The United States, Ethiopia and the 1963 Somali-Soviet arms deal: Containment and the balance of power dilemma in the Horn of Africa

Journal of Modern African Studies

Volumn 36, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 611-643

  Lefebvre, Jeffrey A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 11544367925     PISSN: 0022278X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0022278X98002870     Document Type: Article

References (192)

1. See Michael Beschloss. The Crisis Tears (New York, 1991), pp. 60-1. President Eisenhower was unruffled by the speech, seeing it as merely a reiteration of comments Khrushchev had made in a December 1960 declaration. President-elect Kennedy, on the other hand, saw the speech as Our clue to the Soviet Union'.
2. See Jeffrey A. Lefebvre, 'Moscow's Cold War and post-Cold War policies in Africa', in Edmond J. Keller and Donald Rothchild (eds.), Africa and the New International Order: Rethinking State Sovereignty and Regional Security (Boulder, CO, 1996), 206-26.
3. For an analysis of 'ideological' and 'pragmatic' shifts in Soviet foreign policy, see Francis Fukuyama, 'Patterns of Soviet Third World policy', Problems of Communism, 36, 5 (1987), 1-13. Soviet material on Khrushchev's 'friendly hand' policy can be found in Gordon Livermore (ed.), Soviet Foreign Policy Today, 2nd edn (Columbus, OH, 1986), pp. 1-7.
4. For an analysis of 'ideological' and 'pragmatic' shifts in Soviet foreign policy, see Francis Fukuyama, 'Patterns of Soviet Third World policy', Problems of Communism, 36, 5 (1987), 1-13. Soviet material on Khrushchev's 'friendly hand' policy can be found in Gordon Livermore (ed.), Soviet Foreign Policy Today, 2nd edn (Columbus, OH, 1986), pp. 1-7.
5. Some of the major studies that cover this period but which only briefly mention this event are Tom J. Farer, War Clouds on the Horn of Africa: The Widening Storm, (New York, and revd. edn 1979), pp. 115-16; Paul B. Henze, The Horn of Africa: From War to Peace (New York, 1991), P. 83; Jeffrey A. Lefebvre. Arms for the Horn: US Security Policy in Ethiopia and Somalia, 1353-1991 (Pittsburgh, PA, 1991), p. 113; Marina Ottaway, Soviet and American Influence in the Horn of Africa (New York, 1982), p. 28; and Robert G. Patman, The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa: The diplomacy of intervention and disengagement (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 49-50.
6. Some of the major studies that cover this period but which only briefly mention this event are Tom J. Farer, War Clouds on the Horn of Africa: The Widening Storm, (New York, and revd. edn 1979), pp. 115-16; Paul B. Henze, The Horn of Africa: From War to Peace (New York, 1991), P. 83; Jeffrey A. Lefebvre. Arms for the Horn: US Security Policy in Ethiopia and Somalia, 1353-1991 (Pittsburgh, PA, 1991), p. 113; Marina Ottaway, Soviet and American Influence in the Horn of Africa (New York, 1982), p. 28; and Robert G. Patman, The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa: The diplomacy of intervention and disengagement (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 49-50.
7. Some of the major studies that cover this period but which only briefly mention this event are Tom J. Farer, War Clouds on the Horn of Africa: The Widening Storm, (New York, and revd. edn 1979), pp. 115-16; Paul B. Henze, The Horn of Africa: From War to Peace (New York, 1991), P. 83; Jeffrey A. Lefebvre. Arms for the Horn: US Security Policy in Ethiopia and Somalia, 1353-1991 (Pittsburgh, PA, 1991), p. 113; Marina Ottaway, Soviet and American Influence in the Horn of Africa (New York, 1982), p. 28; and Robert G. Patman, The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa: The diplomacy of intervention and disengagement (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 49-50.
8. Some of the major studies that cover this period but which only briefly mention this event are Tom J. Farer, War Clouds on the Horn of Africa: The Widening Storm, (New York, and revd. edn 1979), pp. 115-16; Paul B. Henze, The Horn of Africa: From War to Peace (New York, 1991), P. 83; Jeffrey A. Lefebvre. Arms for the Horn: US Security Policy in Ethiopia and Somalia, 1353-1991 (Pittsburgh, PA, 1991), p. 113; Marina Ottaway, Soviet and American Influence in the Horn of Africa (New York, 1982), p. 28; and Robert G. Patman, The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa: The diplomacy of intervention and disengagement (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 49-50.
9. Some of the major studies that cover this period but which only briefly mention this event are Tom J. Farer, War Clouds on the Horn of Africa: The Widening Storm, (New York, and revd. edn 1979), pp. 115-16; Paul B. Henze, The Horn of Africa: From War to Peace (New York, 1991), P. 83; Jeffrey A. Lefebvre. Arms for the Horn: US Security Policy in Ethiopia and Somalia, 1353-1991 (Pittsburgh, PA, 1991), p. 113; Marina Ottaway, Soviet and American Influence in the Horn of Africa (New York, 1982), p. 28; and Robert G. Patman, The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa: The diplomacy of intervention and disengagement (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 49-50.
10. For a concise analysis of the 'balance of power', 'balance of threat', and 'bandwagoning' theories of alliance formation, see Stephen M. Walt, The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca, NY, 1987). The concept of 'omnibalancing' (balancing internal and external threats) is explained in Steven R. David, 'Explaining Third World Alignment', World Politics 43, 2 (1991), 233-56. Economic factors influencing alignment decisions are examined in Laurie A. Brand, Jordan's Inter-Arab Relations: The Political Economy of Alliance Making (New York, 1994).
11. For a concise analysis of the 'balance of power', 'balance of threat', and 'bandwagoning' theories of alliance formation, see Stephen M. Walt, The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca, NY, 1987). The concept of 'omnibalancing' (balancing internal and external threats) is explained in Steven R. David, 'Explaining Third World Alignment', World Politics 43, 2 (1991), 233-56. Economic factors influencing alignment decisions are examined in Laurie A. Brand, Jordan's Inter-Arab Relations: The Political Economy of Alliance Making (New York, 1994).
12. For a concise analysis of the 'balance of power', 'balance of threat', and 'bandwagoning' theories of alliance formation, see Stephen M. Walt, The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca, NY, 1987). The concept of 'omnibalancing' (balancing internal and external threats) is explained in Steven R. David, 'Explaining Third World Alignment', World Politics 43, 2 (1991), 233-56. Economic factors influencing alignment decisions are examined in Laurie A. Brand, Jordan's Inter-Arab Relations: The Political Economy of Alliance Making (New York, 1994).
13. Memorandum From the Secretary of State's Special Assistant (Holmes) to Secretary of State Dulles, 'Subject: Report on Africa', 6 February 1958 in FRUS, 1958-1960, Africa, pp. 1-11.
14. The ruling Christian-Amhara elite, which comprised a minority of Ethiopia's population, saw themselves as a 'Christian island in an Islamic sea'. Moreover, until the federation with Eritrea in 1952, Ethiopia had only indirect access to the Red Sea, and the main transit route, the Addis Ababa-Djbouti railway, ran close to Ogaden. Farer, War Clouds, pp. 13-16. The United States was well aware of Ethiopia's concern about the threat of hostile Muslim encirclement. See National Intelligence Estimate, NIE 76-58, 'The Outlook for the Horn of Africa', 11 November 1958 in FRUS, 1958-1960, Africa, pp. 175-7.
15. The ruling Christian-Amhara elite, which comprised a minority of Ethiopia's population, saw themselves as a 'Christian island in an Islamic sea'. Moreover, until the federation with Eritrea in 1952, Ethiopia had only indirect access to the Red Sea, and the main transit route, the Addis Ababa-Djbouti railway, ran close to Ogaden. Farer, War Clouds, pp. 13-16. The United States was well aware of Ethiopia's concern about the threat of hostile Muslim encirclement. See National Intelligence Estimate, NIE 76-58, 'The Outlook for the Horn of Africa', 11 November 1958 in FRUS, 1958-1960, Africa, pp. 175-7.
16. Farer, War Clouds, pp. 69-89.
17. John Drysdale, The Somali Dispute (New York, 1964), pp. 82-3.
18. See NIE 76-58, Outlook for the Horn of Africa'; Also see US Embassy, Addis Ababa, 'Defense Problems of Ethiopia', 12 March 1957; and International Cooperation Agency, 'Report to the President of the Vice-President's Visit to Africa', 30 January 1958 in Declassified Documents Quarterly Catalog (DDQC), 1978, (1979), 133 A.
19. See NIE 76-58, Outlook for the Horn of Africa'; Also see US Embassy, Addis Ababa, 'Defense Problems of Ethiopia', 12 March 1957; and International Cooperation Agency, 'Report to the President of the Vice-President's Visit to Africa', 30 January 1958 in Declassified Documents Quarterly Catalog (DDQC), 1978, (1979), 133 A.
20. This was the primary objective of the Ethiopian Foreign Ministry during the latter half of the 1950s. Donald Paradis, interview, Washington, DC 26 April 1982. Paradis was one of a number of American legal advisers who through the years worked for the Ethiopian government. See John Spencer, Ethiopia at Bay : A Personal Account of the Haile-Selassie Years (Algonac, MI, 1984), p. 103.
21. Washington sought to encourage Ethiopia to accept a merger of British and Italian Somalilands. The State Department also studied alternative consolidations of countries and territories in the Horn of Africa to determine which might best serve US interests, and was prepared to accept a French Somaliland move to become part of Greater Somaliland. NSC Report, NSC 5903, 'Note by the Executive Secretary to the National Security Council on US Policy Toward the Horn of Africa', 4 February 1959 in FRUS, 1958-1960, Africa, pp. 179-81.
22. Ibid.
23. See Harold Marcus, Ethiopia, Great Britain, and the United States, 1941-1974 (Berkeley, CA, 1983), pp. 102-10; and Lefebvre, Arms for the Horn, pp. 84-93 and 103-6.
24. See Harold Marcus, Ethiopia, Great Britain, and the United States, 1941-1974 (Berkeley, CA, 1983), pp. 102-10; and Lefebvre, Arms for the Horn, pp. 84-93 and 103-6.
25. NIE 76-58, Outlook for the Horn of Africa'.
26. Haile-Selassie's paranoia concerning the Somaliland issue is discussed in Spencer, Ethiopia at Bay, pp. 283-302.
27. See US Department of Defense, Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, Office of Naval Intelligence, Reply to ONI Study 4-58 - Opportunities for Communist Penetration of the Horn of Africa, 26 March 1958 in DDQC, 1981 (1982), 476 B.
28. See John Rasmusen, A History of Kagnew Station and American Forces in Eritrea (Arlington, VA, 1973), pp. 21, 27-37.
29. See Okbazghi Yohannes, Eritrea, a Pawn in World Politics (Gainesville, FL, 1991). For a account of Ethiopia's quest to gain access to the Red Sea through Eritrea see Spencer, Ethiopia at Bay, pp. 223-60.
30. See Okbazghi Yohannes, Eritrea, a Pawn in World Politics (Gainesville, FL, 1991). For a account of Ethiopia's quest to gain access to the Red Sea through Eritrea see Spencer, Ethiopia at Bay, pp. 223-60.
31. For an analysis of the 1953 arms-for-bases exchange see Lefebvre, Arms for the Horn, pp. 55-74.
32. See Rasmusen, Kagnew Station, p. 42. Also see John Spencer's testimony in US Senate, Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa, Hearings before the Subcommittee on African Affairs of the Committee on Foreign Relations, 94th Congress, 2nd session (Washington DC, 1976), p. 26.
33. See Rasmusen, Kagnew Station, p. 42. Also see John Spencer's testimony in US Senate, Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa, Hearings before the Subcommittee on African Affairs of the Committee on Foreign Relations, 94th Congress, 2nd session (Washington DC, 1976), p. 26.
34. See US House of Representatives, The Middle East, Africa, and Inter-American Affairs, vol. XVI, Selected Executive Session Hearings of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, 1951-1956 (Washington, DC, 1980), pp. 335-6.
35. Memorandum of Discussion at the 397th Meeting of the NSC, 'US Policy Toward the Horn of Africa', 26 February 1959 in FRUS, 1958-1960, Africa, pp. 181-3.
36. Ibid. Comment by Secretary of State Christian Herter.
37. See Editorial Note concerning the discussion at the 414th meeting of the NSC, 23 July 1959, FRUS, 1958-1960, Africa, pp. 185-6.
38. Ibid. According to John Spencer, Haile-Selassie's visit was prompted by US support for Great Britain's call for the union of the two Somalilands. See Spencer, Ethiopia at Bay, p. 294. Also see NSC Report, NSC 6028, Note by the Executive Secretary to the NSC on US Policy Toward the Horn of Africa, 30 December 1960, FRUS, 1958-1960, Africa, pp. 198-211.
39. Ibid. According to John Spencer, Haile-Selassie's visit was prompted by US support for Great Britain's call for the union of the two Somalilands. See Spencer, Ethiopia at Bay, p. 294. Also see NSC Report, NSC 6028, Note by the Executive Secretary to the NSC on US Policy Toward the Horn of Africa, 30 December 1960, FRUS, 1958-1960, Africa, pp. 198-211.
40. Ibid. According to John Spencer, Haile-Selassie's visit was prompted by US support for Great Britain's call for the union of the two Somalilands. See Spencer, Ethiopia at Bay, p. 294. Also see NSC Report, NSC 6028, Note by the Executive Secretary to the NSC on US Policy Toward the Horn of Africa, 30 December 1960, FRUS, 1958-1960, Africa, pp. 198-211.
41. US Department of State, Bureau of Intelligence and Research, 'The Ethiopia-Soviet Bloc Agreements: A Preliminary Appraisal', 4 September 1959, DDQC, 1980 (1981), 195 C.
42. Ibid. US officials expected several key Ethiopian government officials would 'covertly' and by 'traditional means effective in the past' prevent or impede the use of Soviet credits in sensitive political areas that might undermine US influence. Also see Discussion at the 414th meeting of the NSC, 23 July 1959.
43. Memorandum From the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (Satterthwaite) to Secretary of State Herter, 'Subject: Horn of Africa: NSC Consideration of OCB Report dated 13 July 1960', FRUS, 1958-1960, Africa, pp. 191-2.
44. Ibid.
45. For an analysis of the 1960 agreement see Lefebvre, Arms for the Horn, pp. 94-110. The meaning of this executive agreement became the subject of controversy on Capitol Hill a decade later. See US Senate, United States Security Agreements and Commitments Abroad: Ethiopia, Part 8, Hearings before the US Security Agreements and Commitments Abroad Committee of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, gist Congress, 2nd session (Washington, DC, 1970), pp. 1904-5).
46. For an analysis of the 1960 agreement see Lefebvre, Arms for the Horn, pp. 94-110. The meaning of this executive agreement became the subject of controversy on Capitol Hill a decade later. See US Senate, United States Security Agreements and Commitments Abroad: Ethiopia, Part 8, Hearings before the US Security Agreements and Commitments Abroad Committee of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, gist Congress, 2nd session (Washington, DC, 1970), pp. 1904-5).
47. Memorandum From the Director of the Executive Secretariat (Calhoun) to the President's Staff Secretary (Goodpaster), 'Subject: Ethiopian Reaction to US Aid Offers', 2 September 1960, FRUS, 1958-1960, Africa, pp. 144-5.
48. Ibid.
49. Close US-Ethiopian ties gave rise to Somali apprehensions that the US tended to favour Ethiopian designs on Somalia. NSC Report, NSC 6028, 30 December 1960.
50. National Intelligence Estimate, NIE 76-60, 'Probable Trends in the Horn of Africa', 21 June 1960, FRUS, 1958-1960, Africa, pp. 189-91.
51. Memorandum of Conference with President Eisenhower, 27 September 1960, FRUS, 1956-1960, Africa, pp. 195-7.
52. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in the Somali Republic, 12 October 1960, FRUS, 1958-1960, Africa, pp. 197-8.
53. Memorandum From the Secretary of State's Special Assistant (Holmes) to Secretary of State Dulles, 'Subject: Report on Africa', 6 February 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960, Africa, pp. 1-11.
54. For the best account and analysis of the 1960 coup attempt and US involvement see Marcus, Ethiopia, Great Britain, and the United States, pp. 114, 116-49.
55. See NSC Report, NSC 6028, 30 December 1960.
56. Ibid. Also see Note by the Executive Secretary to the NSC on US Policy Toward the Horn of Africa, FRUS, 1958-1360, Africa, pp. 198-211.
57. Ibid. Also see Note by the Executive Secretary to the NSC on US Policy Toward the Horn of Africa, FRUS, 1958-1360, Africa, pp. 198-211.
58. Special National Intelligence Estimate (SNIE 76.1-61), 'Ethiopian Prospects After the Abortive Coup', 24 January 1961, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, vol. XXI, pp. 425-8.
59. From the latter half of the 1950s most Ethiopian military demands, especially regarding air power, were kept alive by political rationales. See US Embassy, Addis Ababa, 'Defense Problems of Ethiopia', 12 March 1957, DDQC, 1978, (1979), 133 A.
60. See US Senate, Foreign Assistance and Related Agencies Appropriations for 1363. Hearings before the Committee of Appropriations, 87th Congress, 1st session (Washington, DC, 1961), p. 142.
61. See Edward Kerry's testimony in US Senate, Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa, p. 36.
62. The Africa Bureau was viewed as a 'junior partner' at the State Department, which limited its influence on policy when in conflict with senior partners such as the European Bureau. See G. Mennen Williams, Oral History (OH), John F. Kennedy Library (JFKL), Interview by William Moss, 27 January 1970. Thus, Washington deferred to Italy and Great Britain on the Somaliland question so not to upset its more important NATO allies and to avoid causing trouble in NATO. See Spencer, Ethiopia at Bay, p. 302.
63. The Africa Bureau was viewed as a 'junior partner' at the State Department, which limited its influence on policy when in conflict with senior partners such as the European Bureau. See G. Mennen Williams, Oral History (OH), John F. Kennedy Library (JFKL), Interview by William Moss, 27 January 1970. Thus, Washington deferred to Italy and Great Britain on the Somaliland question so not to upset its more important NATO allies and to avoid causing trouble in NATO. See Spencer, Ethiopia at Bay, p. 302.
64. See US Department of State, 'Guidelines for Policy and Operations - Africa', March 1962, NSF:CO: Africa, 3/62-4/62, Box 2, JFKL. Also see Letter From the Under Secretary of State (Bowles) to the Deputy Secretary of Defense (Gilpatrick), 3 May 1961, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 289-90.
65. See US Department of State, 'Guidelines for Policy and Operations - Africa', March 1962, NSF:CO: Africa, 3/62-4/62, Box 2, JFKL. Also see Letter From the Under Secretary of State (Bowles) to the Deputy Secretary of Defense (Gilpatrick), 3 May 1961, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 289-90.
66. Memorandum From Secretary of State Rusk to President Kennedy, 'Subject: Interpretation of National Security Council Policy on Africa', 15 February 1961, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 282-3; and Letter From the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs (Williams) to the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (Williams), 17 August 1961, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 297-8.
67. Memorandum From Secretary of State Rusk to President Kennedy, 'Subject: Interpretation of National Security Council Policy on Africa', 15 February 1961, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 282-3; and Letter From the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs (Williams) to the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (Williams), 17 August 1961, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 297-8.
68. National Intelligence Estimate, NIE 60/70-2-61, 'The Probable Interrelationships of Independent African States', 31 August 1961, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 299-300.
69. Letter From the Consultative Group on Arms Limitation in Africa to the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (Williams), 23 October 1961, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 305-7.
70. An 'unfortunate fact of political life' was that the United States had to have some military or economic aid programme in virtually every country. See Memorandum From the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (Williams) to the Under Secretary of State (Bowles), 'Subject: Aid to Africa in FY 1962', 29 September 1961, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 303-5.
71. See Memorandum From the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs (Williams) to the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Policy Planning (Rowen), 'Subject: Military Assistant for African Nations South of the Sahara', 5 April 1961. Defense officials felt the United States had to be able to provide arms more speedily once a decision was made and also favoured taking the initiative in raising the issue of military aid with African governments. The JCS saw the solution to the African arms race as being tied up in 'the political solution to [the] East-West Cold War'. While the JCS wished to forestall the developing arms race in the region, they believed that the US should not accept political and military disadvantages. See memorandum From the Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense McNamara, JCSM-a 80-61, 'Subject: Arms Control Policy for Africa', 28 April 1961, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 285-7.
72. See Memorandum From the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs (Williams) to the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Policy Planning (Rowen), 'Subject: Military Assistant for African Nations South of the Sahara', 5 April 1961. Defense officials felt the United States had to be able to provide arms more speedily once a decision was made and also favoured taking the initiative in raising the issue of military aid with African governments. The JCS saw the solution to the African arms race as being tied up in 'the political solution to [the] East-West Cold War'. While the JCS wished to forestall the developing arms race in the region, they believed that the US should not accept political and military disadvantages. See memorandum From the Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense McNamara, JCSM-a 80-61, 'Subject: Arms Control Policy for Africa', 28 April 1961, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 285-7.
73. Letter From the Acting Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (Penfield) to the Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs (Nitze), 7 March 1961, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 428-9.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid.
76. Letter From the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs (Bundy) to the Deputy Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (Johnson), 6 July 1962, FRUS, 1361-1963, Africa, pp. 319-20.
77. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Ethiopia, 29 May 1962, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 429-30.
78. See Incoming Telegram From New Delhi, 24 February 1962, Chester Bowles Papers, Box 311, Folder 675, New Haven, CT: Yale University.
79. See Airgram sent by Bowles from New Delhi, 'Subject: US Policies in Africa', 1 March 1962, NSF:CO:Africa, 12/61-2/62, Box 2, JFKL; and 'Incoming Telegram From New Dehli', 24 February 1962.
80. See Airgram sent by Bowles from New Delhi, 'Subject: US Policies in Africa', 1 March 1962, NSF:CO:Africa, 12/61-2/62, Box 2, JFKL; and 'Incoming Telegram From New Dehli', 24 February 1962.
81. See airgram sent by Bowles from New Delhi, 1 March 1962.
82. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Ethiopia, 19 May 1962, FRUS, 1361-1363, Africa, pp. 435-7.
83. US Senate, United States Security Agreements and Commitments Abroad, Ethiopia, Part 8, pp. 1906-7.
84. Memorandum From the Director of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research (Hilsman) to Secretary of State Rusk, 'Intelligence Note: Somali Republic May Seek Bloc Military Aid', 8 September 1961, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, p. 431.
85. Ibid.
86. Memorandum of Conversation, 'Subject: US-UK Talks on Africa: The Horn of Africa' 21 November 1961, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 432-5.
87. See Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Somalia, 19 May 1962, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 438-9; and Memorandum of Conversation, 'Subject: Presentation of Credentials to the President by the New Ambassador of the Somali Republic', 13 July 1962, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 439-40.
88. See Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Somalia, 19 May 1962, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 438-9; and Memorandum of Conversation, 'Subject: Presentation of Credentials to the President by the New Ambassador of the Somali Republic', 13 July 1962, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 439-40.
89. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Somalia, 19 May 1962.
90. See His Excellency Abdirashid Ali Shennarke, Oral History, interview by E. A. Payne (American Universities Field Staff), 4 August 1965, JFKL.
91. Memorandum From the Director of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research (Hilsman) to Secretary of State Rusk, 9 May 1962, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 314-15.
92. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Somalia, 11 August 1962, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 440-1.
93. See Agency for International Development, Bureau for Africa and Europe, 'Report to the Administration - AFE Actions and Progress'. 12 October 1962, NSF:COP:Africa: Mise, 8/62-3/63, Box 2, JFKL.
94. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Ethiopia, 17 November 1962, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 443-5.
95. Ibid.
96. Ibid.
97. Memorandum From Robert W. Komer of the NSC Staff to President Kennedy, 24 November 1962, FRUS, 1361-1363, Africa, pp. 446-8. Kennedy's background briefing materials for the Somali visit may be found in POF:Somalia, Box 124, 11/25-12/2/62, JFKL.
98. See Memorandum From Komer to President Kennedy, 24 November 1962.
99. Ibid.
100. Ibid.
101. Ibid.
102. Ibid.
103. Robert W. Komer. Oral History, sixth interview by Dennis J. O'Brien, 30 January 1970, JFKL. Kennedy was 44 years old and Shermarke was a year younger.
104. Ibid.
105. Shermarke, Oral History, JFKL.
106. See Memorandum of Conversation, 'Subject: United States-Somali Relations', 27 November 1962, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 450-2.
107. See ibid.; and Memorandum From Komer to President Kennedy, 24 November 1962.
108. See Memorandum From Komer to President Kennedy, 27 November 1962. Kennedy complained to Shermarke about US/NATO arms being used by the Portuguese in Angola and the French in Algeria.
109. Komer, Oral History, JFKL.
110. Ibid.
111. Memorandum From Robert W. Komer of the NSC Staff to President Kennedy, 28 November 1962, FRUS, 1361-1963, Africa, pp. 452-3.
112. Ibid.
113. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Somalia, 30 November 1962, FRUS, 1361-1963, Africa, pp. 453-4.
114. Ibid.
115. See National Security Council, Memorandum for All Holders of NSC 6028, 'Subject: US Policy on the Horn of Africa', 12 December 1962, NSF:CO:Africa, 11/62-12/62, Box 3, JFKL.
116. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Ethiopia, 7 January 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 456.
117. Ibid.
118. Shermarke, Oral History, JFKL.
119. See Memorandum for Mr McGeorge Bundy, The White House, 'Subject: Current Crisis in the Horn of Africa', 18 March 1963, NSF:CO:Africa, 3/63, Box 3, JFKL; Memorandum From Robert W. Komer of the NSC Staff to President Kennedy, 21 March 1963, FRUS, 1361-1963, Africa, pp. 460-1; and Madan M. Sauldie, Super Powers in the Horn of Africa (New York, 1987), p. 25.
120. See Memorandum for Mr McGeorge Bundy, The White House, 'Subject: Current Crisis in the Horn of Africa', 18 March 1963, NSF:CO:Africa, 3/63, Box 3, JFKL; Memorandum From Robert W. Komer of the NSC Staff to President Kennedy, 21 March 1963, FRUS, 1361-1963, Africa, pp. 460-1; and Madan M. Sauldie, Super Powers in the Horn of Africa (New York, 1987), p. 25.
121. See Memorandum for Mr McGeorge Bundy, The White House, 'Subject: Current Crisis in the Horn of Africa', 18 March 1963, NSF:CO:Africa, 3/63, Box 3, JFKL; Memorandum From Robert W. Komer of the NSC Staff to President Kennedy, 21 March 1963, FRUS, 1361-1963, Africa, pp. 460-1; and Madan M. Sauldie, Super Powers in the Horn of Africa (New York, 1987), p. 25.
122. See 'Subject: Current Crisis in the Horn of Africa', 18 March 1963; and Memorandum From Komer to President Kennedy, 21 March 1963.
123. Memorandum From Komer to President Kennedy, 21 March 1963.
124. See Memorandum From Robert W. Komer of the NSC Staff to President Kennedy, 26 February 1963, FRUS, 1361-1963, Africa, p. 457.
125. Ibid.
126. Memorandum From Komer to President Kennedy, 21 March 1963.
127. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Somalia, 23 May 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, p. 462; and Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Somalia, 5 July 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 465-6.
128. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Somalia, 23 May 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, p. 462; and Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Somalia, 5 July 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 465-6.
129. See Incoming Telegram No. 687, From Addis Ababa to the Secretary of State, 24 May 1963, NSF:CO:Africa, 5/63, Bo 3, JFKL; and Spencer, Ethiopia at Bay, p. 319.
130. See Incoming Telegram No. 687.
131. See incoming Telegram No. 693, From Addis Ababa (Korry) to the Secretary of State, 26 May 1963, NSF:CO:Africa, 5/63, Box 3, JFKL.
132. Ibid.
133. Ibid.
134. See Ruth Iyob, The Entrean Struggle for Independence: Domination, Resistance, Nationalism, 1941-1993 (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 20-6; and Memorandum for Mr. McGeorge Bundy, The White House, From William H. Brubeck, Executive Secretary, 'Subject: Addis Ababa Conference of African Heads of State, 22-25 MaY 1963', NSF:CO:Africa, 5/63, Bo 3, JFKL.
135. See Ruth Iyob, The Entrean Struggle for Independence: Domination, Resistance, Nationalism, 1941-1993 (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 20-6; and Memorandum for Mr. McGeorge Bundy, The White House, From William H. Brubeck, Executive Secretary, 'Subject: Addis Ababa Conference of African Heads of State, 22-25 MaY 1963', NSF:CO:Africa, 5/63, Bo 3, JFKL.
136. See Edmond J. Keller, 'The OAU and the Ogaden Dispute', in Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja, (ed), Conflict in the Horn of Africa (Atlanta, 1991), pp 97-116.
137. Shermarke, Oral History, JFKL.
138. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Ethiopia 3 July 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 463-5. Also see Patman, The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa, p. 52.
139. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Ethiopia 3 July 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 463-5. Also see Patman, The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa, p. 52.
140. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Ethiopia, 3 July 1963.
141. Ibid.
142. Memorandum of Conversation, 'Subject: Proposals for Ethiopian Development; Ethiopian-Somali Dispute; Portuguese African Territories and South Africa', 25 July 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 467-9, President Kennedy and members of the Africa Bureau attended this meeting with the president of the Senate of Ethiopia, His Highness Assrate Kassa.
143. Memorandum From the Director of the Office of Northern African Affairs (Newsom) to the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (Williams), 'US Policy Toward the Ogaden', 26 August 1963, FRUS, 1961-1363, Afnca, pp. 469-73.
144. Ibid.
145. Ibid.
146. Ibid.
147. Edward Korry, interview, Stonington, CT, 6 February 1982. Also see Rasmusen, Kagnew Station, pp. 57-9.
148. US Department of State, Incoming Telegram From Addis Ababa, 22 April 1964, DDQC, 1977, 325 B.
149. Because the United States had supported the UN Federation, the State Department did not feel it was appropriate to comment on Ethiopia's dissolution of the Federation or for US officials to attend observances of the event. See Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Ethiopia, 21 November 1962, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 445-6.
150. Memorandum From William H. Brubeck of the NSC Staff to President Kennedy, 30 September 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 476-8.
151. Briefing Paper Prepared in the Department of State, 'Subject: Visit of the Emperor of Ethiopia', 29 September 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 474-6. This story was also related in an interview with the author by Edward Korry.
152. Memorandum of Conversation, 'Subject: Somalia', 1 October 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 478-80. The meeting with Haile-Selassie was attended by President Kennedy, Ambassador Korry, and Secretary Williams.
153. See Jeffrey A. Lefebvre, 'Donor dependency and American arms transfers to the Horn of Africa: the F-5 legacy', Journal of Modern African Studies 25, 3 (1987), 465-88.
154. Memorandum of Conversation, 1 October 1963.
155. Shermarke, Oral History, JFKL.
156. Memorandum From William H. Brubeck of the NSC Staff to the President's Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Bundy), 11 October 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 480-1.
157. The Somalis claimed the United States shared the burden of responsibility. Editorial Note, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, p. 481.
158. Washington intended to stay in Somalia with economic aid and the Peace Corps. Memorandum from Brubeck to Bundy, 11 October 1963.
159. Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in Germany, 16 October 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 482-3.
160. Memorandum From William H. Brubeck of the NSC Staff to President Kennedy, 25 October 1963, FRUS, 1961-1363, Africa, p. 483.
161. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Germany, 6 November 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 485-6.
162. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Germany, 16 October 1963.
163. Memorandum From the Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (Tasca) to the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affair (Sloan) and the Assistant Administrator for Africa-Europe, Agency for International Development (Hutchinson), 'Subject: Views of the President on the Situation in Somalia', 31 October 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, p. 484.
164. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Germany, 6 November 1963.
165. Memorandum From Brubeck to President Kennedy, 25 October 1963.
166. Shermarke, Oral History, JFKL.
167. Patman, The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa, p. 49.
168. Ibid., p. 52.
169. For an analysis of Somali clan politics, see David Laitin and Said Samatar, Somalia: Nation in Search of a State (Boulder, CO, 1987), pp. 21-47.
170. Patman, The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa, p. 53.
171. US Department of State, From Addis Ababa to the Secretary of State, 'Emperor's meeting with Mikoyan', 30 November 1963, DDQC, 1977, 226 A.
172. US Department of State, From Addis Ababa to the Department of State, 'Country team message - Ethiopia policy paper', 11 December 1963, DDQC, 1977, 226 B; also see Marcus, Ethiopia, Great Britain, and the United States, pp. 184-5.
173. US Department of State, From Addis Ababa to the Department of State, 'Country team message - Ethiopia policy paper', 11 December 1963, DDQC, 1977, 226 B; also see Marcus, Ethiopia, Great Britain, and the United States, pp. 184-5.
174. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Somalia, 30 December 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, p. 490. In order to get this aid the emperor engaged in a bit of blackmail by threatening to withdraw the Ethiopian contingent from the Congo. See Marcus, Ethiopia, Great Britain, and the United States, pp. 184-5.
175. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Somalia, 30 December 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, p. 490. In order to get this aid the emperor engaged in a bit of blackmail by threatening to withdraw the Ethiopian contingent from the Congo. See Marcus, Ethiopia, Great Britain, and the United States, pp. 184-5.
176. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Samalia, 30 December 1963.
177. National Policy Paper, 'Ethiopia, Part one', 19 December 1963, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, pp. 486-9.
178. Ibid.
179. Ibid.
180. The US ambassador felt that US support for Ethiopia was designed to gain acceptance by the IEG of the 1966 delivery date for the F-5's. US Department of State, Incoming Telegram From Mogadishu, 30 May 1964, DDQC, 1977, 122 C.
181. Spencer, Ethiopia at Bay, p. 320.
182. Incoming Telegram From Mogadishu, 30 May 1964.
183. US Department of State, Incoming Telegram From Addis Ababa, 22 April 1964, DDQC, 1977, 325 B.
184. US Senate, United States Security Agreements and Commitments Abroad: Ethiopia, Part 8, pp. 1906-7.
185. See Lefebvre, Arms for the Horn, pp. 125-9.
186. Ibid., pp. 3-10 and 273-5. Ethiopia and Somalia employed the bargaining strategies of 'manipulating weakness' and the 'threat of defection' vis-à-vis the superpowers.
187. Quoted in Harris Wofford, Of Kennedys and Kings: Making Sense of the Sixties (New York, 1980), pp. 376-7.
188. Shermarke, Oral History, JFKL.
189. This data can be found in the appendix of Lefebvre, Arms for the Horn, pp. 278-80.
190. Ibid., pp. 175-96.
191. Ibid., pp. 197-219. President Carter's assistant secretary of state for African Affairs (Richard Moose) said only half in jest that the United States should give the Somalis a floating dry dock, at least they would not be able to take that into the Ogaden. Richard Moose, interview, Alexandria, VA, 8 June 1982.
192. Shermarke, Oral History, JFKL.