-four on language and literature, twentythree on social and political affairs, twenty-two on law and adat law, eighteen on anthropology and culture, eight on history, eight on education, and six on religion. Asma M. Naim and Mochtar Naim eds, Bibiliografi Minangkabau (Singapore 1975).
14. For a recent attempt to provide an intertextual reading of such early and much-quoted commentators of Sumatran societies as William Marsden, History of Sumatra (Kuala Lumpur 1966)
15. John Anderson, Mission to the East Coast of Sumatra (Kuala Lumpur 1971) [orig. 1826]
16. Acheen and the Ports on the North and East Coasts of Sumatra (Kuala Lumpur 1970) [orig. 1840]
17. see Mary Catherine Quilty, Textual Empires: A Reading of Early British Histories of Southeast Asia (Clayton, Victoria 1998).
18. Adas provides a more detailed historical framework for understanding Christian Europe's perception of ‘races’ in the period of the European explorations: Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca 1989).
19. See also James A. Boon, Affinities and Extremes… East Indies History (Chicago 1990).
20. Contentious issues extend to the field of archaeology, where nationalistic governments have sought to extend the antiquity and hence prestige of dominant ethnic groups by claiming early communities found within their territories as the earliest representatives of such groups. Siân Jones, Archaeology of Ethnicity: Constructing Identities in the Past and Present (London/New York 1997) 1–10.
21. Among the most quoted classic works on the subject are Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (London 1993)
22. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger eds, Inventions of Traditions (Cambridge 1983). These spawned other studies whose main argument is that traditions are not inherited as much as manufactured and re-manufactured in accordance to the changing needs of any particular community.
23. As Eriksen so clearly explained: ‘For ethnicity to come about, the groups must have a minimum of contact with each other, and they must entertain ideas of each other as being culturally different from themselves. If these conditions are not fulfilled, there is no ethnicity, for ethnicity is essentially an aspect of a relationship, not a property of a group.’ Thomas Hyland Eriksen, Ethnicity and Nationalism: Anthropological Perspective (London/East Haven, CT 1993) 11–12 (my emphasis).
24. Frederik Barth, ‘Introduction’ in: Frederik Barth ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural Difference (Boston 1969) 9–38.
25. Joel S. Kahn, Constituting the Minangkabau: Peasants, Culture and Modernity in Colonial Indonesia (Providence/Oxford 1993) 15.
26. B. Kapferer, Legends of People, Myths of State: Violence, Intolerance, and Political Culture in Sri Lanka and Australia (Washington 1988) 211.
27. Leonard Y. Andaya, The Kingdom of Johor, 1641–1728 (Kuala Lumpur 1975) 329–332;
28. Jane Drakard, A Kingdom of Words: Language and Power in Sumatra (Kuala Lumpur 1999) 94–97.
29. See for example de Josselin de Jong's ‘supplementary notes’ to the third impression (1980) of his original work published in 1951. De Josselin de Jong, Minangkabau and Negri Sembilan, 224–225.
30. Another eighteenth-century example of the balanced tensions between the matrilineal and patrilineal principles is in the rantau area on west coast Sumatra. Kathirithamby-Wells, ‘The Inderapura Sultanate: The Foundation of its Rise and Decline from the Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries’, Indonesia 21 (1976) 73–76.
31. De Josselin de Jong, Minangkabau and Negri Sembilan, 93.
32. Kato, Matriliny and Migration, 78.
33. Fox has argued that all Austronesian-speaking societies (which includes the Minangkabau) make use of precedence as a means of social and individual differentiation. James J. Fox, ‘Austronesian Societies and Their Transformations’ in: Peter Bellwood, James J. Fox and Darrel Tryon eds, The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives (Canberra 1995) 214–228.
34. This would have encouraged ambitious individuals to found new communities and hence gain the prestige and privileges of a founder status. Peter Bellwood, ‘Hierarchy, Founder Ideology and Austronesian Expansion’ in: James J. Fox and Clifford Sather eds, Origins, Ancestry, and Alliance: Explorations in Austronesian Ethnography (Canberra 1996) 28–31.
35. Kato, Matriliny and Migration, 22, 29–31.
36. Abdullah Taufik, ‘Studi tentang Minangkabau’ in: Ahmad Ibrahim ed., Persepsi Minangkabau (Medan 1984) 192–193;
37. Tsuyoshi Kato, ‘Social Change in a Centrifugal Society: The Minangkabau of West Sumatra’ (PhD Thesis, Cornell University, 1977) v, 75. In modern Indonesia where Minangkabau in the rantau no longer regard land as of vital importance to the prosperity of the group, there has been a romanticizing of matriliny as a core definition of what it means to be Minangkabau. The tendency is particularly strong among studies on gender in Minangkabau.
38. Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago 1995) 65.
39. The people who are known as ‘Batak’ in the interior of northern Sumatra consist of a number of different groups distinguished primarily by language or dialect. On the frontiers, the Batak intermarried with neighbouring groups to form a mixed population. M. Joustra, Batakspiegel [2nd ed.] (Leiden 1926) 9. It is at these frontiers that comparative advantage plays a role in ethnic choice.
40. De Josselin de Jong, Minangkabau and Negri Sembilan, 69. A study based on a survey made in the 1970s and on statistics gathered in 1955 show the suku Malayu with the second largest representation among the Minangkabau nagari (unit of settlement consisting of the ‘mother’ village and its associated ‘children’ villages) after Caniago. One Minangkabau source even claims that the oldest suku (matrilineage) in West Sumatra is Malayu.
41. Kato, Matriliny and Migration, 80–81.
42. G.D. Willinck, Het Rechtsleven bij de Minangkabausche Maleiers (Leiden 1909) 66.
43. Numerous examples can be found in B.W. Andaya, To Live as Brothers: Southeast Sumatra in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Honolulu 1993)
44. Timothy P. Barnard, ‘Multiple Centers of Authority: Society and Environment in Siak and Eastern Sumatra, 1674–1827’ (PhD Thesis, University of Hawaii, 1998)
45. L. Andaya, Kingdom of Johor, Christine Dobbin, Islamic Revivalism in a Changing Peasant Economy (London/Malm¯o, 1983)
46. and Drakard, Kingdom of Words.
47. Willinck, Het Rechtsleven, 33–34. The mamak, or mother's brother, plays the dominant role in the lives of the kemanakan, or his sister's children. In the rantau one often finds a modification of this customary practice.
48. O.W. Wolters, The Fall of Srivijaya in Malay History (Kuala Lumpur 1970) 45, 194, fn. 9
49. Frederick Hirth and W.W. Rockhill eds, Chau ju-kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteen Centuries [reprint of 1911 edition] (New York 1966) 66, fn. 18.
50. Rouffaer argues that ‘Malaiyur’ derives from the Tamil ‘malai’, hill, and ‘ūr’, city, hence Malaiyur or Hill City. He provides no reference to his claim that the Tamils and Malays claim Jambi as a motherland. G.P. Rouffaer, ‘Was Malaka Emporium vóór 1400 AD Genaamd Malajoer’, Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsck-Indië 77 (1921) 16–18.
51. The interpretation is less well-known but more convincing than the generally-held belief that there was a military expedition sent from Java to Sumatra. This interpretation was first raised by C.C. Berg in 1951 and supported in an article written in 1985 by J.G. de Casparis. See Berg, ‘De Geschiedenis van Pril Majapahit I’, Indonesia 4 (1950–1951) 485
52. Casparis, ‘Srivijaya and Malayu’, SPAFA Final Report: SEAMEO Project in Archaeology and Fine Arts (Jakarta/Padang/Prapat/Medan 1985) 247–248.
53. C.C. Berg argues that the sending of the Amoghapasa Buddha statue to Dharmasraya was equivalent to the presenting of his real/sacred daughter Tapasi to Champa. In both cases it was a sign of great favour in the transferral of sakti or sacred power. Berg, ‘Pril Majapahit I’, 501
54. Berg ‘Pril Majapahit II’, 195.
55. The seventh-century Malay inscriptions found in Palembang, Jambi, and Bangka were all located in the confluence of rivers and landpaths or in important straits. Most were oaths intended to maintain the loyalty of the subjects through threats of supernatural punishments. Louis-Charles Damais, Bibliographie Indonésienne V, BEFEO 51/2 (1963) 555
56. L. Andaya, ‘Search’, 4–5.
57. N.J. Krom, Hindoe-Javaansche Geschiedenis (The Hague 1931) 393–394.
58. G. Coedès, The Indianized States of Southeast Asia (Honolulu 1968) 232.
59. Krom, Hindoe-Javaansche Geschiedenis, 393–394
60. Suleiman Satyawati, ‘The Archaeology and History of West Sumatra’, Bulletin of the Research Centre of Archaeology of Indonesia 12 (1977) 4.
61. Casparis points out that Indonesian names do not usually distinguish between the kingdom, its capital, and its royal residence, and so Malayu would have been retained as the name of Adityavarman's kingdom even at Pagaruyung. Casparis, Srivijaya and Malayu, 246–247.
62. Satyawati, ‘Archaeology and History’, 9–10.
63. Stuart Robson ed., Desawarnana (Nagarakrtagama) by Mpu Prapanca (Leiden 1995) 33.
64. The erection of the statue was accompanied by the dance of Adityavarman and his consort in which the former was depicted as Matanginīsa, an aspect of Amoghapasa, a demonic form of the Dhyānibuddha Amoghasiddhi. Satyawati, ‘Archaeology and History’, 3
65. Casparis, ‘Srivijaya and Malayu’, 296
66. Harry Parkin, Batak Fruit of Hindu Thought (Madras 1978) 52–57.
67. The image symbolises death and the spiritual release for the worshippers. The inspiration for the statue was clearly the Singasari court of east Java, where Adityavarman had spent some time and left an inscription in 1343. At Singasari there is a similar statue dated 1292 of the Bhairava seated on a dais surrounded by skulls, with a crown, earrings, and a necklace of skulls. Casparis, ‘Srivijaya and Malayu’, 246
68. Jan Fontein, The Sculpture of Indonesia (Washington 1990) 162–163.
69. F.M. Schnitger, Forgotten Kingdoms in Sumatra (Leiden 1964) 31.
70. This is an argument which I develop in a forthcoming article entitled, ‘The Search for the “Origins” of the Melayu’.
71. Leonard Y. Andaya, ‘Aceh's Contributions to Standards of Malayness’, forthcoming Archipel.
72. The shift from a general cultural identification to an ethnic one to gain greater access to resources and safeguard its members from perceived threats is a well-known phenomenon. For other examples, see Orlando Patterson, ‘Context and Choice in Ethnic Allegiance: A Theoretical Framework and Caribbean Case Study’ in: Nathan Glazer and Daniel P. Moynihan eds, Ethnicity: Theory and Experience (Cambridge, Mass. 1975) 305–306
73. Leong Sow-Theng, Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History: Hakkas, Pengmin, and Their Neighbors (Stanford 1997) 62–68.
74. Armando Cortesāo ed., The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires I (London 1944) 136, 161
75. Suma Oriental II, 263.
76. Drakard, Kingdom of Words, 101.
77. C.R. Boxer, Further Selections from the Tragic History of the Sea, 1559–1565 (Cambridge 1968) 98–103.
78. A. Hale, The Adventures of John Smith in Malaya, 1600–1605 (Leiden 1990) 163.
79. J.V. Mills, ‘Eredia [Emanual Godinho de]’s 1613 Description of Malaca and Meridional India and Cathay in Three Treatises’, Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 8/i (Sept. 1930) 22.
80. Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford 1986) 24.
81. The story is recorded in the Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai. See A.H. Hill ed., ‘Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai’, Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 33/2 (1960) 162–163.
82. Edwin M. Loeb, Sumatra: Its History and People (Kuala Lumpur 1972) 97.
83. Even among present-day inhabitants of Kuantan, who now view themselves as Malay, believe that the Minangkabau adat or customary practices is superior. They regard the Minangkabau uplands as a source of law, etiquette, myths, and of magical knowledge and power. Lene Ostergaard, ‘Between Minang and Malay: Intimations of Identity in Central Sumatra’, Kabar Seberang 22 (1991) 35–41.
84. Increasing contact was also taking place at the same time with the emigrating Batak communities in the north. Joustra, Batakspiegel, 20, 23–29. The period of large movements of groups in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries contributed to a stronger sense of distinct ethnicities in Sumatra.
85. Anthony Reid, Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce II (New Haven 1993).
86. Algemene Rijksarchief (ARA), VOC 1237, Verbael Bort, fols. 337, 340v. (ARA = Algemeen Rijksarchief, or the General State Archives in The Hague. VOC = Dutch East India Archives located in the General State Archives. The letters are from the section known as the Overgekomen Brieven or documents sent from Batavia to Amsterdam.)
87. J. Kathirithamby-Wells, ‘Acehnese Control over West Sumatra up to the Treaty of Painan, 1663’, Journal of Southeast Asian History 10/3 (December 1969) 476–477.
88. J.L. Basel, ‘Begin en Voortgang van onzen Handel en Voortgang op Westkust’, Tijdschrift van Nederlands-Indië 9/2 (1847) 24–26.
89. Satyawati, ‘Archaeology and History’, 3.
90. In an early nineteenth-century letter written in Malay from Pagaruyung, the term Maharajadiraja is still being used to refer to the ruler. Drakard, Kingdom of Words, 156–157, Appendix 1, 273.
91. Andaya, Kingdom of Johor, 331.
92. ARA, VOC 1272, Mission to Pagaruyung, fols. 1027r-v.
93. ARA, VOC 1272, Daily Report on Mission to Pagaruyung, fols. 1032 r-v.
94. Basel, ‘Begin en Voortgang’, 47–48.
95. ARA, VOC 1237, Verbael Bort, 31 July 1660–27 Januari1661, fol. 340v
96. ARA, VOC 1191, Truijtman, fols. 751r, 752v.
97. ‘[…] dewyl den Commandeur een beschermer myner onderdanen, ende den voeder myner heerlyckheyt is, ook om dat hy van myn aengesicht afwascht de swartigheyt daerick soo lange mede besmeth geweest.’ ARA, VOC 1272, Letter from Pagaruyung, fol. 1039.
98. Leonard Y. Andaya, The Heritage of Arung Palakka: A History of South Sulawesi (Celebes) in the Seventeenth Century (The Hague 1981) 44.
99. Drakard, Kingdom of Words, 221–229.
100. P.J. Begbie, The Malayan Peninsula (Madras 1834) 137.
101. B.W. Andaya and L.Y. Andaya, A History of Malaysia [2nd edition] (London 2000) 132. There are other examples in Sumatra where rulers were sought from Pagaruyung. Rau and Kuantan are two of the more prominent examples.
102. Begbie, Malayan Peninsula, 137.
103. Drakard, Kingdom of Words, 32–37.
104. Drakard, Kingdom of Words, 229–230. Iskandar Zul-Karnain (Alexander of the Two Horns) in Malay traditions is the legendary ‘Islamic’ hero, Alexander the Great of Macedonia.
105. While the Perso-Islamic tradition of the Romance of Alexander the Great emphasises his role as conqueror, seer, and prophet in search of the Water of Life, the crucial message is his destiny to establish a universal kingdom, a kingdom of Islam. Sanjay Subrahmanyam, ‘“Persianization” and “Mercantilism”: Two Themes in Bay of Bengal History’ in: Om Prakash and Denys Lombard eds, Commerce and Culture in the Bay of Bengal 1500–1800 (New Delhi 1999) 79–83.
106. Drakard, Kingdom of Words, 253, fn. 80.
107. Wolters argues that the compilers of the Sejarah Melayu attempted to eliminate all references to the Malayu-Jambi past in order to demonstrate an unbroken line in the Palembang-Melaka family. Wolters, Fall of Srivijaya, 94–95. The aim, I believe, was not to eradicate references to Malayu-Jambi but to appropriate the whole Sumatran tradition of Srivijaya/Malayu for itself and thus shift the centre of Malayu identity to the ‘Malay’ Peninsula.
108. W.G. Shellabear ed., Sejarah Melayu (Kuala Lumpur 1967) 31, 37.
109. Marsden, History of Sumatra, 40–41.
110. C. van Angelbeek, ‘Korte schets van het Eiland Lingga en Desselfs Bewoners’, Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen 11 (1926) 18, 20
111. T.J. Newbold, British Settlements in the Straits of Malacca I (Kuala Lumpur 1971) 215–216
112. R.J. Wilkinson, ‘Malay Adat Laws [1908]’ in: M.B. Hooker ed., Readings in Malay Adat Laws (Singapore 1970) 7.
113. Basel, ‘Begin en Voortgang’, 65–66, 76–79, 81, 87
114. W.P.H. Coolhaas ed., Generale Missiven van Gouverneurs-Generaal en Raden aan Heren XVII der Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie VII (1713–1725) (The Hague 1979) 15.
115. ARA, VOC 1895, Malacca 30 January 1718, fols. 55–6
116. Andaya, Kingdom of Johor, 251–252.
117. Barnard, ‘Multiple Centers’
118. Drakard, Kingdom of Words, 196–200;
119. Andaya, Kingdom of Johor, ch. 9.
120. This manuscript, Cod. Or. 7304 from the Leiden University Library, is a version of the Sejarah Melayu, with an entire new section devoted to the kingdom of Siak. It has been called Hikayat Siak, or the Siak Chronicles, because of its Siak viewpoint. A romanised version of the text was published in 1992. See Muhammad Yusoff Hashim ed., Hikayat Siak (Kuala Lumpur 1992).
121. In Asahan there is a tradition of the father of the founder of the Asahan kingdom being a child born of a princess impregnated and then given away by the ruler of Aceh. Once the child is born, a member of the royal family in Pagaruyung is brought to Asahan to raise the child. C.A. Kroesen, ‘Geschiedenis van Asahan’, Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-,Land- en Volkenkunde 31 (1886) 87–88. Pagaruyung was obviously regarded as the source of great legitimizing power which enabled these ‘fatherless’ children to be enveloped into the parentship/guardianship of Pagaruyung's rulers.
122. The Malay for the ‘skins of lice’ is kulit tuma. Leyds suggests that this was a misreading of kulit umo, not tumo (-a). Umo, he was told, was a cat-sized animal once found everywhere in the forests. It had a thin skin which tore at the slightest contact. Leyds identified it as the Sumatran hare (Neosolagus Nescheri). W.J. Leyds, ‘Larassen in Minangkabau’, Koloniale Studiën 10/10, i (1926) 401.
123. Muhammad Yusoff ed., Hikayat Siak, 111–127;
124. Andaya, Kingdom of Johor, 258–265.
125. Ernst Ulrich Kratz ed., Peringatan Sejarah Negeri Johor (Wiesbaden 1973) 50.
126. There was an ancient personal relationship established between the Melaka-Johor royal family and the Orang Laut, which may even stem from the days of Srivijaya. Andaya, Kingdom of Johor, 46–50;
127. Wolters, Fall of Srivijaya, 46, 124.
128. Andaya, Kingdom of Johor, ch. 9.
129. ARA, VOC 1557, Jambi 6 November 1694, fol. 147v. Commenting on events in the late seventeenth century, Valentijn believed that the name ‘Andelis’ was the local name for the island which Europeans called Sumatra. François Valentijn, Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indiën V (1726) (Dordrecht 1724–1726) 2.
130. A letter from the king of Jambi in 1694 informed the Dutch that tlie ruler of Pagaruyung was present to witness the establishing of peace between the warring Jambi and Minangkabau communities in the upper reaches of the Batang Hari river in Jambi. ARA, VOC 1557, Jambi 1 April 1694, fols. 35–36.
131. ARA, VOC 1609, Jambi 28 October 1698. fol. 20.
132. Andaya, Kingdom of Johor, 252
133. Muhammad Yusoff Hashim, Hikayat Siak, 122
134. Drakard, Kingdom of Words, 199–200.
135. Drakard, Kingdom of Words, 233.
136. Willinck, Het Rechtsleven, 69.
137. B. Andaya, To Live as Brothers, 133, 140, passim
138. ARA, VOC 1557, Jambi 15 March 1694, fol. 51v
139. VOC 1596, Jambi 28 January 1697, fol. 33.
140. At this time there was also a growing sense of belonging to a third major grouping, the Batak, as a result of migrations and confrontations with communities of Minangkabau, Malayu, and Acehnese. Marsden, History of Sumatra, 365
141. Joustra, Batakspiegel, 19–31;
142. Lance Castles, ‘The Political Life of a Sumatran Residency: Tapanuli 1915–1940’ (PhD Dissertation, Yale University, 1972) 4–6.
143. Anon., ‘Mededelingen … Kwantan’, Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 36 (1893) 130.