The development of sex typing in middle childhood

Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development

Volumn 58, Issue 2, 1993, Pages

  Serbin, Lisa A ^a   Powlishta, Kimberly K ^a   Gulko, Judith ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CHILD; CHILD PARENT RELATION; EGO DEVELOPMENT; FEMALE; GENDER IDENTITY; HUMAN; MALE; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT; SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIALIZATION; SOCIOECONOMICS;

CHILD; FEMALE; GENDER IDENTITY; HUMANS; MALE; PARENTING; PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT; PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT; SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT; SOCIALIZATION; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS; STEREOTYPING;

EID: 12044250163     PISSN: 0037976X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/1166118     Document Type: Article

References (165)

1. Albert, A. A., & Porter, J. R. (1983). Age patterns in the development of children's gender-role stereotypes. Sex Roles, 9, 59-67.
2. Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
3. Ashmore, R. D., Del Boca, F. K., & Wohlers, A. J. (1986). Gender stereotypes. In R. D. Ashmore & F. K. Del Boca (Eds.), The social psychology of female-male relations: A critical analysis of central concepts. Orlando, FL: Academic.
4. Baruch, G. K., & Barnett, R. C. (1981). Fathers' participation in the care of their preschool children. Sex Roles, 7, 1043-1055.
5. Beauvais, C., & Spence, J. T. (1987). Gender, prejudice, and categorization. Sex Roles, 16, 89-100.
6. Beere, C. A. (1990). Gender roles: A handbook of tests and measures. New York: Greenwood.
7. Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88, 354-364.
8. Bem, S. L. (1989). Genital knowledge and gender constancy in preschool children. Child Development, 60, 649-662.
9. Berndt, T. J., & Heller, K. A. (1986). Gender stereotypes and social inferences: A developmental study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 889-898.
10. Best, D. L. (1982). An overview of findings from children studies of sex-trait stereotypes in 23 countries. In R. Roth, H. S. Asthana, D. Sinha, & J. B. H. Sinha (Eds.), Diversity and unity in cross-cultural psychology. Amsterdam: Swets.
11. Best, D. L., Williams, J. E., Cloud, J. M., Davis, S. W., Robertson, L. S., Edwards, J. R., Giles, H., & Fowles, J. (1977). Development of sex-trait stereotypes among young children in the United States, England, and Ireland. Child Development, 48, 1375-1384.
12. Biernat, M., & Wortman, C. B. (1991). Sharing of home responsibilities between professionally employed women and their husbands. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 844-860.
13. Blakemore, J. K. O., LaRue, A. A., & Olejnik, A. B. (1979). Sex-appropriate toy preference and the ability to conceptualize toys as sex-role related. Developmental Psychology, 15, 339-340.
14. Blaske, D. M. (1984). Occupational sex-typing by kindergarten and fourth-grade children. Psychological Reports. 54, 795-801.
15. Block, J. (1976). Debatable conclusions about sex differences. Contemporary Psychology, 21, 517-522.
16. Block, J., Denker, E. R., & Tittle, C. K. (1981). Perceived influences on career choices of eleventh graders: Sex, SES, arid ethnic group comparisons. Sex Roles, 7, 895-904.
17. Brenes, M. E., Eisenberg, N., & Helmstadter, G. C. (1985). Sex role development of preschoolers from two-parent and one-parent families. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 31, 33-46.
18. Brewer, M. B., Ho, H., Lee, J., & Miller, N. (1987). Social identity and social distance among Hong Kong school children. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 13, 156-165.
19. Brewer, M. B., & Kramer, R. M. (1985). The psychology of intergroup attitudes and behavior. Annual Reviews of Psychology, 36, 219-243.
20. Brinn, J., Kraemer, K., Warm, J. S., & Paludi, M. A. (1984). Sex-role preferences in four age levels. Sex Roles, 11, 901-910.
21. Cameron, E., Eisenberg, N., & Tryon, K. (1985). The relations between sex-typed play and preschoolers' social behavior. Sex Roles, 12, 601-615.
22. Campbell, S. M., & Hyde, J. S. (1986). The doctor was a nurse: Gender schemas, children's memory, adrogyny, and gender constancy. Unpublished manuscript, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
23. Cann, A., & Palmer, S. (1986). Children's assumptions about the generalizability of sex-typed abilities. Sex Roles, 15, 551-558.
24. Carpenter, C. J., Huston, A. C., & Holt, W. (1986). Modification of preschool sex-typed behaviors by participation in adult-structured activities. Sex Roles, 14, 603-615.
25. Carpenter, C. J., & Huston-Stein, A. (1980). Activity structure and sex-typed behavior in preschool children. Child Development, 51, 862-872.
26. Carter, D. B., & Levy, G. D. (1988). Cognitive aspects of early sex-role development: The influence of gender schemas on preschoolers' memories and preferences for sex-typed toys and activities. Child Development, 59, 782-792.
27. Carter, D. B., & Patterson, C. J. (1982). Sex roles as social conventions: The development of children's conceptions of sex-role stereotypes. Developmental Psychology, 18, 812-824.
28. Charlesworth, W. R., & Dzur, C. (1987). Gender comparisons of preschoolers' behavior and resource utilization in group problem-solving. Child Development, 58, 191-200.
29. Charlesworth, W. R., & LaFreniere, P. (1983). Dominance, friendship, and resource utilization in preschool children's groups. Ethology and Sociobiology, 4, 15-26.
30. Cobb, N. J., Stevens-Long, J., & Goldstein, S. (1982). The influence of televised models on toy preference in children. Sex Roles, 8, 1075-1080.
31. Coker, D. R. (1984). The relationship among gender concepts and cognitive maturity in preschool children. Sex Roles, 10, 19-31.
32. Connor, J. M., & Serbin, L. A. (1977). Behaviorally based masculine- and feminine-activity-preference scales for preschoolers: Correlates with other classroom behaviors and cognitive tests. Child Development, 48, 1411-1416.
33. Cordua, G. D., McGraw, K. O., & Drabman, R. S. (1979). Doctor or nurse: Children's perception of sex typed occupations. Child Development, 50, 590-593.
34. Cowan, G., & Hoffman, C. D. (1986). Gender stereotyping in young children: Evidence to support a concept-learning approach. Sex Roles, 14, 211-224.
35. Damon, W. (1977). The social world of the child. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
36. Deaux, K., & Lewis, L. L. (1984). Structure of gender stereotypes: Interrelationships among components and gender label. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 991-1004.
37. Deaux, K., & Major, B. (1987). Putting gender into context: An interactive model of gender-related behavior. Psychological Review, 94, 369-389.
38. DeLucia, L. A. (1963). The toy preference test: A measure of sex-role identification. Child Development, 34, 107-117.
39. Deschamps, J. C., & Doise, W. (1978). Crossed category memberships in intergroup relations. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Differentiation between social groups. London: Academic.
40. Dion, K. L. (1979). Status equity, sex composition of group, and intergroup bias. Social Psychology Bulletin. 5, 240-244.
41. Douthitt, R. A. (1989). The division of labor within the home: Have gender roles changed? Sex Roles, 20, 693-704.
42. Downs, A. C., & Langlois. J. H. (1988). Sex typing: Construct and measurement issues. Sex Roles. 18, 87-100.
43. Drake, C. T., & McDougall, D. (1977). Effects of the absence of a father and other male models on the development of boys' sex roles. Developmental Psychology. 13, 537-538.
44. Edelbrock, C., & Sugawara, A. I. (1978). Acquisition of sex-typed preferences in preschool-aged children. Developmental Psychology, 14, 614-623.
45. Eisenberg. N., Murray, E., & Hite, T. (1982). Children's reasoning regarding sex-typed toy choices. Child Development, 53, 81-86.
46. Eisenberg, N., Tryon, K., & Cameron, E. (1984). The relation of preschoolers' social interaction to their sex-typed toy choices. Child Development, 55, 1044-1050.
47. Emmerich, W., Goldman, K. S., Kirsh, B., & Sharabany, R. (1977). Evidence for a transitional phase in the development of gender constancy. Child Development. 48, 930-936.
48. Emmerich, W., & Shepard, K. (1982). Development of sex-differentiated preferences during late childhood and adolescence. Developmental Psychology. 18(3), 406-417.
49. Etaugh, C., & Riley, S. (1979). Knowledge of sex stereotypes in preschool children. Psychological Reports, 44, 1279-1282.
50. Fagan, J. F., & Shepherd, P. A. (1981). Theoretical issues in the early development of visual perception. In M. Lewis & L. Taft (Eds.), Developmental disabilities in preschool children. New York: Spectrum.
51. Fagan, J. P., III., & Singer, L. T. (1979). The role of simple feature differences in infants' recognition of faces. Infant Behavior and Development, 2, 39-45.
52. Fagot, B. I. (1974). Sex differences in toddlers' behavior and parental reaction. Developmental Psychology, 10, 554-558.
53. Fagot, B. I. (1985). Changes in thinking about early sex role development. Developmental Review, 5, 83-98.
54. Fagot, B. I., & Leinbach, M. D. (1989). The young child's gender schema: Environmental input, internal organization. Child Development, 60, 663-672.
55. Fagot. B. I., Leinbach, M. D., & Hagan, R. (1986). Gender labeling and the adoption of sex-typed behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 22, 440-443.
56. Fein, G., Johnson, D., Kosson, N., Stork, L., & Wasserman, L. (1975). Sex stereotypes and preferences in the toy choices of 20-month-old boys and girls. Developmental Psychology, 11, 527-528.
57. Florentine, R. (1988). Increasing similarity in the values and life plans of male and female college students? Evidence and implications. Sex Roles, 18, 143-158.
58. Flavell, J. H. (1985). Cognitive development (2d ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
59. Frable, D. E. S., & Bem, S. L. (1985). If you are gender schematic, all members of the opposite sex look alike. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 49, 459-468.
60. Garrett, C. S., Ein, P. L., & Tremaine, L. (1977). The development of gender stereotyping of adult occupation in elementary school children. Child Development, 48, 507-512.
61. Gelman, S., Collman, P., & Maccoby, E. (1986). Inferring properties from categories versus inferring categories from properties: The case of gender. Child Development. 57, 396-404.
62. Gold, D., & Andres, D. (1978). Development comparisons between ten-year-old children with employed and nonemploved mothers. Child Development, 49, 75-84.
63. Goldschmid, M. (1967). Different types of conservation and nonconservation and their relation to age, IQ, MA, and vocabulary. Child Development. 38, 1229-1246.
64. Goldschmid, M., &: Bentler, P. (1968). Concept assessment kit - conservation. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Service.
65. Greeno, C. G. (1989). Gender differences in children's proximity to adults. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University.
66. Gulko, J. (1985). A study of cognitive and affective aspects of sex-typed processing in children. Unpublished master's thesis, Concordia University, Montreal.
67. Gulko, J., Doyle, A. B., Serbin, L. A., & White, D. R. (1988). Conservation skills: A replicaled study of order of acquisition at across tasks, Journal of Genetic Psychology, 149, 425-439.
68. Gulko, J., & Serbin, L., A. (1986). Cognitive and aspects of sex-typed processing in elementary school children (Research Bulletien, Vol. 4, No. 15). Montreal: Concordia University, Centre for Research in Human Development.
69. Hamilton, D. L., & Trolier, T. K. (1986). Stereotypes and stereotyping: An overview of the cognitive approach. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism. New York: Academic.
70. Hayden-Thomson, L., Rubin, K. H., & Hymel, S. (1987). Sex preferences in sociometric choices. Developmental Psychology, 23, 558-562.
71. Herzog, E. W., Enright, M., Luria, Z., & Rubin, J. Z. (1982). Do gender labels yield sex differences in performance, or is label a fable? Developmental Psychology, 18(3), 424-430.
72. Hollingshead, A. B. (1975). Four factor index of social status. Unpublished manuscript.
73. Huston, A. C. (1983). Sex typing. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed.), P. H. Mussen (Series Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. Socialization, personality, and social behavior. New York: Wiley.
74. Huston, A. C. (1985). The development of sex typing: Themes from recent research. Developmental Review, 5, 1-17.
75. Inoff, G. E., Halverson, C. F., Jr., & Pizzigati, K. A. L. (1983). The influence of sex-role stereotypes on children's self- and peer-attributions. Sex Roles, 9, 1205-1222.
76. Kail, R. V., Jr., & Levine, L. E. (1976). Encoding processes and sex-role preferences. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 21, 256-263.
77. Katz, P. A. (1986). Modification of children's gender-stereotyped behavior: General issues and research considerations. Sex Roles, 14, 591-602.
78. Katz, P. A. (1987). Variations in family constellation: Effects on gender schemata. In L. S. Liben & M. L. Signorella (Eds.), Children's gender schemata. London: Jossey-Bass.
79. Katz, P. A., & Boswell, S. L. (1986). Flexibility and traditionality in children's gender roles. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 112, 105-147.
80. Katz, P. A., & Walsh, P. V. (1991). Modification of children's gender-stereotyped behavior. Child Development, 62, 338-351.
81. Keppel, G. (1982). Design and analysis: A researcher's handbook (2d ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
82. Kohlberg, L. (1966). A cognitive-developmental analysis of children's sex-role concepts and attitudes. In E. E. Maccoby (Ed.), The development of sex differences. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
83. Kohlberg, L., & Zigler, E. (1967). The impact of cognitive maturity on the development of sex-role attitudes in the years 4 to 8. Genetic Psychology Monographis, 75, 89-165.
84. Kuhn, D., Nash, S., & Brucken, L. (1978). Sex role concepts of two- and three-year-olds. Child Development, 49, 445-451.
85. Lackey, P. N. (1989). Adults' attitudes about assignments of household chores to male and female children. Sex Roles, 20, 271-281.
86. LaFreniere, P. J., & Charlesivorth, W. R. (1987). Preschool peer status, behavior and resource utilization in a cooperative/competitive situation. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 10, 345-358.
87. LaFreniere, P., Strayer, F. F., & Gauthier, R. (1984). The emergence of same-sex preferences among preschool peers. Child Development, 55, 1958-1966.
88. Leahy, R. L., & Shirk, S. R. (1984). The development of classificatory skills and sex-trait stereotypes in children. Sex Roles, 10, 281-292.
89. Leinbach, M. D. (1990. April). Infant's use of hair and clothing cues to discriminate pictures of men and women. Paper presented at the International Conference on Infant Studies, Montreal.
90. Leinbach, M. D., & Fagot, B. I. (1986). Acquisition of gender labels: A test for toddlers. Sex Roles, 15, 655-667.
91. Levy, G. D. (1989). Relations among aspects of children's social environments, gender schematization, gender role knowledge, and flexibility. Sex Roles, 21, 803-823.
92. Liben, L. S., & Signorella, M. L. (Eds.). (1987). Children's gender schemata (New Directions for Child Development, No. 38). London: Jossey-Bass.
93. List, J. A., Collins, W. A., & Westby, S. D. (1983). Comprehension and inferences from traditional and nontraditional sex-role portrayals on television. Child Development, 54, 1579-1587.
94. Livesley, W. J., & Bromley, D. B. (1973). Person perception in childhood and adolescence. London: Wiley.
95. Lockheed, M., & Klein, S. (1985). Sex equity in classroom organization and climate. In S. Klein (Ed.), Handbook for achieving sex equity through education. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
96. Maccoby, E. E. (1988a). Gender as a social category. Developmental Psychology, 24, 755-765.
97. Maccoby, E. E. (1988b). Gender identity and sex-typed psychological functioning. Paper presented at the Kohlberg Commemorative Symposium, Harvard University.
98. Maccoby, E. E. (1988c). Gender segregation in the workplace: Continuities from childhood and adolescence to adulthood. Paper presented at the Symposium for Women, Work and Health, Stockholm.
99. Maccoby, E. E. (1990). Gender and relationships: A developmental account. American Psychologist, 45, 513-520.
100. Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin, C. N. (1974). The psychology of sex differences. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
101. Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin, C. N. (1987). Gender segregation in childhood. In H. Reese (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior. New York: Academic.
102. MacKinnon, C. E., Stoneman, Z., & Brody, G. H. (1984). The impact of maternal employment and family form on children's sex-role stereotypes and mothers' traditional attitudes, Journal of Divorce. 8, 51-60.
103. Marantz, S. A., & Mansfield, A. F. (1977). Maternal employment and the development of sex-role stereotyping in five- to eleven-year-old girls. Child Development, 48, 668-673.
104. Markus, H., Crane, M., Bernstein, S., & Siladi, M. (1982). Self-schemas and gender. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 38-50.
105. Martin, C. L. (1989). Children's use of gender-related information in making social judgments. Developmental Psychology, 25, 80-88.
106. Martin, C. L., & Halvetson, C. F., Jr. (1981). A schematic processing model of sex typing and stereotyping in children. Chid Development, 52, 1119-1134.
107. Martin, C. L. & Halverson, C. F., Jr. (1983a). The effects of sex-typing schemas on young children's memory. Child Development, 54, 563-574.
108. Martin, C. L., & Halverson, C. F., Jr. (1983b). Gender constancy: A methodological and theoretical analysis. Sex roles, 9(7), 775-790.
109. Martin, C. L., Wood, C. H., & Little, J. K. (1990), The development of gender stereotype components. Child Development, 61, 1891-1904.
110. Messick, D. M., & Mackie, D. M. (1989). Intergroup relations. Annual Review of Psychology, 40, 45-81.
111. Meyer, B. (1980). The development of girls' sex-role attitudes. Child Development, 51, 508-514.
112. Miller, A. (1984). A transitional phase in gender constancy and its relationship to cognitive level and sex identification. Child Study Journal, 13, 259-275.
113. Miller, S. M. (1975). Effects of maternal employment on sex role perception, interests, and sell-esteem in kindergarten girls. Developmental Psychology, 11, 405-406.
114. Mischel, W. (1966). A social-learning view of sex differences in behavior. In E. E. Maccoby (Ed.), The development of sex differences. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
115. Moller, L. C., Powlishta, K. K., & Serbin, L. A. (1990. November). Three theories of gender segregation: Cognitive consonance, sex-typed toy play and play style compatability. Paper presented at the thirteenth annual convention of the Société Québécoise pour la Recherche en Psychologie.
116. Montemayor, R. (1974). Children's performance in a game and their attraction to it as a function of sex-typed labels. Child Development, 45, 152-156.
117. Nadleman, L. (1974). Sex identity in American children: Memory, knowledge and preference tests. Developmental Psychology, 10(3), 413-417.
118. Nyqvist, L., Slivken, K., Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1985). Household responsibilities in middle-class couples: The contribution of demographic and personality variables. Sex Roles, 12, 15-34.
119. O'Keefe, E. S., & Hyde, J. S. (1983). The development of occupational sex-role stereo-types: The effects of gender stability and age. Sex Roles, 9, 481-492.
120. Orlofsky, J. L. (1981). Relationship between sex role attitudes and personality traits and the Sex Role Behavior Scale-1: A new measure of masculine and feminine role behaviors and interests. Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 927-940.
121. Orlofsky, J. L., Ramsden, M., & Cohen, R. (1982). Development of the Sex-Role Behavior Scale-2. Unpublished manuscript.
122. Papalia, D. E., & Tennent, S. S. (1975). Vocational aspirations in preschoolers: A manifestation of early sex role stereotyping. Sex Roles, 1, 197-199.
123. Perloff, R. M. (1977). Some antecedents of children's sex-role stereotypes. Psychological Reports, 40, 463-466.
124. Perry, D. G., & Bussey, K. (1979). Social learning theory of sex differences: Imitation is alive and well. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1699-1712.
125. Perry, D. G., White, A. J., & Perry, L. C. (1984). Does early sex typing result from children's attempts to match their behavior to sex role stereotypes? Child Development, 55, 2114-2121.
126. Piaget, J. (1928). Judgment and reasoning in the child. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
127. Piaget, J. (1983). Piaget's theory. In W. Kessen (Ed.), P. Mussen (Series Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. History, theory, and methods. New York: Wiley.
128. Poulin-Dubois, D., Serbin, L. A., Kenyon, B., & Derbyshire, A. (1991, April). Intermodal gender concepts in 12-month-old infants. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Seattle.
129. Powlishta, K. K. (1990a, June). Children's biased views of male and female traits. Paper presented at the second annual convention of the American Psychological Society, Dallas.
130. Powlishta, K. K. (1990b, May), Intergroup processes and sex-role development. Paper presented at the University of Waterloo Conference on Child Development, Waterloo, Ontario.
131. Powlishta, K. K. (1991, April). Perceived similarity among faces: Measuring gender salience. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Seattle.
132. Powlishta, K. K., & Maccoby, E. E. (1990). Resource utilization in mixed-sex dyads: The influence of adult presence and task type. Sex Role, 23, 223-240.
133. Reis, H. T., & Wright, S. (1982). Knowledge of sex-role stereotypes in children aged 3 to 5. Sex Roles, 8, 1049-1056.
134. Repetti, R. L. (1984). Determinants of children's sex stereotyping: Parental sex-role traits and television viewing. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 10, 457-468.
135. Rosenfield, D., & Stephan, W. G. (1981). Intergroup relations among children. In S. S. Brehm. S. M. Kassin, & F. X. Gibbons (Eds.), Developmental social psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.
136. Schell, R. E., & Silber, J. (1968). Sex-role discrimination among young children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 27, 379-389.
137. Serbin, L. A., Connor, J. M., Burchardt, C. J., & Citron, C. C. (1979), Effects of peer presence on sex-typing of children's play behavior. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 27, 303-309.
138. Serbin, L. A., & Sprafkin, C. (1982). Measurement of sex-typed play: A comparison between laboratory and naturalistic observation procedures. Behavioral Assessment, 4, 225-235.
139. Serbin, L. A., & Sprafkin, C. (1986). The salience of gender and the process of sex-typing in three- to seven-year-old children. Child Development, 57, 1188-1199.
140. Serbin, L., Sprafkin, C., Elman, M., & Doyle, A. B. (1984). The early development of sex differentiation patterns and social influence. Canadian Journal of Social Science. 14, 350-368.
141. Serbin, L. A., Tonick, I. J., & Sternglanz, S. H. (1977). Shaping cooperative cross-sex play, Child Development, 48, 924-929.
142. Shepard, W. O., & Hess, D. T. (1975). Attitudes in four age groups toward sex role division in adult occupations and activities, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 6, 27-39.
143. Signorella, M. L. (1987). Gender schemata: Individual differences and context effects. In L. S. Liben & M. L. Signorella (Eds.), Children's gender schemata. London: Jossey-Bass.
144. Signorella, M. L., & Liben, L. S. (1984). Recall and reconstruction of gender-related pictures: Effects of attitude, task difficulty, and age. Child Development, 55, 393-405.
145. Skrypnek, B. J., & Snyder, M. (1982). On the self-perpetuating nature of stereotypes about women and men. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 277-291.
146. Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1978). Masculinity and femininity: Their psychological dimensions, correlates, and antecedents. Austin: University of Texas Press.
147. Sprafkin, C. (1985). Gender-based processing in children: Developmental patterns and relationships with indices of sex-role acquisition. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Concordia University, Montreal.
148. Sprafkin, C., Serbin, L. A., & Elman, M. (1982). Sex-typing of play and psychosocial adjustment in young children: An empirical investigation. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 10, 559-568.
149. Stangor, C., & Ruble, D. N. (1987). Development of gender role knowledge and gender constancy. In L. S. Liben & M. I., Signorella (Eds.), Children's gender schemata London: Jossey-Bass.
150. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1983). Using multivariate statistics. New York: Harper & Row.
151. Tajfel, H. (1970. November). Experiments in intergroup discrimination. Scientific American, pp. 96-102.
152. Tajfel, H., &: Turner, J. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
153. Taylor, S. E., & Falcone, H. (1982). Cognitive bases of stereotyping: The relationship between categorization and prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 8, 426-432.
154. Taylor, S. E., Fiske, S. I., Etcoff, N. L., & Ruderman, A. J. (1978). Categorical and contextual bases of person memory and stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 37, 778-793.
155. Thompson, S. K. (1975). Gender labels and early sex role development, Child Development, 46, 339-347.
156. Trautner, H. M., Helbing, N., Sahm, W. B., & Lohaus, A. (1989, April). Beginning awareness-rigidity-flexibility: A longitudinal analysis sex-role stereotyping in 4- to 10-year-old children. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Kansas City.
157. Turiel, E. (1978). The development of concepts of social structure: Social convention. In J. Glick & K. A. Clarke-Stewart (Eds.), Studies in social and cognitive development (Vol. 1). New York: Gardner.
158. Ullian, D. Z. (1976). The development of conceptions of masculinity and femininity. In B. Lloyd & J. Archer (Eds.), Exploring sex differences. New York: Academic.
159. Urberg, K. A. (1982). The development of the concepts of masculinity and femininity in young children. Sex Roles, 8, 659-668.
160. Vener, A. M., & Snyder, C. A. (1966). The preschool child's awareness and anticipation of adult sex-roles. Sociometry, 29, 159-168.
161. Wasserman, G. A., & Stern, D. N. (1978). An early manifestation of differential behavior toward children of the same and opposite sex. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 133, 129-137.
162. Weinraub, M., Clemens, L. P., Sockloff, A., Ethridge, T., Gracely, E., & Meyers, B. (1984). The development of sex role stereotypes in the third year: Relationship to gender labeling, identity, sex-typed toy preference, and family characteristics. Child Development, 55, 1493-1503.
163. Williams, J. E., Bennett, S. M., & Best, D. L. (1975). Awareness and expression of sex stereotypes in young children. Developmental Psychology, 11, 635-642.
164. Winer, B. J. (1971). Statistical principles in experimental design. New York: McGraw-Hill.
165. Zalk, S. R., & Katz, P. A. (1978). Gender attitudes in children. Sex Roles, 4, 349-357.