Information subsidies, journalism routines and the Australian media: Market liberalization versus marketplace of ideas

Prometheus: Critical Studies in Innovation

Volumn 16, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 27-45

  Butler, Barbara Ann ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Australian media policy; Communications research; Economies of scale; Information society; Journalism; Marketplace of ideas; News agendas; Newsgathering; Public relations; Technology; Television news

Indexed keywords

EID: 11544343688     PISSN: 08109028     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/08109029808629251     Document Type: Article

References (62)

1. E. Simper, 'The great media muddle', Weekend Australian, 10-11 May 1997, page 22.
2. Cited in W. Atkins, 'Friendly and useful: Rupert Murdoch and the politics of television in South-east Asia, 1993-95', in Media International Australia, 77, August 1995, pp. 54-64. See also Geoff Turner, 'Murdoch', 'News Media Chronicle: July 1995-June 1996', Australian Studies in Journalism 5 (1966), pp. 285-291.
3. Cited in W. Atkins, 'Friendly and useful: Rupert Murdoch and the politics of television in South-east Asia, 1993-95', in Media International Australia, 77, August 1995, pp. 54-64. See also Geoff Turner, 'Murdoch', 'News Media Chronicle: July 1995-June 1996', Australian Studies in Journalism 5 (1966), pp. 285-291.
4. Review of Cross-Media Rules Issues Paper, Department of Communications and the Arts, October 1996. See also G. Turner, 'News Media Chronicle, July 1995-June 1996', Australian Studies in Journalism 5 (1996), pp. 265, 297-8; I. Ward, 'Who writes the political news?: Journalists as hunters or harvesters?', in Australian Journalism Review 13, December 1991, pp. 52-58; R. Tiffin, 'Diversity: rhetoric and reality', in J. Schultz (ed.), Not Just Another Business: Journalists, Citizens and the Media (Pluto Press, Leicchardt, 1994), pp. 115-129.
5. Review of Cross-Media Rules Issues Paper, Department of Communications and the Arts, October 1996. See also G. Turner, 'News Media Chronicle, July 1995-June 1996', Australian Studies in Journalism 5 (1996), pp. 265, 297-8; I. Ward, 'Who writes the political news?: Journalists as hunters or harvesters?', in Australian Journalism Review 13, December 1991, pp. 52-58; R. Tiffin, 'Diversity: rhetoric and reality', in J. Schultz (ed.), Not Just Another Business: Journalists, Citizens and the Media (Pluto Press, Leicchardt, 1994), pp. 115-129.
6. Review of Cross-Media Rules Issues Paper, Department of Communications and the Arts, October 1996. See also G. Turner, 'News Media Chronicle, July 1995-June 1996', Australian Studies in Journalism 5 (1996), pp. 265, 297-8; I. Ward, 'Who writes the political news?: Journalists as hunters or harvesters?', in Australian Journalism Review 13, December 1991, pp. 52-58; R. Tiffin, 'Diversity: rhetoric and reality', in J. Schultz (ed.), Not Just Another Business: Journalists, Citizens and the Media (Pluto Press, Leicchardt, 1994), pp. 115-129.
7. The concept of the media collectively functioning as a marketplace of ideas can be traced to 17th-century English poet John Milton who argued in a political pamphlet Areopagitica that a free and open exchange of ideas was the surest way of testing the truthfulness of competing claims. In Milton's day, Parliament was conducted in secret, political dissenters risked imprisonment or execution, and the people had few opportunities to participate in decisionmaking.
8. C. Pokarier, 'A diverse media or an Australian media?', Journal of Public Policy and Ideas, Winter 1996, pp. 7-11.
9. Ibid., p. 9.
10. The Federal Court recently upheld an ABA imperative requiring the major shareholder of Ten Network, Canadian broadcaster CanWest, to sell down a shareholding exceeding current ownership levels. Following two extensions, CanWest must comply with the ruling by April 1998.
11. D. Flint, 'Measure media dominance on the 'Share of the Voice' test', Financial Review, 28 June 1995, p. 18. See also Deborah Brewster, 'Quiet man behind watchdog with bite', Weekend Australian, 16-17 August 1997, p. 2.
12. D. Flint, 'Measure media dominance on the 'Share of the Voice' test', Financial Review, 28 June 1995, p. 18. See also Deborah Brewster, 'Quiet man behind watchdog with bite', Weekend Australian, 16-17 August 1997, p. 2.
13. Australian Broadcasting Tribunal News Program Standards, Australian Broadcasting Tribunal Manual, 2nd edn. Commonwealth of Australia, Sydney, 1992.
14. Federation of Australian Commercial Television Stations, Commercial Television Industry Code of Practice, Sydney, 1993; Australian Broadcasting Corporation Code of Practice for News and Current Affairs, ABC Editorial Policies, Sydney, ABC, June 1993, Appendix I (4).
15. Federation of Australian Commercial Television Stations, Commercial Television Industry Code of Practice, Sydney, 1993; Australian Broadcasting Corporation Code of Practice for News and Current Affairs, ABC Editorial Policies, Sydney, ABC, June 1993, Appendix I (4).
16. Australian Broadcasting Authority (ABA), Your Say: A Review of Audience Concerns About Australia's Broadcast Media, Sydney, 1995, p. 10. See also ABA, Your Say, Sydney, 1996, pp. 12, 38-39. In 1994 and 1995, television news was the major category of public complaints about broadcast programs, with most complaints concerning lack of accuracy, fairness or balance.
17. Australian Broadcasting Authority (ABA), Your Say: A Review of Audience Concerns About Australia's Broadcast Media, Sydney, 1995, p. 10. See also ABA, Your Say, Sydney, 1996, pp. 12, 38-39. In 1994 and 1995, television news was the major category of public complaints about broadcast programs, with most complaints concerning lack of accuracy, fairness or balance.
18. ABA, Your Say, Sydney, 1996, pp. 37-39.
19. ABC-TV, 14 November 1997. Andrew Olle was a respected Australian journalist whose untimely death in 1995 left the ranks of journalism in this country all the poorer. Wendt, dubbed 'the perfumed steamroller', is renowned for her incisive interviewing style. In 1997, she took legal action against her employer Seven Network, alleging the network failed to give her current affairs program Witness sufficient bite. See S. McLean, 'Jana blasts 'dumbing' of media', Courier-Mail, 15 November 1997, p. 3.
20. S. Cunningham, Framing Culture: Criticism and Policy in Australia, Allen and Unwin, St Leonards, 1992, p. 29.
21. Pokarier, op cit., p. 11, Ref. 5.
22. Ibid.
23. T. Peterson, 'The social responsibility of the press' in F. S. Siebert, T. Peterson and W. Schramm (Eds), Four Theories of the Press, University of Illinois Press, Chicago, 1956, pp. 73-103.
24. D. Parker, The Courtesans: The Press Gallery in the Hawke Era, Allen and Unwin, North Sydney, 1990; N. Greiner, 'The smart-alec culture', Australian Studies in Journalism 1993, pp. 3-10; D. Horne, 'But that's not the issue', in J. Schultz (ed.), Not Just Another Business: Journalists, Citizens and the Media, Pluto Press, Leichhardt, 1994, pp. 69-80; D. Halpern and S. Wood, 'The policymaking process', in D. Halpern, S. Wood, S. White and G. Cameron (eds), Options for Britain: A Strategic Policy Review, Dartmouth, Aldershot, 1996, pp. 1-28.
25. D. Parker, The Courtesans: The Press Gallery in the Hawke Era, Allen and Unwin, North Sydney, 1990; N. Greiner, 'The smart-alec culture', Australian Studies in Journalism 1993, pp. 3-10; D. Horne, 'But that's not the issue', in J. Schultz (ed.), Not Just Another Business: Journalists, Citizens and the Media, Pluto Press, Leichhardt, 1994, pp. 69-80; D. Halpern and S. Wood, 'The policymaking process', in D. Halpern, S. Wood, S. White and G. Cameron (eds), Options for Britain: A Strategic Policy Review, Dartmouth, Aldershot, 1996, pp. 1-28.
26. D. Parker, The Courtesans: The Press Gallery in the Hawke Era, Allen and Unwin, North Sydney, 1990; N. Greiner, 'The smart-alec culture', Australian Studies in Journalism 1993, pp. 3-10; D. Horne, 'But that's not the issue', in J. Schultz (ed.), Not Just Another Business: Journalists, Citizens and the Media, Pluto Press, Leichhardt, 1994, pp. 69-80; D. Halpern and S. Wood, 'The policymaking process', in D. Halpern, S. Wood, S. White and G. Cameron (eds), Options for Britain: A Strategic Policy Review, Dartmouth, Aldershot, 1996, pp. 1-28.
27. D. Parker, The Courtesans: The Press Gallery in the Hawke Era, Allen and Unwin, North Sydney, 1990; N. Greiner, 'The smart-alec culture', Australian Studies in Journalism 1993, pp. 3-10; D. Horne, 'But that's not the issue', in J. Schultz (ed.), Not Just Another Business: Journalists, Citizens and the Media, Pluto Press, Leichhardt, 1994, pp. 69-80; D. Halpern and S. Wood, 'The policymaking process', in D. Halpern, S. Wood, S. White and G. Cameron (eds), Options for Britain: A Strategic Policy Review, Dartmouth, Aldershot, 1996, pp. 1-28.
28. A.A. Staley, 'Development of public broadcasting', in H. Mayer and H. Nelson (eds), Australian Politics 5th edn., Longman, Melbourne, 1980, pp. 580-582; B. Jones, 'A National Information Policy', in H. Mayer and H. Nelson (eds), Australian Politics 5th edn. Longman, Melbourne, 1980, pp. 583-584. See also A. Davies and C. Spurgeon, 'The Broadcasting Services Act: a reconciliation of public interest and market principles of regulation?', Media Information Australia 66, November 1992, pp. 85-92.
29. A.A. Staley, 'Development of public broadcasting', in H. Mayer and H. Nelson (eds), Australian Politics 5th edn., Longman, Melbourne, 1980, pp. 580-582; B. Jones, 'A National Information Policy', in H. Mayer and H. Nelson (eds), Australian Politics 5th edn. Longman, Melbourne, 1980, pp. 583-584. See also A. Davies and C. Spurgeon, 'The Broadcasting Services Act: a reconciliation of public interest and market principles of regulation?', Media Information Australia 66, November 1992, pp. 85-92.
30. A.A. Staley, 'Development of public broadcasting', in H. Mayer and H. Nelson (eds), Australian Politics 5th edn., Longman, Melbourne, 1980, pp. 580-582; B. Jones, 'A National Information Policy', in H. Mayer and H. Nelson (eds), Australian Politics 5th edn. Longman, Melbourne, 1980, pp. 583-584. See also A. Davies and C. Spurgeon, 'The Broadcasting Services Act: a reconciliation of public interest and market principles of regulation?', Media Information Australia 66, November 1992, pp. 85-92.
31. A. Brown, 'Media regulation', in B. W. Head and A. Patience (eds), From Fraser to Hawke: Australian Public Policy in the 1980s, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne, 1989, pp. 463-485; P. Chadwick 'Creating codes: journalism self-regulation', in J. Schultz (ed.), Not Just Another Business: Journalists, Citizens and the Media, Pluto Press, Leichhardt, 1994, pp. 167-187; P. Chadwick, S. Ferguson and M. McAuslan, 'Shackled: The story of a regulatory slave', Media International Australia 77, August 1995, pp. 65-72.
32. A. Brown, 'Media regulation', in B. W. Head and A. Patience (eds), From Fraser to Hawke: Australian Public Policy in the 1980s, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne, 1989, pp. 463-485; P. Chadwick 'Creating codes: journalism self-regulation', in J. Schultz (ed.), Not Just Another Business: Journalists, Citizens and the Media, Pluto Press, Leichhardt, 1994, pp. 167-187; P. Chadwick, S. Ferguson and M. McAuslan, 'Shackled: The story of a regulatory slave', Media International Australia 77, August 1995, pp. 65-72.
33. A. Brown, 'Media regulation', in B. W. Head and A. Patience (eds), From Fraser to Hawke: Australian Public Policy in the 1980s, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne, 1989, pp. 463-485; P. Chadwick 'Creating codes: journalism self-regulation', in J. Schultz (ed.), Not Just Another Business: Journalists, Citizens and the Media, Pluto Press, Leichhardt, 1994, pp. 167-187; P. Chadwick, S. Ferguson and M. McAuslan, 'Shackled: The story of a regulatory slave', Media International Australia 77, August 1995, pp. 65-72.
34. E. Rogers and J.W. Dearing, 'Agenda-setting research: where it has been, where is it going?', in J.A. Anderson (ed.), Communication Yearbook 11, Sage, Beverly Hills, 1988, pp. 555-594; M. McCombs, 'Explorers and surveyors: expanding strategies for Agenda-setting research', Journalism Quarterly 69 (4), Winter 1992, pp. 813-824.
35. E. Rogers and J.W. Dearing, 'Agenda-setting research: where it has been, where is it going?', in J.A. Anderson (ed.), Communication Yearbook 11, Sage, Beverly Hills, 1988, pp. 555-594; M. McCombs, 'Explorers and surveyors: expanding strategies for Agenda-setting research', Journalism Quarterly 69 (4), Winter 1992, pp. 813-824.
36. M. Rush 'Pressure polities', in M. Rush (ed.), Parliament and Pressure Politics, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1990, pp. 3-16, implying a reactive than proactive model of source activity.
37. Halpern and Wood, in Halpern et al., Ref. 18. D. Lamberton, 'Communication in economic processes', in E. More and G. Lewis (eds), Australian Communications Technology and Policy, Centre for Information Studies, Kuringai, 1988, pp. 197-207; J.W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies 2nd edn. Harper Collins, New York, 1995; M. Howlett and M. Ramesh, Studying Public Policy: Policy Cycles and Policy Subsystems, Oxford University Press, Toronto, 1995.
38. Halpern and Wood, in Halpern et al., Ref. 18. D. Lamberton, 'Communication in economic processes', in E. More and G. Lewis (eds), Australian Communications Technology and Policy, Centre for Information Studies, Kuringai, 1988, pp. 197-207; J.W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies 2nd edn. Harper Collins, New York, 1995; M. Howlett and M. Ramesh, Studying Public Policy: Policy Cycles and Policy Subsystems, Oxford University Press, Toronto, 1995.
39. Halpern and Wood, in Halpern et al., Ref. 18. D. Lamberton, 'Communication in economic processes', in E. More and G. Lewis (eds), Australian Communications Technology and Policy, Centre for Information Studies, Kuringai, 1988, pp. 197-207; J.W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies 2nd edn. Harper Collins, New York, 1995; M. Howlett and M. Ramesh, Studying Public Policy: Policy Cycles and Policy Subsystems, Oxford University Press, Toronto, 1995.
40. Halpern and Wood, in Halpern et al., Ref. 18. D. Lamberton, 'Communication in economic processes', in E. More and G. Lewis (eds), Australian Communications Technology and Policy, Centre for Information Studies, Kuringai, 1988, pp. 197-207; J.W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies 2nd edn. Harper Collins, New York, 1995; M. Howlett and M. Ramesh, Studying Public Policy: Policy Cycles and Policy Subsystems, Oxford University Press, Toronto, 1995.
41. M. Armstrong, 'Introduction', in E. More and G. Lewis (eds), Australian Communications Technology and Policy, Centre for Information, Kuringai, 1988, pp. 3-12.
42. T. O'Regan, 'The background to TV networking', in E. More and G. Lewis (eds), Australian Communications Technology and Policy, Centre for Information Studies, Kuringai, 1988, pp. 126-143.
43. B. Grundy, 'Where is the News?: A content analysis of a week's TV news in Australia', in P. Edgar (ed.), The News in Focus, Macmillan, Melbourne, 1980, pp. 103-112.
44. M. Goot, 'The media and the campaign', in H. Penniman (ed.), Australia at the Polls: The National Elections of 1980 and 1983, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1983, pp. 140-215.
45. B. Butler, 'Politics, Public Relations and Prime-Time News: Comparative analyses of the roles of sources and journalists in building television news agendas in Australia in 1991 and 1993'. Unpublished PhD Dissertation. University of Queensland, St Lucia, 1996.
46. In order to isolate a subset of political news for analysis, I classified as political those stories that were about politicians or government, government announcements, references to industrial relations, disputes about public policy or maintaining power.
47. I am indebted to Leon Sigal, Reporters and Officials: The Organisation and Politics of News Reporting, Heath, Lexington, 1973, for the methodology for classifying newsgathering channels, the pathways by which information reaches reporters. I adapted his procedure for classifying newspaper newsgathering to television newsgathering.
48. B. Grundy, 'Who sets the news agenda: the turkeys or the chooks?' Australian Journalism Review, 11, 1989, pp. 147-154.
49. S. Iyengar and D.R. Kinder, News That Matters: Television and American Opinion, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1987.
50. I am indebted to R. Budd, 'Attention score: a device for measuring news play', Journalism Quarterly, 41(2), Spring 1964, pp. 259-262, for his methodology for measuring newsplay in newspapers which I adapted to measuring a prominence factor for television news stories.
51. Kingdon, op cit., p. 59, Ref. 23; T. H. Quaker, 'The role of the mass media in limiting the public agenda', in M. Margolis and G. Mauser (eds), Manipulating Public Opinion: Essays on Public Opinion as a Dependent Variable, Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, 1989, pp. 139-152; T. Nicholls, 'Canada's Middle Class: CBC and CTV provide differing perspectives on the prospects of the middle class', On Balance, Fraser Institute, X(9) 1997.
52. Kingdon, op cit., p. 59, Ref. 23; T. H. Quaker, 'The role of the mass media in limiting the public agenda', in M. Margolis and G. Mauser (eds), Manipulating Public Opinion: Essays on Public Opinion as a Dependent Variable, Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, 1989, pp. 139-152; T. Nicholls, 'Canada's Middle Class: CBC and CTV provide differing perspectives on the prospects of the middle class', On Balance, Fraser Institute, X(9) 1997.
53. Kingdon, op cit., p. 59, Ref. 23; T. H. Quaker, 'The role of the mass media in limiting the public agenda', in M. Margolis and G. Mauser (eds), Manipulating Public Opinion: Essays on Public Opinion as a Dependent Variable, Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, 1989, pp. 139-152; T. Nicholls, 'Canada's Middle Class: CBC and CTV provide differing perspectives on the prospects of the middle class', On Balance, Fraser Institute, X(9) 1997.
54. N.W. Polsby and A. Wildavsky, Presidential Elections: Contemporary Strategies of American Electoral Politics, 8th edn. Free Press, New York, 1991, p. 324.
55. P. Golding, 'Political communication and citizenship: the media and democracy in an inegalitarian social order', in M. Ferguson (ed.), Public Communication, the New Imperatives: Future Directions for Media Research, Sage, London, 1990, pp. 84-100. See also H. Semetko, 'Political balance on television: campaigns in the United States, Britain and Germany', Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 1996 (1), pp. 51-71.
56. P. Golding, 'Political communication and citizenship: the media and democracy in an inegalitarian social order', in M. Ferguson (ed.), Public Communication, the New Imperatives: Future Directions for Media Research, Sage, London, 1990, pp. 84-100. See also H. Semetko, 'Political balance on television: campaigns in the United States, Britain and Germany', Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 1996 (1), pp. 51-71.
57. Kingdon, op cit., pp. 85-86, Ref. 23.
58. B. Butler, 'Departures from the scripts: the struggle for control of campaign news agendas in recent British, American and Australian elections', in G. Crowder, H. Manning, D. S. Mathieson, A. Parkin and L. Seabrooke (Eds), Australasian Political Studies 1997 (1), Proceedings of the 1997 Annual Conference, Adelaide, Flinders University, September/October 1997, pp. 119-147.
59. Pokarier, op cit., Ref. 5.
60. Cunningham 1992, pp. 32-36; M. Price, 'The global weakening of public service broadcasting', Media International Australia, 83, February 1997, pp. 18-23.
61. Surveys of Australian journalists reveal that the majority rate their watchdog role as a most important one, see J. Henningham, 'Political journalists' political and professional values', Australian Journal of Political Science, 1995(3), pp. 321-334.
62. M. Hirst, 'MEAA Code of Ethics for Journalists: An historical and theoretical overview', Media International Australia, 83, February 1997, pp. 63-77.