Precautionary principles: A jurisdiction-free framework for decision-making under risk

Human and Experimental Toxicology

Volumn 23, Issue 12, 2004, Pages 579-600

  Ricci, Paolo F ^a   Cox Jr , Louis A ^b   MacDonald, Thomas R ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SAN FRANCISCO   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

Hormesis; Legal and scientific causation; Precautionary principles; Probabilities; Scientific and legal evidence; Value of information

Indexed keywords

BAYES THEOREM; COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS; DECISION MAKING; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; HAZARD; INFORMATION; LEGAL ASPECT; OUTCOMES RESEARCH; PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROBABILITY; QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; REVIEW; RISK; RISK ASSESSMENT; SOCIAL ASPECT; THEORETICAL MODEL;

DECISION MAKING; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH; EUROPE; HUMANS; LIABILITY, LEGAL; PUBLIC HEALTH; PUBLIC OPINION; PUBLIC POLICY; RISK MANAGEMENT; UNITED STATES;

EID: 11844269320     PISSN: 09603271     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1191/0960327104ht482oa     Document Type: Review

References (76)

1. Gifts SH. Law dictionary, third edition. Woodbury, NY: Barron's Educational Series, 1984.
2. Heisenberg W. Physics and philosophy, the revolution of modern science. New York: Harper, 1958.
3. Personal Communication with Roush R. (contact author for further details).
4. Sand PH. The precautionary principle: a European perspective. Human Ecol Bisk Assessment 2000; 6: 445-58.
5. Wagner EW. The precautionary principle and chemical regulation in the US. Human Ecol Risk Assessment 2000; 6: 459-77.
6. Applegate JS. The precautionary preference: an American perspective on the precautionary principle. Human Ecol Risk Assessment 2000; 6: 413-43.
7. Appell D. The new uncertainty principle. Scientific American, 2001: 18-19.
8. Third Ministerial Declaration on the North Sea. Third International Conference on the Protection of the North Sea, The Hague, 8 March, 1990.
9. Cal/EPA Environmental Justice Advisory Committee. Final Report: Recommendations of the Cal/EPA Advisory Committee on Environmental Justice to the Cal/ EPA Interagency Working Group on Environmental Justice. Cal/EPA: Sacramento, 2003.
10. Jordan A, O'Riordan T. The Precautionary Principle in Contemporary Environmental Policy and Politics. Wingspread Conference, Implementing the Precautionary Principle. Racine, Wisconsin, 23-25 January 1998.
11. Raiffa H, Schlaifer R. Applied statistical decision theory. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1968.
12. Lofstedt RE. Risk and regulation: boat owners' perceptions of recent anti-fouling legislation. Journal Risk Management 2001; 3: 33-46.
13. Gilboa I, Schmeidler D. A theory of case-based decisions. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2001.
14. Urbansky E. Perchlorate as an environmental contaminant. Environmental Science & Pollution Research. 2002; 9: 187-92.
15. Renner R. Another piece in the perfluorinated puzzle. Environmental Science and Technology 2004; 38: 11A-12A.
16. Christen K. Perchlorate mystery surfaces in Texas. Environmental Science and Technology 2003; 37: 367A-77A.
17. Hogue C. Scuffle over perchlorate: NAS panel hears agencies' arguments against, for EPA draft risk assessment. Chemical and Engineering News 2003; 81: 41.
18. EU, 2001.
19. Wilsher versus Essex Area Health Authority, 2 WLR 425 [1988], reconfirms the tenet that the burden of proof remains on the plaintiff.
20. Summers versus Tice, 199 P.2d. 1 (1948).
21. This "all or nothing" rule originates in Butterfield versus Forrester, 11 East 60 [1809].
22. Leyland Shipping Co. versus Norwich Union Fire Insurance Society [1918] A.C. 350, at 370.
23. In Re Polemis and Furness, Withy and Co. [1921] 3 K. B. 560.
24. Haynes versus Harwood [1935] 1 K. B. 146, at 156.
25. Yorkshire Dale Steamship Co. versus Minister of War Transport [1942] A. C. 691.
26. McGhee versus National Coal Board [1972] All ER 1008.
27. QBD (1993), Current Law 2978, The Guardian, October 15, 1993.
28. Snell v. Farrell 1990. 2 SCR 311.
29. Restatement (II) Section 431, comment a.
30. In Re Bendectin Litigation, 857 F.2d. 290 (6th Cir. 1988); Thropp versus Bache Halsey Stuart Shields Inc., 650 F.2d. 817 (6th Cir. 1981).
31. Restatement (II) Section, p. 442.
32. 458 F. Supp. 338 (S.D.N.Y., 1978).
33. Gastwirth JL. Statistical reasoning in the legal setting. Am Statistician 1992; 46: 55.
34. At 411, citing Wigmore, Evidence, (3rd ed. 1940) § 2497, p. 325.
35. At 411, citing Starkie, Law of Evidence, 9th Am. Ed. by Sharswood (1869) at 753-54.
36. At 411, citing Bentham, Rationale of Judicial Evidence, Ch. VI, 71 ff (1827).
37. Phillips I, Casewell M, Cox T, De Groot B, Friis C, Jones R et al. Does the use of antibiotics in food animals pose a risk to human health? A critical review of published data. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004; 53: 28-52.
38. Ricci PF, Gray NJ. Toxic torts and causation: towards an equitable solution in Australian law (Part I). University of New South Wales Law Journal 1998; 21: 787-809.
39. th Cir. 1991).
40. Lead Industry Assoc., Inc. versus Environmental Protection Agency 1980, 541 F2d (DC Cir.).
41. Motor Vehicle Manufacturers' Assoc. versus State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Co., 463 US 29 (1983).
42. 100 S.Ct. 2844 (1980).
43. 29 CFR 1910.1028, 52 FR 34460, 345676.
44. City of Brookings Municipal Tel. Co. versus FCC, 822 F.2d. 1153 (D.C.Cir. 1987). In Breyer SG, RB Stewart, CR Sunstein, ML Spitzer. Administrative law and regulatory policy: problems, text, and cases. New York: Aspen Law, 1999.
45. Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Corp. versus NRDC, 435 US 519 (1977), in which the Supreme Court held that the failure of an agency to include "every alternative ... regardless of uncommon or unknown" does not invalidate that agency's rulemaking.
46. Baltimore Gas & Electric Co. versus NRDC, 462 US 976 (1983).
47. Breyer SG, RB Stewart, CR Sunstein, ML Spitzer. Administrative law and regulatory policy: problems, text, and cases. New York: Aspen Law, 1999.
48. 831 F.2d. 1108 (D.C.Cir. 1987).
49. Chevron, Inc., versus NRDC, 467 US 837 (1984).
50. American Lung Assoc. versus Browner, 884 F. Sup. 345 (D. Ariz. 1994).
51. Faigman, 2000 The Law's Scientific Revolution: Reflections and Ruminations on the Law's Use of Experts in Year Seven of the Revolution, 57 Wash, and Lee L. Rev. 661 (2000).
52. 42 U.S.C. Sect. 7409(a).
53. No. 99-1257, Feb. 27, 2000.
54. FindLaw Const. Law Center (2001).
55. Van der Haegen T. EU View Of Precautionary Principle In Food Safety, European Union, Delegation of the European Commission to the United States, 2300 M Street, NW, Washington, DC, 2001.
56. Kahneman, D, Slovic, P, Tversky, A. Judgment under uncertainty: heuristics and biases. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1981.
57. Howson C, Urbach P. Scientific Reasoning: The Bayesian Approach. 2nd ed. La Salle: Open Court, 1993.
58. Sunstein CR. Risk and reason. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
59. Pearl J. Causation. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2000.
60. Miyamoto JM, Wakker P, Bleichrodt H, Peters HJM. The zero condition: a simplifying assumption in QALY measurement and multiattribute utility. Management Science 1998; 44: 839-49.
61. Arrow JK. Social choice and individual values, second edition. New York: Wiley, 1963.
62. Luce RD, Suppes P. Representational measurement theory, 2001. http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/87/04713788/0471378887.pdf.
63. Stebbing ARD. Hormesis: the stimulation of growth of low levels of inhibitors. Sci. Total Environ 1982; 22: 213-34.
64. Calabrese EJ, Baldwin LA, The frequency of dose-response in the toxicological literature. Toxicological Sciences 2001; 62: 330-38.
65. Calabrese E, Baldwin LA. The hormetic dose-response model is more common than the threshold model in toxicology. Toxicological Sciences 2003; 71: 246-50.
66. Chapman PM. The implications of hormesis to ecotoxicology and ecological risk assessment (ERA). BELLE Newsletter 2001; 10.
67. Frye versus US, 293 F. 1013 (D.C.Cir. 1923).
68. Daubert versus Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 US 579 (1993).
69. General electric Co., et al., versus Robert K. Joiner et Ux., 66 US Law Week 4036 (1997).
70. US versus Abel, 469 US 45 (1984), Beech Aircraft Corp., versus Rainey, 488 US 153 (1988) for two different holdings concerning the abuse of discretion standard.
71. We do not discuss the Federal Rules of Evidence; the cases cited give the relevant information.
72. Clement RT. Making hard decisions: an introduction to decision analysis, second edition. Boston: PWS-Kent, 1996.
73. Yokota F, Thompson KM. Value of information analysis in environmental health risk management decisions: past, present, and future. Risk Analysis 2004; 4: 635-50.
74. Cox LA Jr, Risk analysis, foundations, models and methods, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002.
75. Cox LA Jr, Popken DA. Quantifying human health risks from virginiamycin used in chickens. Risk Anal 2004; 24: 271-88.
76. Cox LA, Popken DA. Quantifying potential human health impacts of animal antibiotics: Enrofloxacin and macrolides in chickens. Forthcoming in Risk Analysis. www.sra.org/news0203.pdf, 2004.