Political change in China and Vietnam: Coping with the consequences of economic reform

China Journal

Volumn , Issue 40, 1998, Pages 118-142

  McCormick, Barrett L ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 11544362932     PISSN: 13249347     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (79)

1. Another "area" not clearly based on common histories and culture is "advanced industrial societies".
2. For a discussion of this, see Richard E. Feinberg, John Echeverri-Gent and Friedemann Müller, Economic Reform in Three Giants: U.S. Foreign Policy and the USSR, China, and India (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1990).
3. See, for example, Frederick C. Teiwes, Politics at Mao's Court: Gao Gang and Party Factionalism in the Early 1950s (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1991).
4. Melanie Beresford, Vietnam: Politics, Economics and Society (London: Pinter Publishers, 1988), p.88.
5. Michael Mann, "The Autonomous Power of the State: Its Origins, Mechanisms and Results", in John A. Hall (ed.), States in History (London: Basil Blackwell, 1987), p.113.
6. For an excellent account of the household registration system, see Tiejun Cheng and Mark Seiden, "The Origins and Social Consequences of China's Hukou System", The China Quarterly, no.139 (September 1994), pp.644-68.
7. See Andrew G. Walder, Communist Neo-Traditionalism: Work and Authority in Chinese Industry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986).
8. See Barrett L. McCormick, Political Reform in Post-Mao China: Democracy and Bureaucracy in a Leninist State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
9. Rudolf Bahro, The Alternative in Eastern Europe (London: New Left Books, 1978), p.38.
10. Walder, Communist Neo-Traditionalism.
11. Michael Schoenhals, Doing Things with Words in Chinese Politics (Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, 1992).
12. Bui Tin, Following Ho Chi Minh (London: Hurst, 1995), especially p.56.
13. David Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920-45 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), p.320. For a useful consideration of Vietnamese nationalism, see Thaveeporn Vasavakul, "Vietnam: The Changing Models of Legitimation", in Muthiah Alagappa (ed.), Political Legitimacy in Southeast Asia: The Quest for Moral Economy (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), pp.257-89.
14. David Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920-45 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), p.320. For a useful consideration of Vietnamese nationalism, see Thaveeporn Vasavakul, "Vietnam: The Changing Models of Legitimation", in Muthiah Alagappa (ed.), Political Legitimacy in Southeast Asia: The Quest for Moral Economy (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), pp.257-89.
15. See Kate Zhou, How the Farmers Changed China: Power of the People (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996); and Daniel Kelliher, Peasant Power in China: The Era of Rural Reform, 1979-1989 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992).
16. See Kate Zhou, How the Farmers Changed China: Power of the People (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996); and Daniel Kelliher, Peasant Power in China: The Era of Rural Reform, 1979-1989 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992).
17. Benedict J. Tria Kerkvliet, "Village-State Relations in Vietnam: The Effect of Everyday Politics", Journal of Asian Studies, vol.54, no.2 (May 1995), pp.396-418.
18. Susan L. Shirk, The Political Logic of Economic Reform in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), p.16.
19. Marshall Goldman, Lost Opportunity: Why Economic Reforms in Russia Have Not Worked (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1994).
20. For the best account of this for China, see Feng Chen, Economic Transition and Political Legitimacy in Post-Mao China: Ideology and Reform (Albany: SUNY Press, 1995). For an analysis of Vietnam that is highly critical of these changes, see Gabriel Kolko, Vietnam: Anatomy of Peace (London: Routledge, 1997).
21. For the best account of this for China, see Feng Chen, Economic Transition and Political Legitimacy in Post-Mao China: Ideology and Reform (Albany: SUNY Press, 1995). For an analysis of Vietnam that is highly critical of these changes, see Gabriel Kolko, Vietnam: Anatomy of Peace (London: Routledge, 1997).
22. Jianying Zha, China Pop: How Soap Operas, Tabloids, and Bestsellers are Transforming a Culture (New York: New Press, 1995), reports on this transformation of the China Culture Gazette [Zhongguo wenhua bao] in 1993's first weekend edition (Zha, p. 105).
23. Jianying Zha, China Pop: How Soap Operas, Tabloids, and Bestsellers are Transforming a Culture (New York: New Press, 1995), reports on this transformation of the China Culture Gazette [Zhongguo wenhua bao] in 1993's first weekend edition (Zha, p. 105).
24. Nguyen Ngoc Giao, "The Media and the Emergence of a 'Civil Society'", unpublished paper presented at the Vietnam Update 1994 Conference, 10-11 November 1994, Australian National University, Canberra.
25. Ibid.
26. Henry Kamm, Dragon Ascending: Vietnam and the Vietnamese (New York: Arcade Publishing, 1996), p.160.
27. Alan Liu, "Communications and Development in Post-Mao Mainland China", Issues and Studies, vol.27, no.12 (December 1991), p.75.
28. Jianying Zha, China Pop. See especially ch.7, "Islanders", pp.165-200. For an intriguing discussion of contemporary Chinese music, see Andrew F. Jones, Like a Knife: Ideology and Genre in Contemporary Chinese Popular Music (Ithaca: Cornell East Asia Program, 1992).
29. Jianying Zha, China Pop. See especially ch.7, "Islanders", pp.165-200. For an intriguing discussion of contemporary Chinese music, see Andrew F. Jones, Like a Knife: Ideology and Genre in Contemporary Chinese Popular Music (Ithaca: Cornell East Asia Program, 1992).
30. Jianying Zha, China Pop. See especially ch.7, "Islanders", pp.165-200. For an intriguing discussion of contemporary Chinese music, see Andrew F. Jones, Like a Knife: Ideology and Genre in Contemporary Chinese Popular Music (Ithaca: Cornell East Asia Program, 1992).
31. For an interview with Jia and an account of the Feidu phenomena, see Jianying Zha, China Pop.
32. David G. Marr, Vietnam Strives to Catch Up (New York: Asia Society, 1995), p.19.
33. Gareth Porter, Vietnam: The Politics of Bureaucratic Socialism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993), p.71.
34. Václav Havel, Václav Havel or Living in Truth (London: Faber and Faber, 1986).
35. On this, see Geremie Barmé, "Wang Shuo and Liumang ('Hooligan') Culture", Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no.28 (July 1992) pp.23-64.
36. Cited in Kamm, Dragon Ascending, p. 143.
37. At the same time, some leaders - and even more intellectuals - have promoted definitions of democracy that emphasize the need for a greater span of individual rights and political competition. For an account of the struggle for democracy in China, see Merle Goldman, Sowing the Seeds of Democracy in China: Political Reform in the Deng Xiaoping Era (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994).
38. For some examples and analysis of pro-reform rhetoric from Vietnamese leaders, see Carlyle A. Thayer, "Political Reform in Vietnam: Dôi Mói and the Emergence of Civil Society", in Robert F. Miller (ed.), The Development of Civil Society in Communist Systems (St. Leonards: Allen and Unwin, 1992), pp.110-29, 172-7.
39. "Qiao Shi - People's Congress to Become a 'Real Power Body'", Xinhua, 5 January 1995. Translated in BBC Monitoring Service: Asia-Pacific, 10 January 1995. For a general account of the reasoning behind democratic reforms in China, see McCormick, Political Reform in Post-Mao China.
40. "Qiao Shi - People's Congress to Become a 'Real Power Body'", Xinhua, 5 January 1995. Translated in BBC Monitoring Service: Asia-Pacific, 10 January 1995. For a general account of the reasoning behind democratic reforms in China, see McCormick, Political Reform in Post-Mao China.
41. Andrew J. Nathan, Chinese Democracy: An Investigation into the Nature and Meaning of "Democracy" in China Today (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985), especially pp.193-223.
42. Barrett L. McCormick, "China's Leninist Parliament and Public Sphere: A Comparative Analysis", in Barrett L. McCormick and Jonathan Unger (eds), China After Socialism: In the Footsteps of Eastern Europe or East Asia? (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1996), pp.7-28.
43. For an account of elections in Vietnam, see Carlyle A. Thayer, "Political Reform in Vietnam", Current Affairs Bulletin (Sydney), vol.70, no.1 (June 1993) pp.22-6.
44. I was in China for three months each in 1989, 1990 and 1991 conducting interviews on local people's congresses.
45. Porter, Vietnam, pp.75-6.
46. Thayer, "Political Reform in Vietnam".
47. Reuters News Service, 30 September 1997.
48. The best source for China's National People's Congress is Kevin J. O'Brien, Reform Without Liberalization: China's National People's Congress and the Politics of Institutional Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
49. For an account of this incident, see Richard Baum, Burying Mao: Chinese Politics in the Age of Deng Xiaoping (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp.268-9.
50. John Gillespie, "Private Commercial Rights in Vietnam: A Comparative Analysis", Stanford Journal of International Law, vol.30, no.2 (Summer 1994), p.325.
51. William P. Alford, "Double-edged Swords Cut Both Ways: Law and Legitimacy in the People's Republic of China", Daedalus, vol.122, no.2 (Spring 1993), pp.45-69.
52. China's new Administrative Procedures Law is particularly important in that it gives ordinary citizens the right to sue the government in cases of malpractice. This law has had an impact: 27,000 suits had been filed between the time the law came into effect in 1990 and the end of 1993. Of these, 20 per cent resulted in rulings against government agencies, and in another 10 per cent government rulings were changed to meet requests. China now has more lawyers than in 1949. "Xinhua Says a Third of Citizens' Lawsuits Against Authorities Have Won", Xinhua News Agency, 12 July 1994, reprinted in BBC Monitoring Service: Asia-Pacific, 16 July 1994; and "China Records Increase In Lawsuits Against State", Reuter News Service, 17 November 1994.
53. China's new Administrative Procedures Law is particularly important in that it gives ordinary citizens the right to sue the government in cases of malpractice. This law has had an impact: 27,000 suits had been filed between the time the law came into effect in 1990 and the end of 1993. Of these, 20 per cent resulted in rulings against government agencies, and in another 10 per cent government rulings were changed to meet requests. China now has more lawyers than in 1949. "Xinhua Says a Third of Citizens' Lawsuits Against Authorities Have Won", Xinhua News Agency, 12 July 1994, reprinted in BBC Monitoring Service: Asia-Pacific, 16 July 1994; and "China Records Increase In Lawsuits Against State", Reuter News Service, 17 November 1994.
54. Mark Sidel, "The Re-emergence of Legal Discourse in Vietnam", International and Comparative Law Quarterly, vol.443, no.1 (January 1994), pp. 163-73.
55. David Marr, Vietnam Strives to Catch Up (New York: Asia Society, 1995), p. 13.
56. See Anthony Dicks, "Compartmentalized Law and Judicial Restraint: An Inductive View of Some Jurisdictional Barriers to Reform", The China Quarterly, no. 141 (March 1995), pp.65-81. Sidel notes similar problems in Vietnam. See "The Re-emergence of Legal Discourse". Another Western analyst wrote about Vietnam that "This year, however, has seen the nature of risk shift from that associated with a partial legal vacuum to the multiple risks associated with laws that contradict other laws, laws that are enacted but not enforced, and laws that pass measures in apparent contradiction to the policy of Vietnam to create conditions that are favourable for foreign investment". Australian Financial Review, 10 May 1995, cited in David W. P. Elliott, "Vietnam Faces the Future", Current History, vol.94, no.596 (December 1995), pp.412-9.
57. See Anthony Dicks, "Compartmentalized Law and Judicial Restraint: An Inductive View of Some Jurisdictional Barriers to Reform", The China Quarterly, no. 141 (March 1995), pp.65-81. Sidel notes similar problems in Vietnam. See "The Re-emergence of Legal Discourse". Another Western analyst wrote about Vietnam that "This year, however, has seen the nature of risk shift from that associated with a partial legal vacuum to the multiple risks associated with laws that contradict other laws, laws that are enacted but not enforced, and laws that pass measures in apparent contradiction to the policy of Vietnam to create conditions that are favourable for foreign investment". Australian Financial Review, 10 May 1995, cited in David W. P. Elliott, "Vietnam Faces the Future", Current History, vol.94, no.596 (December 1995), pp.412-9.
58. See Anthony Dicks, "Compartmentalized Law and Judicial Restraint: An Inductive View of Some Jurisdictional Barriers to Reform", The China Quarterly, no. 141 (March 1995), pp.65-81. Sidel notes similar problems in Vietnam. See "The Re-emergence of Legal Discourse". Another Western analyst wrote about Vietnam that "This year, however, has seen the nature of risk shift from that associated with a partial legal vacuum to the multiple risks associated with laws that contradict other laws, laws that are enacted but not enforced, and laws that pass measures in apparent contradiction to the policy of Vietnam to create conditions that are favourable for foreign investment". Australian Financial Review, 10 May 1995, cited in David W. P. Elliott, "Vietnam Faces the Future", Current History, vol.94, no.596 (December 1995), pp.412-9.
59. Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968).
60. See "Jiang Zemin Tells Party Cadres - 'If the Economy Fails, We Will Collapse'", Xinhua Domestic Service, 5 March, 1994, trans. in BBC Monitoring Service: Asia-Pacific, 9 March 1994.
61. Cited in Allan E. Goodman, "Vietnam in 1994: With Peace at Hand", Asian Survey, vol.30, no.1 (January 1995), pp.92-9.
62. "Hard Graft in Asia", The Economist, 27 May 1995, p.61. See also "A Global Gauge of Greased Palms", New York Times, 10 August 1995, p.E3; and Peter Norman, "New Zealand 'Least Corrupt' Country", Financial Times, 3 June 1996, p.5. Nicholas D. Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn write: "A survey of 3,300 people in 1992 found that those questioned spent an average of 118 yuan, or several weeks' income, on 'gifts' each year for people from whom they sought assistance. Nationwide that amounts to about $20 billion a year". This figure, though, would not appear to include money or resources diverted from state coffers, which seems to me the most prevalent form of corruption. See China Wakes: The Struggle for the Soul of a Rising Power (New York: Times Books, 1994), p. 187.
63. "Hard Graft in Asia", The Economist, 27 May 1995, p.61. See also "A Global Gauge of Greased Palms", New York Times, 10 August 1995, p.E3; and Peter Norman, "New Zealand 'Least Corrupt' Country", Financial Times, 3 June 1996, p.5. Nicholas D. Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn write: "A survey of 3,300 people in 1992 found that those questioned spent an average of 118 yuan, or several weeks' income, on 'gifts' each year for people from whom they sought assistance. Nationwide that amounts to about $20 billion a year". This figure, though, would not appear to include money or resources diverted from state coffers, which seems to me the most prevalent form of corruption. See China Wakes: The Struggle for the Soul of a Rising Power (New York: Times Books, 1994), p. 187.
64. "Hard Graft in Asia", The Economist, 27 May 1995, p.61. See also "A Global Gauge of Greased Palms", New York Times, 10 August 1995, p.E3; and Peter Norman, "New Zealand 'Least Corrupt' Country", Financial Times, 3 June 1996, p.5. Nicholas D. Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn write: "A survey of 3,300 people in 1992 found that those questioned spent an average of 118 yuan, or several weeks' income, on 'gifts' each year for people from whom they sought assistance. Nationwide that amounts to about $20 billion a year". This figure, though, would not appear to include money or resources diverted from state coffers, which seems to me the most prevalent form of corruption. See China Wakes: The Struggle for the Soul of a Rising Power (New York: Times Books, 1994), p. 187.
65. "Hard Graft in Asia", The Economist, 27 May 1995, p.61. See also "A Global Gauge of Greased Palms", New York Times, 10 August 1995, p.E3; and Peter Norman, "New Zealand 'Least Corrupt' Country", Financial Times, 3 June 1996, p.5. Nicholas D. Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn write: "A survey of 3,300 people in 1992 found that those questioned spent an average of 118 yuan, or several weeks' income, on 'gifts' each year for people from whom they sought assistance. Nationwide that amounts to about $20 billion a year". This figure, though, would not appear to include money or resources diverted from state coffers, which seems to me the most prevalent form of corruption. See China Wakes: The Struggle for the Soul of a Rising Power (New York: Times Books, 1994), p. 187.
66. Elliott, "Vietnam Faces the Future", p.413.
67. George Irvin, "Vietnam: Assessing the Achievements of Doi Moi", Journal of Development Studies, vol.31, no.5 (June 1995),pp.725-51.
68. Benedict J. Tria Kerkvliet, "Politics of Society in Vietnam in the Mid 1990s", in idem (ed.), Dilemmas of Development: Vietnam Update 1994 (Canberra: Department of Political and Social Change, Australian National University, 1995), p.20.
69. "Large-scale Protests Across Thai Binh Province", Free Vietnam Alliance Press Release, 24 July 1997 (http://www.fva.org/0897/story2.htm).
70. See, for example, "Violent Suppression of Religious Protests in Dong Nai Province", Free Vietnam Alliance, Paris, 10 November 1997 (http://www.fva.org/1197/story11.htm).
71. Of these, 45 per cent were in state-owned firms, and only 15 per cent were in firms with foreign participation. "China Sees Sharp Rise in Labour Disputes", Reuter News Service, 10 May 1995.
72. "Beijing Labour Disputes Soar in First Half of Year", Reuter News Service, 31 May 1995. See also Lo Ping and Li Tzu-ching, "The Enemy's Presence Is Discovered in 17 Provinces and 33 Cities", Zhengming, no.200 (1 June 1994), pp. 9-10, trans. in BBC Monitoring Servoce, Summary of World Broadcasts, 6 June 1994.
73. "Beijing Labour Disputes Soar in First Half of Year", Reuter News Service, 31 May 1995. See also Lo Ping and Li Tzu-ching, "The Enemy's Presence Is Discovered in 17 Provinces and 33 Cities", Zhengming, no.200 (1 June 1994), pp. 9-10, trans. in BBC Monitoring Servoce, Summary of World Broadcasts, 6 June 1994.
74. Agence France Press reported that the authorities' attempts to suppress these demonstrations led to 100 injuries and 80 arrests. See "Latest Development on Workers' Demonstrations in Mianyang, Sichuan", in China News Digest, 20 July 1997.
75. "Labour Conditions in Vietnam: Recent History and Future Direction", The Free Vietnam Alliance, Paris, 1 October 1996 (http://www.fva.org/document/vn-labor.htm).
76. Diem H. Do, "The Current Condition of Vietnam", Congressional Human Rights Caucus Briefing on Vietnam Washington, DC, 30 September 1997 (http://www.fva.org/1097/story3.htm).
77. Kevin O'Brien has labelled this "policy-based resistance". See Kevin J. O'Brien, "Implementing Political Reform in China's Villages", Australian Journal of Chinese " Affairs, no.32 (July 1994), pp.33-60.
78. Kamm, Dragon Ascending, p.46.
79. For a fine account of relations among secret police, informants and their victims in Eastern Europe, see Tina Rosenberg, The Haunted Land: Facing Europe's Ghosts after Communism (New York: Random House, 1995).