Political sociology and contemporary China: State-society images in American China studies

Journal of Contemporary China

Volumn 7, Issue 18, 1998, Pages 205-227

  Wank, David L ^a,b,c  

^a OBERLIN COLLEGE   (United States)

^b HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c SOPHIA UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 11544327790     PISSN: 10670564     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10670569808724313     Document Type: Article

References (193)

1. For overviews of the state and society concept in political sociology see: Robert R. Alford and Roger Friedland, Powers of Theory: Capitalism, the State, and Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, eds, Bringing the State back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Alfred Stepan, 'Liberal-pluralist, classic Marxist, and "organic-statist" approaches to the state', ch. 1 in The State and Society: Peru in Comparative Perspective (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978).
2. For overviews of the state and society concept in political sociology see: Robert R. Alford and Roger Friedland, Powers of Theory: Capitalism, the State, and Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, eds, Bringing the State back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Alfred Stepan, 'Liberal-pluralist, classic Marxist, and "organic-statist" approaches to the state', ch. 1 in The State and Society: Peru in Comparative Perspective (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978).
3. For overviews of the state and society concept in political sociology see: Robert R. Alford and Roger Friedland, Powers of Theory: Capitalism, the State, and Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, eds, Bringing the State back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Alfred Stepan, 'Liberal-pluralist, classic Marxist, and "organic-statist" approaches to the state', ch. 1 in The State and Society: Peru in Comparative Perspective (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978).
4. For other review essays see: David Mozingo and Victor Nee, 'Introduction', in V. Nee and D. Mozingo, eds, State and Society in Contemporary China (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983); Vivienne Shue, The Reach of the State: Sketches of the Body Politic (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988); Elizabeth J. Perry, 'Trends in the study of Chinese politics: state-society relations', The China Quarterly 139, (September 1994), pp. 704-713.
5. For other review essays see: David Mozingo and Victor Nee, 'Introduction', in V. Nee and D. Mozingo, eds, State and Society in Contemporary China (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983); Vivienne Shue, The Reach of the State: Sketches of the Body Politic (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988); Elizabeth J. Perry, 'Trends in the study of Chinese politics: state-society relations', The China Quarterly 139, (September 1994), pp. 704-713.
6. For other review essays see: David Mozingo and Victor Nee, 'Introduction', in V. Nee and D. Mozingo, eds, State and Society in Contemporary China (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983); Vivienne Shue, The Reach of the State: Sketches of the Body Politic (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988); Elizabeth J. Perry, 'Trends in the study of Chinese politics: state-society relations', The China Quarterly 139, (September 1994), pp. 704-713.
7. This section draws on Anthony Orum's review article of political sociology. Anthony M. Orum, 'Political sociology', in N. J. Smelser, ed., Handbook of Sociology (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988).
8. Karl Marx, 'Manifesto of the Communist Party', in R. C. Tucker, ed., The Marx-Engels Reader (New York: W. W. Norton, [1848] 1978), p. 475.
9. Frederick Engels, 'The origin of the family, private property, and the state', in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Selected Works in Two Volumes, Vol. II (London: Lawrence and Wishart, [1884] 1950).
10. Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), pp. 926-938.
11. Weber, op. cit., pp. 212-271.
12. Max Weber, 'Politics as a vocation', in From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, Trans. by H. H. Gerth and C. W. Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, [1919] 1958), p. 78.
13. Max Weber, 'Parliament and government in a reconstructed Germany', in Economy and Society, pp. 1393-1403.
14. Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society, Trans. by G. Simpson (New York: The Free Press, 1964).
15. The other two subsystems are the economic subsystem which lets society adapt to the environment and the latency subsystem which enables societies to reproduce. See Talcott Parsons, Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1966); The System of Modern Society (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1971).
16. The other two subsystems are the economic subsystem which lets society adapt to the environment and the latency subsystem which enables societies to reproduce. See Talcott Parsons, Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1966); The System of Modern Society (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1971).
17. Parsons, Societies.
18. Talcott Parsons, 'An outline of the social system', in Talcott Parsons et al., eds, Theories of Society, Vol. I (New York: Free Press, 1961), p. 70, ff.
19. For a review of this literature see T. B. Bottomore, Elites and Society (London: C. A. Watts, 1964).
20. Gaetano Mosca, The Ruling Class, Trans, by H. D. Kahn (New York: McGraw Hill, [1896] 1939), p. 50.
21. Robert Michels, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (New York: Collier-Macmillan, [1915] 1962).
22. The view of the party-state as the main agent is Lenin's contribution to Marxism. The view of China as exploited and peasants as participants in the political process is Mao's contribution.
23. Charles Bettleheim, Cultural Revolution and Industrial Organization in China: Changes in Management and the Division of Labor (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974), pp. 104-105.
24. Michel Chossudovsky, Towards Capitalist Restoration? Chinese Socialism After Mao (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986), pp. 220-221.
25. Arif Dirlik and Maurice Meisner, 'Politics, scholarship, and Chinese socialism', in A. Dirlik and M. Meisner, eds, Marxism and the Chinese Experience (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1989).
26. Lucian W. Pye, The Spirit of Chinese Policies, 2nd edn (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, [1968] 1992), p. 236.
27. Pye, op. cit., pp. 238-239.
28. Richard H. Solomon, Mao's Revolution and the Chinese Political Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), p. 4.
29. Solomon, op. cit., p. 6.
30. Pye, op. cit., pp. 12-13.
31. Solomon, op. cit., pp. 4-5.
32. Richard D. Madsen, Power and Morality in a Chinese Village (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984).
33. Examples of the totalitarian image in East European and Soviet contexts are: Hannah Arendt, Totalitarianism (Part 3, The Origins of Totalitarianism) (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1951); Zbigniew Brezezinski, The Permanent Purge (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956); Carl. J. Friedrich, 'The unique character of totalitarian society', in C. J. Friedrich, ed., Totalilarianism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1954); Bertam Wolfe, Communist Totalitarianism (Boston: Beacon, 1956).
34. Examples of the totalitarian image in East European and Soviet contexts are: Hannah Arendt, Totalitarianism (Part 3, The Origins of Totalitarianism) (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1951); Zbigniew Brezezinski, The Permanent Purge (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956); Carl. J. Friedrich, 'The unique character of totalitarian society', in C. J. Friedrich, ed., Totalilarianism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1954); Bertam Wolfe, Communist Totalitarianism (Boston: Beacon, 1956).
35. Examples of the totalitarian image in East European and Soviet contexts are: Hannah Arendt, Totalitarianism (Part 3, The Origins of Totalitarianism) (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1951); Zbigniew Brezezinski, The Permanent Purge (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956); Carl. J. Friedrich, 'The unique character of totalitarian society', in C. J. Friedrich, ed., Totalilarianism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1954); Bertam Wolfe, Communist Totalitarianism (Boston: Beacon, 1956).
36. Examples of the totalitarian image in East European and Soviet contexts are: Hannah Arendt, Totalitarianism (Part 3, The Origins of Totalitarianism) (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1951); Zbigniew Brezezinski, The Permanent Purge (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956); Carl. J. Friedrich, 'The unique character of totalitarian society', in C. J. Friedrich, ed., Totalilarianism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1954); Bertam Wolfe, Communist Totalitarianism (Boston: Beacon, 1956).
37. William Kernhauser, The Politics of Mass Society (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1959), p. 32.
38. See, for example: Karl J. Friedrich, Michael Curtis, and Benjamin R. Barber, Totalitarianism in Perspective (New York: Praeger, 1969); Alex Kassof, 'The administered society: totalitarianism without terror', World Politics 12, (July 1964), pp. 558-575.
39. See, for example: Karl J. Friedrich, Michael Curtis, and Benjamin R. Barber, Totalitarianism in Perspective (New York: Praeger, 1969); Alex Kassof, 'The administered society: totalitarianism without terror', World Politics 12, (July 1964), pp. 558-575.
40. Karl A. Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power (New York: Vintage Books, [1957] 1981).
41. See Tang Tsou, 'Back from the brink of revolutionary - "feudal" totalitarianism', in Nee and Mozingo, op. cit.
42. Peasant Power in China, p. 31. See also Xueguang Zhou, 'Unorganized interests and collective action in communist China', American Sociological Review 58, (February 1993), pp. 54-73. For East Europe, see Vaclav Havel, The Power of the Powerless: Citizens Against the State in Central-Eastern Europe (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1985). For a general theory, see James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985).
43. Peasant Power in China, p. 31. See also Xueguang Zhou, 'Unorganized interests and collective action in communist China', American Sociological Review 58, (February 1993), pp. 54-73. For East Europe, see Vaclav Havel, The Power of the Powerless: Citizens Against the State in Central-Eastern Europe (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1985). For a general theory, see James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985).
44. Peasant Power in China, p. 31. See also Xueguang Zhou, 'Unorganized interests and collective action in communist China', American Sociological Review 58, (February 1993), pp. 54-73. For East Europe, see Vaclav Havel, The Power of the Powerless: Citizens Against the State in Central-Eastern Europe (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1985). For a general theory, see James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985).
45. Peasant Power in China, p. 31. See also Xueguang Zhou, 'Unorganized interests and collective action in communist China', American Sociological Review 58, (February 1993), pp. 54-73. For East Europe, see Vaclav Havel, The Power of the Powerless: Citizens Against the State in Central-Eastern Europe (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1985). For a general theory, see James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985).
46. Kelliher, op. cit., p. x.
47. Franz Schurmann, Ideology and Organization in Communist China, 2nd edn (Berkeley: University of California Press, [1966] 1968), p. xxxix.
48. The rest of this study focuses on what Schurmann defined as 'state and society' and the closely related concept of 'center and local'.
49. This emphasis on class and society is found in the 2nd edition of Ideology and Organization in the Supplement. It reflects a departure from the statist orientation of the first edition to recognition that social forces that are not derived from the state's ideology and organization also shape the polity and economy. See Schurmann, op. cit., pp. 504-505.
50. Ibid., p. 3.
51. Ibid., p. 14.
52. Ibid., p. 18.
53. For example one scholar writes: 'The historical process since 1840 can in some ways be seen as a series of cultural revolutions struggling to create the correct consciousness and ethics for building a new China, and the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution as a dramatic new stage in that struggle' (Kung Chung-wu, 'Cultural revolutions in modern Chinese history', in Victor Nee and James Peck, eds, China's Uninterrupted Revolution [New York: Pantheon, 1973], p. 317).
54. Schurmann, op. cit., p. 14.
55. Schurmann's distinction parallels Mao's distinction between 'theory' and 'thought'.
56. Ezra F. Vogel, Canton Under Communism: Programs and Policies in a Provincial Capital 1949-1968 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), p. 11.
57. See also William Hinton, Fanshen: A Documentary of Revolution in a Chinese Village (New York: Vintage, 1968). Vogel has written a sequel that examines Guangdong since 1978; see Ezra F. Vogel, One Step Ahead in China: Guangdong Under Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989).
58. See also William Hinton, Fanshen: A Documentary of Revolution in a Chinese Village (New York: Vintage, 1968). Vogel has written a sequel that examines Guangdong since 1978; see Ezra F. Vogel, One Step Ahead in China: Guangdong Under Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989).
59. Martin King Whtye, Small Groups and Political Rituals in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974).
60. A concern with mentalities and compliance is seen in several articles by Ezra F. Vogel: 'From friendship to comradeship: the change in personal relations in communist China', The China Quarterly 21, (January-March 1965), pp. 46-60; 'Voluntarism and social control', in D. T. Treadgold, ed., Soviet and Chinese Communism: Similarities and Differences (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1967), pp. 168-184.
61. A concern with mentalities and compliance is seen in several articles by Ezra F. Vogel: 'From friendship to comradeship: the change in personal relations in communist China', The China Quarterly 21, (January-March 1965), pp. 46-60; 'Voluntarism and social control', in D. T. Treadgold, ed., Soviet and Chinese Communism: Similarities and Differences (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1967), pp. 168-184.
62. Richard C. Kraus, Class Conflict in Chinese Socialism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981). See also Vivienne Shue, Peasant China in Transition: The Dynamic of the Development Toward Socialism, 1949-1956 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980).
63. Richard C. Kraus, Class Conflict in Chinese Socialism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981). See also Vivienne Shue, Peasant China in Transition: The Dynamic of the Development Toward Socialism, 1949-1956 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980).
64. Susan Shirk, Competitive Comrades: Career Incentives and Student Strategies in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982). Shirk's insight is foreshadowed by Vogel's analysis of how the party defined bureaucratic rank for cadres by standards of devotion to communism and loyalty to the party. Ezra F. Vogel, 'From revolutionary to semi-bureaucrat: the regularization of cadres', The China Quarterly 29, (January-March 1967).
65. Susan Shirk, Competitive Comrades: Career Incentives and Student Strategies in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982). Shirk's insight is foreshadowed by Vogel's analysis of how the party defined bureaucratic rank for cadres by standards of devotion to communism and loyalty to the party. Ezra F. Vogel, 'From revolutionary to semi-bureaucrat: the regularization of cadres', The China Quarterly 29, (January-March 1967).
66. Andrew G. Walder, Communist Neo-Traditionalism: Work and Authority in Chinese Industry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). For a parallel argument for rural areas, see Jean C. Oi, 'Communism and clientelism: rural politics in China', World Politics 38(2), (1985), pp. 238-266; State and Peasant in Contemporary China: The Political Economy of Village Government (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989).
67. Andrew G. Walder, Communist Neo-Traditionalism: Work and Authority in Chinese Industry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). For a parallel argument for rural areas, see Jean C. Oi, 'Communism and clientelism: rural politics in China', World Politics 38(2), (1985), pp. 238-266; State and Peasant in Contemporary China: The Political Economy of Village Government (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989).
68. Andrew G. Walder, Communist Neo-Traditionalism: Work and Authority in Chinese Industry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). For a parallel argument for rural areas, see Jean C. Oi, 'Communism and clientelism: rural politics in China', World Politics 38(2), (1985), pp. 238-266; State and Peasant in Contemporary China: The Political Economy of Village Government (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989).
69. Key works of sociological theory informing Walder's analysis are: Peter Blau, Exchange and Power in Social Life (New York: Wiley, 1964); Arthur Stinchcombe, 'Social structure and organizations', in J. March, ed., Handbook of Organizations (Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1965), pp. 142-193.
70. Key works of sociological theory informing Walder's analysis are: Peter Blau, Exchange and Power in Social Life (New York: Wiley, 1964); Arthur Stinchcombe, 'Social structure and organizations', in J. March, ed., Handbook of Organizations (Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1965), pp. 142-193.
71. Patron-client ties are personalized, long-term, and mutually beneficial exchanges between persons of unequal power. See S. N. Eisenstadt and L. Roniger, Patrons, Clients and Friends: Interpersonal Relations and the Structure of Trust in Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
72. Andrew G. Walder, 'The decline of communist power: elements of a theory of institutional change', Theory and Society 23, (1994), pp. 297-323.
73. Clifford Gcertz, 'Thick description: towards an interpretive theory of culture', in The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973); 'Centers, kinds, and charisma: reflections on the symbolics of power', in Joseph Ben-David and Terry Nichols Clark, eds, Culture and its Creators: Essays in Honor of Edward Shils (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977); Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth Century Bali (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980); 'From the native's point of view: on the nature of anthropological understanding', in R. Shweder and R. Levine, eds, Culture Theory: Essays on the Mind, Self and Emotion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
74. Clifford Gcertz, 'Thick description: towards an interpretive theory of culture', in The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973); 'Centers, kinds, and charisma: reflections on the symbolics of power', in Joseph Ben-David and Terry Nichols Clark, eds, Culture and its Creators: Essays in Honor of Edward Shils (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977); Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth Century Bali (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980); 'From the native's point of view: on the nature of anthropological understanding', in R. Shweder and R. Levine, eds, Culture Theory: Essays on the Mind, Self and Emotion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
75. Clifford Gcertz, 'Thick description: towards an interpretive theory of culture', in The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973); 'Centers, kinds, and charisma: reflections on the symbolics of power', in Joseph Ben-David and Terry Nichols Clark, eds, Culture and its Creators: Essays in Honor of Edward Shils (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977); Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth Century Bali (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980); 'From the native's point of view: on the nature of anthropological understanding', in R. Shweder and R. Levine, eds, Culture Theory: Essays on the Mind, Self and Emotion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
76. Clifford Gcertz, 'Thick description: towards an interpretive theory of culture', in The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973); 'Centers, kinds, and charisma: reflections on the symbolics of power', in Joseph Ben-David and Terry Nichols Clark, eds, Culture and its Creators: Essays in Honor of Edward Shils (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977); Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth Century Bali (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980); 'From the native's point of view: on the nature of anthropological understanding', in R. Shweder and R. Levine, eds, Culture Theory: Essays on the Mind, Self and Emotion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
77. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, Trans. by A. Sheridan (New York: Vintage, 1979); The History of Sexuality, Vol. 1, Trans. by R. Hurley (New York: Random House, 1980).
78. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, Trans. by A. Sheridan (New York: Vintage, 1979); The History of Sexuality, Vol. 1, Trans. by R. Hurley (New York: Random House, 1980).
79. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, Trans. by R. Nice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977). Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1984); The Consequences of Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990); Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991).
80. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, Trans. by R. Nice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977). Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1984); The Consequences of Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990); Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991).
81. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, Trans. by R. Nice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977). Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1984); The Consequences of Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990); Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991).
82. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, Trans. by R. Nice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977). Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1984); The Consequences of Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990); Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991).
83. Yang, Gifts. Favors and Banquets, p. 189.
84. Yang grounds her discussion of exchange relations in economic anthropology. See Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation; Marcel Mauss, The Gift, Trans, by I. Cunnison (New York: W. W. Norton, 1967).
85. Yang grounds her discussion of exchange relations in economic anthropology. See Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation; Marcel Mauss, The Gift, Trans, by I. Cunnison (New York: W. W. Norton, 1967).
86. William G. Skinner, 'Marketing and social structure in rural China', Journal of Asian Studies 24(1), pp. 3-43, 24(2), pp. 195-228, 24(3), pp. 363-399, (1964,1965); 'Chinese peasants and the closed community: an open and shut case', Comparative Studies in Society and History 13(3), pp. 270-281.
87. William G. Skinner, 'Marketing and social structure in rural China', Journal of Asian Studies 24(1), pp. 3-43, 24(2), pp. 195-228, 24(3), pp. 363-399, (1964,1965); 'Chinese peasants and the closed community: an open and shut case', Comparative Studies in Society and History 13(3), pp. 270-281.
88. William G. Skinner, 'Marketing and social structure in rural China', Journal of Asian Studies 24(1), pp. 3-43, 24(2), pp. 195-228, 24(3), pp. 363-399, (1964,1965); 'Chinese peasants and the closed community: an open and shut case', Comparative Studies in Society and History 13(3), pp. 270-281.
89. William G. Skinner, 'Marketing and social structure in rural China', Journal of Asian Studies 24(1), pp. 3-43, 24(2), pp. 195-228, 24(3), pp. 363-399, (1964,1965); 'Chinese peasants and the closed community: an open and shut case', Comparative Studies in Society and History 13(3), pp. 270-281.
90. See Helen F. Siu, Agents and Victims in Rural China: Accomplices in Rural Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989). For a theoretical discussion, see Vivienne Shue, 'Honeycomb and web: the process of change in rural China', in Shue, op. cit.
91. See Helen F. Siu, Agents and Victims in Rural China: Accomplices in Rural Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989). For a theoretical discussion, see Vivienne Shue, 'Honeycomb and web: the process of change in rural China', in Shue, op. cit.
92. These developments are represented in a sampling of recent edited volumes along the theme of state and society relation in the reform era. Richard Baum, ed., Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen (New York: Routledge, 1991); Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel, eds, Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press for the Council on East Asian Studies, 1990); Deborah S. Davis et al., eds, Urban Spaces in Contemporary China: The Potential for Autonomy and Community in Post-Mao China (Cambridge: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Cambridge University Press, 1995); Dirlik and Meisner, Marxism and the Chinese Experience; David S. G. Goodman and Beverly Hooper, eds, China's Quiet Revolution: New Interactions Between State and Society (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994); Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz, eds, Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989); Arthur L. Rosenbaum, ed., State & Society in China: The Consequences of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1992). For two edited volumes that are explicitly comparative see: Victor Nee and David Stark, eds, Remaking the Economic Institutions of Socialism: China and Eastern Europe (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989); and Andrew G. Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in China and Hungary (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). The introductory chapters of these two volumes are overviews of the theme of state and society in comparative communist studies. For two book-length treatments of the reform era that use a state-society perspective, see Dorothy J. Solinger, China's Transition from Socialism: Statist Legacies and Market Reforms (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993); and Gordon White, Riding the Tiger, The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).
93. These developments are represented in a sampling of recent edited volumes along the theme of state and society relation in the reform era. Richard Baum, ed., Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen (New York: Routledge, 1991); Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel, eds, Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press for the Council on East Asian Studies, 1990); Deborah S. Davis et al., eds, Urban Spaces in Contemporary China: The Potential for Autonomy and Community in Post-Mao China (Cambridge: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Cambridge University Press, 1995); Dirlik and Meisner, Marxism and the Chinese Experience; David S. G. Goodman and Beverly Hooper, eds, China's Quiet Revolution: New Interactions Between State and Society (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994); Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz, eds, Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989); Arthur L. Rosenbaum, ed., State & Society in China: The Consequences of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1992). For two edited volumes that are explicitly comparative see: Victor Nee and David Stark, eds, Remaking the Economic Institutions of Socialism: China and Eastern Europe (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989); and Andrew G. Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in China and Hungary (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). The introductory chapters of these two volumes are overviews of the theme of state and society in comparative communist studies. For two book-length treatments of the reform era that use a state-society perspective, see Dorothy J. Solinger, China's Transition from Socialism: Statist Legacies and Market Reforms (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993); and Gordon White, Riding the Tiger, The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).
94. These developments are represented in a sampling of recent edited volumes along the theme of state and society relation in the reform era. Richard Baum, ed., Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen (New York: Routledge, 1991); Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel, eds, Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press for the Council on East Asian Studies, 1990); Deborah S. Davis et al., eds, Urban Spaces in Contemporary China: The Potential for Autonomy and Community in Post-Mao China (Cambridge: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Cambridge University Press, 1995); Dirlik and Meisner, Marxism and the Chinese Experience; David S. G. Goodman and Beverly Hooper, eds, China's Quiet Revolution: New Interactions Between State and Society (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994); Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz, eds, Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989); Arthur L. Rosenbaum, ed., State & Society in China: The Consequences of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1992). For two edited volumes that are explicitly comparative see: Victor Nee and David Stark, eds, Remaking the Economic Institutions of Socialism: China and Eastern Europe (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989); and Andrew G. Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in China and Hungary (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). The introductory chapters of these two volumes are overviews of the theme of state and society in comparative communist studies. For two book-length treatments of the reform era that use a state-society perspective, see Dorothy J. Solinger, China's Transition from Socialism: Statist Legacies and Market Reforms (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993); and Gordon White, Riding the Tiger, The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).
95. These developments are represented in a sampling of recent edited volumes along the theme of state and society relation in the reform era. Richard Baum, ed., Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen (New York: Routledge, 1991); Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel, eds, Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press for the Council on East Asian Studies, 1990); Deborah S. Davis et al., eds, Urban Spaces in Contemporary China: The Potential for Autonomy and Community in Post-Mao China (Cambridge: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Cambridge University Press, 1995); Dirlik and Meisner, Marxism and the Chinese Experience; David S. G. Goodman and Beverly Hooper, eds, China's Quiet Revolution: New Interactions Between State and Society (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994); Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz, eds, Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989); Arthur L. Rosenbaum, ed., State & Society in China: The Consequences of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1992). For two edited volumes that are explicitly comparative see: Victor Nee and David Stark, eds, Remaking the Economic Institutions of Socialism: China and Eastern Europe (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989); and Andrew G. Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in China and Hungary (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). The introductory chapters of these two volumes are overviews of the theme of state and society in comparative communist studies. For two book-length treatments of the reform era that use a state-society perspective, see Dorothy J. Solinger, China's Transition from Socialism: Statist Legacies and Market Reforms (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993); and Gordon White, Riding the Tiger, The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).
96. These developments are represented in a sampling of recent edited volumes along the theme of state and society relation in the reform era. Richard Baum, ed., Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen (New York: Routledge, 1991); Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel, eds, Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press for the Council on East Asian Studies, 1990); Deborah S. Davis et al., eds, Urban Spaces in Contemporary China: The Potential for Autonomy and Community in Post-Mao China (Cambridge: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Cambridge University Press, 1995); Dirlik and Meisner, Marxism and the Chinese Experience; David S. G. Goodman and Beverly Hooper, eds, China's Quiet Revolution: New Interactions Between State and Society (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994); Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz, eds, Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989); Arthur L. Rosenbaum, ed., State & Society in China: The Consequences of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1992). For two edited volumes that are explicitly comparative see: Victor Nee and David Stark, eds, Remaking the Economic Institutions of Socialism: China and Eastern Europe (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989); and Andrew G. Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in China and Hungary (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). The introductory chapters of these two volumes are overviews of the theme of state and society in comparative communist studies. For two book-length treatments of the reform era that use a state-society perspective, see Dorothy J. Solinger, China's Transition from Socialism: Statist Legacies and Market Reforms (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993); and Gordon White, Riding the Tiger, The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).
97. These developments are represented in a sampling of recent edited volumes along the theme of state and society relation in the reform era. Richard Baum, ed., Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen (New York: Routledge, 1991); Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel, eds, Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press for the Council on East Asian Studies, 1990); Deborah S. Davis et al., eds, Urban Spaces in Contemporary China: The Potential for Autonomy and Community in Post-Mao China (Cambridge: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Cambridge University Press, 1995); Dirlik and Meisner, Marxism and the Chinese Experience; David S. G. Goodman and Beverly Hooper, eds, China's Quiet Revolution: New Interactions Between State and Society (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994); Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz, eds, Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989); Arthur L. Rosenbaum, ed., State & Society in China: The Consequences of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1992). For two edited volumes that are explicitly comparative see: Victor Nee and David Stark, eds, Remaking the Economic Institutions of Socialism: China and Eastern Europe (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989); and Andrew G. Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in China and Hungary (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). The introductory chapters of these two volumes are overviews of the theme of state and society in comparative communist studies. For two book-length treatments of the reform era that use a state-society perspective, see Dorothy J. Solinger, China's Transition from Socialism: Statist Legacies and Market Reforms (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993); and Gordon White, Riding the Tiger, The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).
98. These developments are represented in a sampling of recent edited volumes along the theme of state and society relation in the reform era. Richard Baum, ed., Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen (New York: Routledge, 1991); Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel, eds, Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press for the Council on East Asian Studies, 1990); Deborah S. Davis et al., eds, Urban Spaces in Contemporary China: The Potential for Autonomy and Community in Post-Mao China (Cambridge: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Cambridge University Press, 1995); Dirlik and Meisner, Marxism and the Chinese Experience; David S. G. Goodman and Beverly Hooper, eds, China's Quiet Revolution: New Interactions Between State and Society (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994); Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz, eds, Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989); Arthur L. Rosenbaum, ed., State & Society in China: The Consequences of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1992). For two edited volumes that are explicitly comparative see: Victor Nee and David Stark, eds, Remaking the Economic Institutions of Socialism: China and Eastern Europe (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989); and Andrew G. Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in China and Hungary (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). The introductory chapters of these two volumes are overviews of the theme of state and society in comparative communist studies. For two book-length treatments of the reform era that use a state-society perspective, see Dorothy J. Solinger, China's Transition from Socialism: Statist Legacies and Market Reforms (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993); and Gordon White, Riding the Tiger, The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).
99. These developments are represented in a sampling of recent edited volumes along the theme of state and society relation in the reform era. Richard Baum, ed., Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen (New York: Routledge, 1991); Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel, eds, Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press for the Council on East Asian Studies, 1990); Deborah S. Davis et al., eds, Urban Spaces in Contemporary China: The Potential for Autonomy and Community in Post-Mao China (Cambridge: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Cambridge University Press, 1995); Dirlik and Meisner, Marxism and the Chinese Experience; David S. G. Goodman and Beverly Hooper, eds, China's Quiet Revolution: New Interactions Between State and Society (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994); Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz, eds, Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989); Arthur L. Rosenbaum, ed., State & Society in China: The Consequences of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1992). For two edited volumes that are explicitly comparative see: Victor Nee and David Stark, eds, Remaking the Economic Institutions of Socialism: China and Eastern Europe (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989); and Andrew G. Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in China and Hungary (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). The introductory chapters of these two volumes are overviews of the theme of state and society in comparative communist studies. For two book-length treatments of the reform era that use a state-society perspective, see Dorothy J. Solinger, China's Transition from Socialism: Statist Legacies and Market Reforms (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993); and Gordon White, Riding the Tiger, The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).
100. These developments are represented in a sampling of recent edited volumes along the theme of state and society relation in the reform era. Richard Baum, ed., Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen (New York: Routledge, 1991); Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel, eds, Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press for the Council on East Asian Studies, 1990); Deborah S. Davis et al., eds, Urban Spaces in Contemporary China: The Potential for Autonomy and Community in Post-Mao China (Cambridge: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Cambridge University Press, 1995); Dirlik and Meisner, Marxism and the Chinese Experience; David S. G. Goodman and Beverly Hooper, eds, China's Quiet Revolution: New Interactions Between State and Society (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994); Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz, eds, Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989); Arthur L. Rosenbaum, ed., State & Society in China: The Consequences of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1992). For two edited volumes that are explicitly comparative see: Victor Nee and David Stark, eds, Remaking the Economic Institutions of Socialism: China and Eastern Europe (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989); and Andrew G. Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in China and Hungary (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). The introductory chapters of these two volumes are overviews of the theme of state and society in comparative communist studies. For two book-length treatments of the reform era that use a state-society perspective, see Dorothy J. Solinger, China's Transition from Socialism: Statist Legacies and Market Reforms (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993); and Gordon White, Riding the Tiger, The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).
101. These developments are represented in a sampling of recent edited volumes along the theme of state and society relation in the reform era. Richard Baum, ed., Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen (New York: Routledge, 1991); Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel, eds, Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press for the Council on East Asian Studies, 1990); Deborah S. Davis et al., eds, Urban Spaces in Contemporary China: The Potential for Autonomy and Community in Post-Mao China (Cambridge: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Cambridge University Press, 1995); Dirlik and Meisner, Marxism and the Chinese Experience; David S. G. Goodman and Beverly Hooper, eds, China's Quiet Revolution: New Interactions Between State and Society (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994); Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz, eds, Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989); Arthur L. Rosenbaum, ed., State & Society in China: The Consequences of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1992). For two edited volumes that are explicitly comparative see: Victor Nee and David Stark, eds, Remaking the Economic Institutions of Socialism: China and Eastern Europe (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989); and Andrew G. Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in China and Hungary (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). The introductory chapters of these two volumes are overviews of the theme of state and society in comparative communist studies. For two book-length treatments of the reform era that use a state-society perspective, see Dorothy J. Solinger, China's Transition from Socialism: Statist Legacies and Market Reforms (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993); and Gordon White, Riding the Tiger, The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).
102. These developments are represented in a sampling of recent edited volumes along the theme of state and society relation in the reform era. Richard Baum, ed., Reform and Reaction in Post-Mao China: The Road to Tiananmen (New York: Routledge, 1991); Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel, eds, Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press for the Council on East Asian Studies, 1990); Deborah S. Davis et al., eds, Urban Spaces in Contemporary China: The Potential for Autonomy and Community in Post-Mao China (Cambridge: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Cambridge University Press, 1995); Dirlik and Meisner, Marxism and the Chinese Experience; David S. G. Goodman and Beverly Hooper, eds, China's Quiet Revolution: New Interactions Between State and Society (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994); Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz, eds, Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989); Arthur L. Rosenbaum, ed., State & Society in China: The Consequences of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1992). For two edited volumes that are explicitly comparative see: Victor Nee and David Stark, eds, Remaking the Economic Institutions of Socialism: China and Eastern Europe (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989); and Andrew G. Walder, ed., The Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of Political Decline in China and Hungary (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). The introductory chapters of these two volumes are overviews of the theme of state and society in comparative communist studies. For two book-length treatments of the reform era that use a state-society perspective, see Dorothy J. Solinger, China's Transition from Socialism: Statist Legacies and Market Reforms (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993); and Gordon White, Riding the Tiger, The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).
103. Anita Chan, Richard Madsen, and Jonathan Unger, Chen Village Under Mao and Deng (Berkeley: University of California Press, [1984] 1992). Edward Friedman, Paul G. Pickowicz and Mark Selden, Chinese Village, Socialist State (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991); Huang Shu-min, The Spiral Road: Change in a Chinese Village Through the Eyes of a Communist Party Leader (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989); Siu, op. cit.
104. Anita Chan, Richard Madsen, and Jonathan Unger, Chen Village Under Mao and Deng (Berkeley: University of California Press, [1984] 1992). Edward Friedman, Paul G. Pickowicz and Mark Selden, Chinese Village, Socialist State (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991); Huang Shu-min, The Spiral Road: Change in a Chinese Village Through the Eyes of a Communist Party Leader (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989); Siu, op. cit.
105. Anita Chan, Richard Madsen, and Jonathan Unger, Chen Village Under Mao and Deng (Berkeley: University of California Press, [1984] 1992). Edward Friedman, Paul G. Pickowicz and Mark Selden, Chinese Village, Socialist State (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991); Huang Shu-min, The Spiral Road: Change in a Chinese Village Through the Eyes of a Communist Party Leader (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989); Siu, op. cit.
106. Anita Chan, Richard Madsen, and Jonathan Unger, Chen Village Under Mao and Deng (Berkeley: University of California Press, [1984] 1992). Edward Friedman, Paul G. Pickowicz and Mark Selden, Chinese Village, Socialist State (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991); Huang Shu-min, The Spiral Road: Change in a Chinese Village Through the Eyes of a Communist Party Leader (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989); Siu, op. cit.
107. Martin King Whyte and William L. Parish, Urban Life in Contemporary China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984).
108. In anthropology and sociology this line stems to the classic works of Fei, Fried, and Hu Fei Xiaotong, From the Soil: The Foundations of Chinese Society, Trans. By, G. G. Hamilton and Wang Zheng (Berkeley: University of California Press, [1947] 1992); Morton Fried, The Fabric of Chinese Society (New York: Praeger, 1953); Hu Hsien-chin, 'The Chinese concept of "face"', American Anthropologist 46, (1944). Although the term 'network' was invoked in the managerial image by Schurmann and Walder, it was not conceptually robust. However, Walder showed how networks functioned as sources of stability and conflict in work units. Until recently the richest work on networks in Chinese contexts stemmed from research on Taiwan. See Susan Greenhalgh, 'Networks and their nodes: urban society on Taiwan', The China Quarterly 99, (September 1984), pp. 529-552; Bruce Jacobs, 'A preliminary model of particularistic ties in Chinese political alliances: Kan-ch'ing and Kuan-hsi in a rural Taiwanese township', The China Quarterly 78, (June 1979).
109. In anthropology and sociology this line stems to the classic works of Fei, Fried, and Hu Fei Xiaotong, From the Soil: The Foundations of Chinese Society, Trans. By, G. G. Hamilton and Wang Zheng (Berkeley: University of California Press, [1947] 1992); Morton Fried, The Fabric of Chinese Society (New York: Praeger, 1953); Hu Hsien-chin, 'The Chinese concept of "face"', American Anthropologist 46, (1944). Although the term 'network' was invoked in the managerial image by Schurmann and Walder, it was not conceptually robust. However, Walder showed how networks functioned as sources of stability and conflict in work units. Until recently the richest work on networks in Chinese contexts stemmed from research on Taiwan. See Susan Greenhalgh, 'Networks and their nodes: urban society on Taiwan', The China Quarterly 99, (September 1984), pp. 529-552; Bruce Jacobs, 'A preliminary model of particularistic ties in Chinese political alliances: Kan-ch'ing and Kuan-hsi in a rural Taiwanese township', The China Quarterly 78, (June 1979).
110. In anthropology and sociology this line stems to the classic works of Fei, Fried, and Hu Fei Xiaotong, From the Soil: The Foundations of Chinese Society, Trans. By, G. G. Hamilton and Wang Zheng (Berkeley: University of California Press, [1947] 1992); Morton Fried, The Fabric of Chinese Society (New York: Praeger, 1953); Hu Hsien-chin, 'The Chinese concept of "face"', American Anthropologist 46, (1944). Although the term 'network' was invoked in the managerial image by Schurmann and Walder, it was not conceptually robust. However, Walder showed how networks functioned as sources of stability and conflict in work units. Until recently the richest work on networks in Chinese contexts stemmed from research on Taiwan. See Susan Greenhalgh, 'Networks and their nodes: urban society on Taiwan', The China Quarterly 99, (September 1984), pp. 529-552; Bruce Jacobs, 'A preliminary model of particularistic ties in Chinese political alliances: Kan-ch'ing and Kuan-hsi in a rural Taiwanese township', The China Quarterly 78, (June 1979).
111. In anthropology and sociology this line stems to the classic works of Fei, Fried, and Hu Fei Xiaotong, From the Soil: The Foundations of Chinese Society, Trans. By, G. G. Hamilton and Wang Zheng (Berkeley: University of California Press, [1947] 1992); Morton Fried, The Fabric of Chinese Society (New York: Praeger, 1953); Hu Hsien-chin, 'The Chinese concept of "face"', American Anthropologist 46, (1944). Although the term 'network' was invoked in the managerial image by Schurmann and Walder, it was not conceptually robust. However, Walder showed how networks functioned as sources of stability and conflict in work units. Until recently the richest work on networks in Chinese contexts stemmed from research on Taiwan. See Susan Greenhalgh, 'Networks and their nodes: urban society on Taiwan', The China Quarterly 99, (September 1984), pp. 529-552; Bruce Jacobs, 'A preliminary model of particularistic ties in Chinese political alliances: Kan-ch'ing and Kuan-hsi in a rural Taiwanese township', The China Quarterly 78, (June 1979).
112. In anthropology and sociology this line stems to the classic works of Fei, Fried, and Hu Fei Xiaotong, From the Soil: The Foundations of Chinese Society, Trans. By, G. G. Hamilton and Wang Zheng (Berkeley: University of California Press, [1947] 1992); Morton Fried, The Fabric of Chinese Society (New
113. Andrew Kipnis, Producing Guanxi (Chapel Hill, NC: Duke University Press, 1997); Yunxiang Yan, The Flow of Gifts: Reciprocity and Social Networks in a Chinese Village (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996).
114. Andrew Kipnis, Producing Guanxi (Chapel Hill, NC: Duke University Press, 1997); Yunxiang Yan, The Flow of Gifts: Reciprocity and Social Networks in a Chinese Village (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996).
115. See David L. Wank, 'The institutional process of market clientelism: Guanxi and private business in a South China city', The China Quarterly 147, (September 1996), pp. 820-838; Commodifying Communism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming).
116. See David L. Wank, 'The institutional process of market clientelism: Guanxi and private business in a South China city', The China Quarterly 147, (September 1996), pp. 820-838; Commodifying Communism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming).
117. Victor Nee, 'A theory of market transition: from redistribution to markets in state socialism', American Sociological Review 54(5), (1989), pp. 663-681; 'Social inequalities in reforming state socialism: between redistribution and markets in China', American Sociological Review 56(3), (1991), pp. 267-282.
118. Victor Nee, 'A theory of market transition: from redistribution to markets in state socialism', American Sociological Review 54(5), (1989), pp. 663-681; 'Social inequalities in reforming state socialism: between redistribution and markets in China', American Sociological Review 56(3), (1991), pp. 267-282.
119. Jean C. Oi, 'The fate of the commune after the collective', in D. Davis and E. F. Vogel, op. cit.; 'Fiscal reform and the economic foundations of local state corporatism in China', World Politics 45(1), (1992), pp. 99-126.
120. Jean C. Oi, 'The fate of the commune after the collective', in D. Davis and E. F. Vogel, op. cit.; 'Fiscal reform and the economic foundations of local state corporatism in China', World Politics 45(1), (1992), pp. 99-126.
121. Wank, 'Bureaucratic patronage and private business', in Walder, op. cit., pp. 180-181.
122. This argument is strongly made by Thomas B. Gold, 'The resurgence of civil society in China', Journal of Democracy, (Winter 1990). For similar arguments linking marketization and decentralization to the expansion of civil society see: Mayfair M. Yang, 'Between state and society: the construction of corporateness in a Chinese socialist factory', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 22, (July 1989), pp. 31-60; Gordon White, Riding the Tiger: The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993). For civil society-party-state relations since 1949 see Thomas B. Gold, 'Party-state versus society in China', in J. K. Kallgren, ed., Building a Nation-State: China After Forty Years (Berkeley: University of California Press/Institute of East Asian Studies, 1990). For a symposium on public sphere and civil society in modern and contemporary China, see the journal Modern China 19(2), (April 1993); see also Heath B. Chamberlain, 'Coming to terms with civil society', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 31, (January 1994), pp. 113-117.
123. This argument is strongly made by Thomas B. Gold, 'The resurgence of civil society in China', Journal of Democracy, (Winter 1990). For similar arguments linking marketization and decentralization to the expansion of civil society see: Mayfair M. Yang, 'Between state and society: the construction of corporateness in a Chinese socialist factory', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 22, (July 1989), pp. 31-60; Gordon White, Riding the Tiger: The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993). For civil society-party-state relations since 1949 see Thomas B. Gold, 'Party-state versus society in China', in J. K. Kallgren, ed., Building a Nation-State: China After Forty Years (Berkeley: University of California Press/Institute of East Asian Studies, 1990). For a symposium on public sphere and civil society in modern and contemporary China, see the journal Modern China 19(2), (April 1993); see also Heath B. Chamberlain, 'Coming to terms with civil society', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 31, (January 1994), pp. 113-117.
124. This argument is strongly made by Thomas B. Gold, 'The resurgence of civil society in China', Journal of Democracy, (Winter 1990). For similar arguments linking marketization and decentralization to the expansion of civil society see: Mayfair M. Yang, 'Between state and society: the construction of corporateness in a Chinese socialist factory', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 22, (July 1989), pp. 31-60; Gordon White, Riding the Tiger: The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993). For civil society-party-state relations since 1949 see Thomas B. Gold, 'Party-state versus society in China', in J. K. Kallgren, ed., Building a Nation-State: China After Forty Years (Berkeley: University of California Press/Institute of East Asian Studies, 1990). For a symposium on public sphere and civil society in modern and contemporary China, see the journal Modern China 19(2), (April 1993); see also Heath B. Chamberlain, 'Coming to terms with civil society', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 31, (January 1994), pp. 113-117.
125. This argument is strongly made by Thomas B. Gold, 'The resurgence of civil society in China', Journal of Democracy, (Winter 1990). For similar arguments linking marketization and decentralization to the expansion of civil society see: Mayfair M. Yang, 'Between state and society: the construction of corporateness in a Chinese socialist factory', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 22, (July 1989), pp. 31-60; Gordon White, Riding the Tiger: The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993). For civil society-party-state relations since 1949 see Thomas B. Gold, 'Party-state versus society in China', in J. K. Kallgren, ed., Building a Nation-State: China After Forty Years (Berkeley: University of California Press/Institute of East Asian Studies, 1990). For a symposium on public sphere and civil society in modern and contemporary China, see the journal Modern China 19(2), (April 1993); see also Heath B. Chamberlain, 'Coming to terms with civil society', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 31, (January 1994), pp. 113-117.
126. This argument is strongly made by Thomas B. Gold, 'The resurgence of civil society in China', Journal of Democracy, (Winter 1990). For similar arguments linking marketization and decentralization to the expansion of civil society see: Mayfair M. Yang, 'Between state and society: the construction of corporateness in a Chinese socialist factory', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 22, (July 1989), pp. 31-60; Gordon White, Riding the Tiger: The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993). For civil society-party-state relations since 1949 see Thomas B. Gold, 'Party-state versus society in China', in J. K. Kallgren, ed., Building a Nation-State: China After Forty Years (Berkeley: University of California Press/Institute of East Asian Studies, 1990). For a symposium on public sphere and civil society in modern and contemporary China, see the journal Modern China 19(2), (April 1993); see also Heath B. Chamberlain, 'Coming to terms with civil society', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 31, (January 1994), pp. 113-117.
127. This argument is strongly made by Thomas B. Gold, 'The resurgence of civil society in China', Journal of Democracy, (Winter 1990). For similar arguments linking marketization and decentralization to the expansion of civil society see: Mayfair M. Yang, 'Between state and society: the construction of corporateness in a Chinese socialist factory', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 22, (July 1989), pp. 31-60; Gordon White, Riding the Tiger: The Politics of Economic Reform in Post-Mao China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993). For civil society-party-state relations since 1949 see Thomas B. Gold, 'Party-state versus society in China', in J. K. Kallgren, ed., Building a Nation-State: China After Forty Years (Berkeley: University of California Press/Institute of East Asian Studies, 1990). For a symposium on public sphere and civil society in modern and contemporary China, see the journal Modern China 19(2), (April 1993); see also Heath B. Chamberlain, 'Coming to terms with civil society', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 31, (January 1994), pp. 113-117.
128. For the concept of corporatism in regard to China, see Anita Chan, 'Revolution of corporatism? Workers and trade unions in post-Mao China', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 29, (January 1993), pp. 31-61; Jonathan Unger and Anita Chan, 'China, corporatism, and the East Asian model', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 33, (January 1995), pp. 29-53. These issues are also comparatively examined in Barrett McCormick and Jonathan Unger, eds, China After Socialism: In the Footsteps of Eastern Europe or East Asia? (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996).
129. For the concept of corporatism in regard to China, see Anita Chan, 'Revolution of corporatism? Workers and trade unions in post-Mao China', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 29, (January 1993), pp. 31-61; Jonathan Unger and Anita Chan, 'China, corporatism, and the East Asian model', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 33, (January 1995), pp. 29-53. These issues are also comparatively examined in Barrett McCormick and Jonathan Unger, eds, China After Socialism: In the Footsteps of Eastern Europe or East Asia? (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996).
130. For the concept of corporatism in regard to China, see Anita Chan, 'Revolution of corporatism? Workers and trade unions in post-Mao China', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 29, (January 1993), pp. 31-61; Jonathan Unger and Anita Chan, 'China, corporatism, and the East Asian model', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 33, (January 1995), pp. 29-53. These issues are also comparatively examined in Barrett McCormick and Jonathan Unger, eds, China After Socialism: In the Footsteps of Eastern Europe or East Asia? (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996).
131. See Jeremy T. Palatiel, 'China: Mexicanization or market reform?', in James Caparaso, ed., The Elusive State: International and Comparative Perspectives (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989); Jean C. Oi, 'Communist and clientelism: rural politics in China', World Politics 38(2), (1986), pp. 238-266; Wank, 'Bureaucratic patronage and private business', in Walder, op. cit.
132. See Jeremy T. Palatiel, 'China: Mexicanization or market reform?', in James Caparaso, ed., The Elusive State: International and Comparative Perspectives (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989); Jean C. Oi, 'Communist and clientelism: rural politics in China', World Politics 38(2), (1986), pp. 238-266; Wank, 'Bureaucratic patronage and private business', in Walder, op. cit.
133. See Jeremy T. Palatiel, 'China: Mexicanization or market reform?', in James Caparaso, ed., The Elusive State: International and Comparative Perspectives (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989); Jean C. Oi, 'Communist and clientelism: rural politics in China', World Politics 38(2), (1986), pp. 238-266; Wank, 'Bureaucratic patronage and private business', in Walder, op. cit.
134. Margaret M. Pearson, China's New Business Elite: The Political Consequences of Economic Reform (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), pp. 140-145.
135. See also David L. Wank, 'Private business, bureaucracy, and political alliance in a Chinese city'. The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 33, (January 1995), pp 55-71; Nina C. Halpem, 'Economic reforms and democratization in communist systems: the case of China', Studies in Comparative Communism 22(2/3), (1989), pp. 139-152.
136. See also David L. Wank, 'Private business, bureaucracy, and political alliance in a Chinese city'. The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 33, (January 1995), pp 55-71; Nina C. Halpem, 'Economic reforms and democratization in communist systems: the case of China', Studies in Comparative Communism 22(2/3), (1989), pp. 139-152.
137. White, Howell, and Shang, op. cit. See also Clemens Stubbe Ostergaard, 'Citizens, groups, and nascent civil society in China: towards an understanding of the 1989 student demonstrations', China Information 4(2), (Autumn 1989), pp. 28-41; Martin K. Whyte, 'Urban China: a civil society in the making?', in Rosenbaum, op. cit.
138. White, Howell, and Shang, op. cit. See also Clemens Stubbe Ostergaard, 'Citizens, groups, and nascent civil society in China: towards an understanding of the 1989 student demonstrations', China Information 4(2), (Autumn 1989), pp. 28-41; Martin K. Whyte, 'Urban China: a civil society in the making?', in Rosenbaum, op. cit.
139. White, Howell, and Shang, op. cit. See also Clemens Stubbe Ostergaard, 'Citizens, groups, and nascent civil society in China: towards an understanding of the 1989 student demonstrations', China Information 4(2), (Autumn 1989), pp. 28-41; Martin K. Whyte, 'Urban China: a civil society in the making?', in Rosenbaum, op. cit.
140. For private business associations see: Christopher Earle Nevitt, 'Private business associations in China: evidence of civil society or local state power?', The China Journal 36, (July 1996), pp. 25-43; Pearson, op. cit., ch. 5; Jonathan Unger, 'Bridges: business associations in China', The China Quarterly, (September 1996); Wank, 'Private business, bureaucracy, and political alliance in a Chinese city'. The next most studied associations are worker associations. For example, see Anita Chan, 'Revolution or corporatism? Workers and trade unions in post-Mao China', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 29, (January 1993), pp. 31-61.
141. For private business associations see: Christopher Earle Nevitt, 'Private business associations in China: evidence of civil society or local state power?', The China Journal 36, (July 1996), pp. 25-43; Pearson, op. cit., ch. 5; Jonathan Unger, 'Bridges: business associations in China', The China Quarterly, (September 1996); Wank, 'Private business, bureaucracy, and political alliance in a Chinese city'. The next most studied associations are worker associations. For example, see Anita Chan, 'Revolution or corporatism? Workers and trade unions in post-Mao China', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 29, (January 1993), pp. 31-61.
142. For private business associations see: Christopher Earle Nevitt, 'Private business associations in China: evidence of civil society or local state power?', The China Journal 36, (July 1996), pp. 25-43; Pearson, op. cit., ch. 5; Jonathan Unger, 'Bridges: business associations in China', The China Quarterly, (September 1996); Wank, 'Private business, bureaucracy, and political alliance in a Chinese city'. The next most studied associations are worker associations. For example, see Anita Chan, 'Revolution or corporatism? Workers and trade unions in post-Mao China', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 29, (January 1993), pp. 31-61.
143. For private business associations see: Christopher Earle Nevitt, 'Private business associations in China: evidence of civil society or local state power?', The China Journal 36, (July 1996), pp. 25-43; Pearson, op. cit., ch. 5; Jonathan Unger, 'Bridges: business associations in China', The China Quarterly, (September 1996); Wank, 'Private business, bureaucracy, and political alliance in a Chinese city'. The next most studied associations are worker associations. For example, see Anita Chan, 'Revolution or corporatism? Workers and trade unions in post-Mao China', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 29, (January 1993), pp. 31-61.
144. For private business associations see: Christopher Earle Nevitt, 'Private business associations in China: evidence of civil society or local state power?', The China Journal 36, (July 1996), pp. 25-43; Pearson, op. cit., ch. 5; Jonathan Unger, 'Bridges: business associations in China', The China Quarterly, (September 1996); Wank, 'Private business, bureaucracy, and political alliance in a Chinese city'. The next most studied associations are worker associations. For example, see Anita Chan, 'Revolution or corporatism? Workers and trade unions in post-Mao China', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 29, (January 1993), pp. 31-61.
145. Dorothy J. Solinger, 'The floating population in the cities: chances for assimilation?', in D. Davis et al., op. cit.
146. Fei Xiaotong, 'Ethnic identification in China', in F. Xiaotong, ed., Towards a People 's Anthropology (Beijing: New World Press, 1981), pp. 60-77; Dru Gladney, Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic of China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press for the Council on East Asian Studies, 1991); Stevan Harrell, ed., Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995); Thomas Heberer, China and Its National Minorities: Autonomy or Assimilation? (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1989).
147. Fei Xiaotong, 'Ethnic identification in China', in F. Xiaotong, ed., Towards a People 's Anthropology (Beijing: New World Press, 1981), pp. 60-77; Dru Gladney, Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic of China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press for the Council on East Asian Studies, 1991); Stevan Harrell, ed., Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995); Thomas Heberer, China and Its National Minorities: Autonomy or Assimilation? (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1989).
148. Fei Xiaotong, 'Ethnic identification in China', in F. Xiaotong, ed., Towards a People 's Anthropology (Beijing: New World Press, 1981), pp. 60-77; Dru Gladney, Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic of China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press for the Council on East Asian Studies, 1991); Stevan Harrell, ed., Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995); Thomas Heberer, China and Its National Minorities: Autonomy or Assimilation? (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1989).
149. Fei Xiaotong, 'Ethnic identification in China', in F. Xiaotong, ed., Towards a People 's Anthropology (Beijing: New World Press, 1981), pp. 60-77; Dru Gladney, Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic of China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press for the Council on East Asian Studies, 1991); Stevan Harrell, ed., Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995); Thomas Heberer, China and Its National Minorities: Autonomy or Assimilation? (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1989).
150. Dru Gladney, 'Economy and ethnicity: the revitalization of a Muslim minority in Southeastern China', in Walder, ed., op. cit.
151. A good starting place for research on gender issues is Christina K. Gilmartin et al., eds. Engendering China: Women, Culture, and the State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994). See also: Ellen R. Judd, Gender and Power in Rural North China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994); Judith Stacey, Patriarchy and Socialist Revolution in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); Margery Wolf, Revolution Postponed: Women in Contemporary China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1983); Marilyn Young, Women in China: Studies in Social Change and Feminism, Michigan Papers in Chinese Studies, No. 15 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1973).
152. A good starting place for research on gender issues is Christina K. Gilmartin et al., eds. Engendering China: Women, Culture, and the State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994). See also: Ellen R. Judd, Gender and Power in Rural North China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994); Judith Stacey, Patriarchy and Socialist Revolution in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); Margery Wolf, Revolution Postponed: Women in Contemporary China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1983); Marilyn Young, Women in China: Studies in Social Change and Feminism, Michigan Papers in Chinese Studies, No. 15 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1973).
153. A good starting place for research on gender issues is Christina K. Gilmartin et al., eds. Engendering China: Women, Culture, and the State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994). See also: Ellen R. Judd, Gender and Power in Rural North China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994); Judith Stacey, Patriarchy and Socialist Revolution in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); Margery Wolf, Revolution Postponed: Women in Contemporary China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1983); Marilyn Young, Women in China: Studies in Social Change and Feminism, Michigan Papers in Chinese Studies, No. 15 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1973).
154. A good starting place for research on gender issues is Christina K. Gilmartin et al., eds. Engendering China: Women, Culture, and the State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994). See also: Ellen R. Judd, Gender and Power in Rural North China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994); Judith Stacey, Patriarchy and Socialist Revolution in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); Margery Wolf, Revolution Postponed: Women in Contemporary China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1983); Marilyn Young, Women in China: Studies in Social Change and Feminism, Michigan Papers in Chinese Studies, No. 15 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1973).
155. A good starting place for research on gender issues is Christina K. Gilmartin et al., eds. Engendering China: Women, Culture, and the State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994). See also: Ellen R. Judd, Gender and Power in Rural North China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994); Judith Stacey, Patriarchy and Socialist Revolution in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); Margery Wolf, Revolution Postponed: Women in Contemporary China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1983); Marilyn Young, Women in China: Studies in Social Change and Feminism, Michigan Papers in Chinese Studies, No. 15 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1973).
156. For a sampling of these concerns see: Lowell Dittmer and Samuel S. Kim, eds, China's Quest for National Identity (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Tao Liu and David Faure, eds, Unity and Diversity: Local Cultures and Identities in China (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1996); Edward Friedman, National Identity and Democratic Prospects in Socialist China (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1995); David S. G. Goodman and Gerald Segal, eds, China Deconstructs: Politics, Trade and Regionalism (Routledge: London, 1994); Tu Wei-ming, ed., China in Transformation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994); Tu Wei-ming, ed., The Living Tree: The Changing Meaning of Being Chinese Today (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994); Jonathan Unger, ed., Chinese Nationalism (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996).
157. For a sampling of these concerns see: Lowell Dittmer and Samuel S. Kim, eds, China's Quest for National Identity (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Tao Liu and David Faure, eds, Unity and Diversity: Local Cultures and Identities in China (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1996); Edward Friedman, National Identity and Democratic Prospects in Socialist China (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1995); David S. G. Goodman and Gerald Segal, eds, China Deconstructs: Politics, Trade and Regionalism (Routledge: London, 1994); Tu Wei-ming, ed., China in Transformation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994); Tu Wei-ming, ed., The Living Tree: The Changing Meaning of Being Chinese Today (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994); Jonathan Unger, ed., Chinese Nationalism (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996).
158. For a sampling of these concerns see: Lowell Dittmer and Samuel S. Kim, eds, China's Quest for National Identity (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Tao Liu and David Faure, eds, Unity and Diversity: Local Cultures and Identities in China (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1996); Edward Friedman, National Identity and Democratic Prospects in Socialist China (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1995); David S. G. Goodman and Gerald Segal, eds, China Deconstructs: Politics, Trade and Regionalism (Routledge: London, 1994); Tu Wei-ming, ed., China in Transformation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994); Tu Wei-ming, ed., The Living Tree: The Changing Meaning of Being Chinese Today (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994); Jonathan Unger, ed., Chinese Nationalism (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996).
159. For a sampling of these concerns see: Lowell Dittmer and Samuel S. Kim, eds, China's Quest for National Identity (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Tao Liu and David Faure, eds, Unity and Diversity: Local Cultures and Identities in China (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1996); Edward Friedman, National Identity and Democratic Prospects in Socialist China (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1995); David S. G. Goodman and Gerald Segal, eds, China Deconstructs: Politics, Trade and Regionalism (Routledge: London, 1994); Tu Wei-ming, ed., China in Transformation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994); Tu Wei-ming, ed., The Living Tree: The Changing Meaning of Being Chinese Today (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994); Jonathan Unger, ed., Chinese Nationalism (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996).
160. For a sampling of these concerns see: Lowell Dittmer and Samuel S. Kim, eds, China's Quest for National Identity (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Tao Liu and David Faure, eds, Unity and Diversity: Local Cultures and Identities in China (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1996); Edward Friedman, National Identity and Democratic Prospects in Socialist China (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1995); David S. G. Goodman and Gerald Segal, eds, China Deconstructs: Politics, Trade and Regionalism (Routledge: London, 1994); Tu Wei-ming, ed., China in Transformation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994); Tu Wei-ming, ed., The Living Tree: The Changing Meaning of Being Chinese Today (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994); Jonathan Unger, ed., Chinese Nationalism (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996).
161. For a sampling of these concerns see: Lowell Dittmer and Samuel S. Kim, eds, China's Quest for National Identity (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Tao Liu and David Faure, eds, Unity and Diversity: Local Cultures and Identities in China (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1996); Edward Friedman, National Identity and Democratic Prospects in Socialist China (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1995); David S. G. Goodman and Gerald Segal, eds, China Deconstructs: Politics, Trade and Regionalism (Routledge: London, 1994); Tu Wei-ming, ed., China in Transformation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994); Tu Wei-ming, ed., The Living Tree: The Changing Meaning of Being Chinese Today (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994); Jonathan Unger, ed., Chinese Nationalism (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996).
162. For a sampling of these concerns see: Lowell Dittmer and Samuel S. Kim, eds, China's Quest for National Identity (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Tao Liu and David Faure, eds, Unity and Diversity: Local Cultures and Identities in China (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1996); Edward Friedman, National Identity and Democratic Prospects in Socialist China (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1995); David S. G. Goodman and Gerald Segal, eds, China Deconstructs: Politics, Trade and Regionalism (Routledge: London, 1994); Tu Wei-ming, ed., China in Transformation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994); Tu Wei-ming, ed., The Living Tree: The Changing Meaning of Being Chinese Today (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994); Jonathan Unger, ed., Chinese Nationalism (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996).
163. Craig Calhoun, Neither Gods nor Emperors: Students and the Struggle for Democracy in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Roger V. Des Forges, Luo Ning, and Wu Yen-bo, eds, Chinese Democracy and the Crises of 1989: Chinese and American Reflections (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993); Han Minzhu, ed., Cries for Democracy: Writings and Speeches from the 1989 Chinese Democracy Movement (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); Tony Saich, ed., The Chinese People's Movement: Perspectives on Spring 1989 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1990); Jonathan Unger, ed., The Pro-Democracy Protests in China: Reports from the Provinces (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe); Andrew G. Walder and Xiaoxia Gong, 'Workers in the Tiananmen protests: the politics of the Beijing workers' autonomous association', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 29, (January 1993), pp. 1-29; Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom and Elizabeth J. Perry, eds, Popular Protest and Political Culture in Modern China: Learning from 1989 (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991).
164. Craig Calhoun, Neither Gods nor Emperors: Students and the Struggle for Democracy in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Roger V. Des Forges, Luo Ning, and Wu Yen-bo, eds, Chinese Democracy and the Crises of 1989: Chinese and American Reflections (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993); Han Minzhu, ed., Cries for Democracy: Writings and Speeches from the 1989 Chinese Democracy Movement (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); Tony Saich, ed., The Chinese People's Movement: Perspectives on Spring 1989 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1990); Jonathan Unger, ed., The Pro-Democracy Protests in China: Reports from the Provinces (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe); Andrew G. Walder and Xiaoxia Gong, 'Workers in the Tiananmen protests: the politics of the Beijing workers' autonomous association', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 29, (January 1993), pp. 1-29; Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom and Elizabeth J. Perry, eds, Popular Protest and Political Culture in Modern China: Learning from 1989 (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991).
165. Craig Calhoun, Neither Gods nor Emperors: Students and the Struggle for Democracy in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Roger V. Des Forges, Luo Ning, and Wu Yen-bo, eds, Chinese Democracy and the Crises of 1989: Chinese and American Reflections (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993); Han Minzhu, ed., Cries for Democracy: Writings and Speeches from the 1989 Chinese Democracy Movement (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); Tony Saich, ed., The Chinese People's Movement: Perspectives on Spring 1989 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1990); Jonathan Unger, ed., The Pro-Democracy Protests in China: Reports from the Provinces (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe); Andrew G. Walder and Xiaoxia Gong, 'Workers in the Tiananmen protests: the politics of the Beijing workers' autonomous association', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 29, (January 1993), pp. 1-29; Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom and Elizabeth J. Perry, eds, Popular Protest and Political Culture in Modern China: Learning from 1989 (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991).
166. Craig Calhoun, Neither Gods nor Emperors: Students and the Struggle for Democracy in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Roger V. Des Forges, Luo Ning, and Wu Yen-bo, eds, Chinese Democracy and the Crises of 1989: Chinese and American Reflections (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993); Han Minzhu, ed., Cries for Democracy: Writings and Speeches from the 1989 Chinese Democracy Movement (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); Tony Saich, ed., The Chinese People's Movement: Perspectives on Spring 1989 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1990); Jonathan Unger, ed., The Pro-Democracy Protests in China: Reports from the Provinces (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe); Andrew G. Walder and Xiaoxia Gong, 'Workers in the Tiananmen protests: the politics of the Beijing workers' autonomous association', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 29, (January 1993), pp. 1-29; Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom and Elizabeth J. Perry, eds, Popular Protest and Political Culture in Modern China: Learning from 1989 (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991).
167. Craig Calhoun, Neither Gods nor Emperors: Students and the Struggle for Democracy in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Roger V. Des Forges, Luo Ning, and Wu Yen-bo, eds, Chinese Democracy and the Crises of 1989: Chinese and American Reflections (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993); Han Minzhu, ed., Cries for Democracy: Writings and Speeches from the 1989 Chinese Democracy Movement (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); Tony Saich, ed., The Chinese People's Movement: Perspectives on Spring 1989 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1990); Jonathan Unger, ed., The Pro-Democracy Protests in China: Reports from the Provinces (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe); Andrew G. Walder and Xiaoxia Gong, 'Workers in the Tiananmen protests: the politics of the Beijing workers' autonomous association', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 29, (January 1993), pp. 1-29; Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom and Elizabeth J. Perry, eds, Popular Protest and Political Culture in Modern China: Learning from 1989 (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991).
168. Craig Calhoun, Neither Gods nor Emperors: Students and the Struggle for Democracy in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Roger V. Des Forges, Luo Ning, and Wu Yen-bo, eds, Chinese Democracy and the Crises of 1989: Chinese and American Reflections (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993); Han Minzhu, ed., Cries for Democracy: Writings and Speeches from the 1989 Chinese Democracy Movement (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); Tony Saich, ed., The Chinese People's Movement: Perspectives on Spring 1989 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1990); Jonathan Unger, ed., The Pro-Democracy Protests in China: Reports from the Provinces (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe); Andrew G. Walder and Xiaoxia Gong, 'Workers in the Tiananmen protests: the politics of the Beijing workers' autonomous association', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 29, (January 1993), pp. 1-29; Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom and Elizabeth J. Perry, eds, Popular Protest and Political Culture in Modern China: Learning from 1989 (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991).
169. Craig Calhoun, Neither Gods nor Emperors: Students and the Struggle for Democracy in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Roger V. Des Forges, Luo Ning, and Wu Yen-bo, eds, Chinese Democracy and the Crises of 1989: Chinese and American Reflections (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993); Han Minzhu, ed., Cries for Democracy: Writings and Speeches from the 1989 Chinese Democracy Movement (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); Tony Saich, ed., The Chinese People's Movement: Perspectives on Spring 1989 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1990); Jonathan Unger, ed., The Pro-Democracy Protests in China: Reports from the Provinces (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe); Andrew G. Walder and Xiaoxia Gong, 'Workers in the Tiananmen protests: the politics of the Beijing workers' autonomous association', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 29, (January 1993), pp. 1-29; Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom and Elizabeth J. Perry, eds, Popular Protest and Political Culture in Modern China: Learning from 1989 (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991).
170. For an overview from 1949 to the 1990s, see Luo Zhufeng, ed., Religion Under Socialism, Trans. by D. E. MacInnis and Zheng Xi'an (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1991). For the pre-reform era, see Donald E. MacInnis, Religious Policy and Practice in Communist China: A Documentary History (New York: Macmillan Company, 1972). For surveys of religion since 1978: Donald E. MacInnis, Religion in China Today: Policy &. Practice (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1989); Foster Stockwell, Religion in China Today (Beijing: New World Press, 1993). For specific religions since 1978 see: Ole Bruun, 'The Fengshui revival: conflicting cosmologies between state and peasantry', The China Journal 36, (July 1996), pp. 47-65; Kenneth Dean, Daoist Rituals and Popular Cults of Southeast China (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Alan Hunter and Kim-Kom Chan, Protestantism in Contemporary China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
171. For an overview from 1949 to the 1990s, see Luo Zhufeng, ed., Religion Under Socialism, Trans. by D. E. MacInnis and Zheng Xi'an (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1991). For the pre-reform era, see Donald E. MacInnis, Religious Policy and Practice in Communist China: A Documentary History (New York: Macmillan Company, 1972). For surveys of religion since 1978: Donald E. MacInnis, Religion in China Today: Policy &. Practice (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1989); Foster Stockwell, Religion in China Today (Beijing: New World Press, 1993). For specific religions since 1978 see: Ole Bruun, 'The Fengshui revival: conflicting cosmologies between state and peasantry', The China Journal 36, (July 1996), pp. 47-65; Kenneth Dean, Daoist Rituals and Popular Cults of Southeast China (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Alan Hunter and Kim-Kom Chan, Protestantism in Contemporary China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
172. For an overview from 1949 to the 1990s, see Luo Zhufeng, ed., Religion Under Socialism, Trans. by D. E. MacInnis and Zheng Xi'an (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1991). For the pre-reform era, see Donald E. MacInnis, Religious Policy and Practice in Communist China: A Documentary History (New York: Macmillan Company, 1972). For surveys of religion since 1978: Donald E. MacInnis, Religion in China Today: Policy &. Practice (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1989); Foster Stockwell, Religion in China Today (Beijing: New World Press, 1993). For specific religions since 1978 see: Ole Bruun, 'The Fengshui revival: conflicting cosmologies between state and peasantry', The China Journal 36, (July 1996), pp. 47-65; Kenneth Dean, Daoist Rituals and Popular Cults of Southeast China (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Alan Hunter and Kim-Kom Chan, Protestantism in Contemporary China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
173. For an overview from 1949 to the 1990s, see Luo Zhufeng, ed., Religion Under Socialism, Trans. by D. E. MacInnis and Zheng Xi'an (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1991). For the pre-reform era, see Donald E. MacInnis, Religious Policy and Practice in Communist China: A Documentary History (New York: Macmillan Company, 1972). For surveys of religion since 1978: Donald E. MacInnis, Religion in China Today: Policy &. Practice (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1989); Foster Stockwell, Religion in China Today (Beijing: New World Press, 1993). For specific religions since 1978 see: Ole Bruun, 'The Fengshui revival: conflicting cosmologies between state and peasantry', The China Journal 36, (July 1996), pp. 47-65; Kenneth Dean, Daoist Rituals and Popular Cults of Southeast China (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Alan Hunter and Kim-Kom Chan, Protestantism in Contemporary China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
174. For an overview from 1949 to the 1990s, see Luo Zhufeng, ed., Religion Under Socialism, Trans. by D. E. MacInnis and Zheng Xi'an (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1991). For the pre-reform era, see Donald E. MacInnis, Religious Policy and Practice in Communist China: A Documentary History (New York: Macmillan Company, 1972). For surveys of religion since 1978: Donald E. MacInnis, Religion in China Today: Policy &. Practice (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1989); Foster Stockwell, Religion in China Today (Beijing: New World Press, 1993). For specific religions since 1978 see: Ole Bruun, 'The Fengshui revival: conflicting cosmologies between state and peasantry', The China Journal 36, (July 1996), pp. 47-65; Kenneth Dean, Daoist Rituals and Popular Cults of Southeast China (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Alan Hunter and Kim-Kom Chan, Protestantism in Contemporary China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
175. For an overview from 1949 to the 1990s, see Luo Zhufeng, ed., Religion Under Socialism, Trans. by D. E. MacInnis and Zheng Xi'an (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1991). For the pre-reform era, see Donald E. MacInnis, Religious Policy and Practice in Communist China: A Documentary History (New York: Macmillan Company, 1972). For surveys of religion since 1978: Donald E. MacInnis, Religion in China Today: Policy &. Practice (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1989); Foster Stockwell, Religion in China Today (Beijing: New World Press, 1993). For specific religions since 1978 see: Ole Bruun, 'The Fengshui revival: conflicting cosmologies between state and peasantry', The China Journal 36, (July 1996), pp. 47-65; Kenneth Dean, Daoist Rituals and Popular Cults of Southeast China (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Alan Hunter and Kim-Kom Chan, Protestantism in Contemporary China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
176. For an overview from 1949 to the 1990s, see Luo Zhufeng, ed., Religion Under Socialism, Trans. by D. E. MacInnis and Zheng Xi'an (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1991). For the pre-reform era, see Donald E. MacInnis, Religious Policy and Practice in Communist China: A Documentary History (New York: Macmillan Company, 1972). For surveys of religion since 1978: Donald E. MacInnis, Religion in China Today: Policy &. Practice (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1989); Foster Stockwell, Religion in China Today (Beijing: New World Press, 1993). For specific religions since 1978 see: Ole Bruun, 'The Fengshui revival: conflicting cosmologies between state and peasantry', The China Journal 36, (July 1996), pp. 47-65; Kenneth Dean, Daoist Rituals and Popular Cults of Southeast China (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Alan Hunter and Kim-Kom Chan, Protestantism in Contemporary China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
177. For consumer ideology see Ann Anagnost, 'The beginning and end of en emperor'. Modern China 11(2), pp. 147-176; Thomas B. Gold, 'Popular culture in Greater China', The China Quarterly 136, (1993), pp. 907-925. For consumption and material life see: Charlotte Ickels, The Return of the God of Wealth: The Transition to a Market Economy in Urban China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Jianying Zha, China Pop: How Soap Operas, Tabloids, and Bestsellers are Transforming a Culture (New York: New York University Press, 1995). For the link between consumerism and changing social practices, see Deborah S. Davis et al., op. cit.
178. For consumer ideology see Ann Anagnost, 'The beginning and end of en emperor'. Modern China 11(2), pp. 147-176; Thomas B. Gold, 'Popular culture in Greater China', The China Quarterly 136, (1993), pp. 907-925. For consumption and material life see: Charlotte Ickels, The Return of the God of Wealth: The Transition to a Market Economy in Urban China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Jianying Zha, China Pop: How Soap Operas, Tabloids, and Bestsellers are Transforming a Culture (New York: New York University Press, 1995). For the link between consumerism and changing social practices, see Deborah S. Davis et al., op. cit.
179. For consumer ideology see Ann Anagnost, 'The beginning and end of en emperor'. Modern China 11(2), pp. 147-176; Thomas B. Gold, 'Popular culture in Greater China', The China Quarterly 136, (1993), pp. 907-925. For consumption and material life see: Charlotte Ickels, The Return of the God of Wealth: The Transition to a Market Economy in Urban China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Jianying Zha, China Pop: How Soap Operas, Tabloids, and Bestsellers are Transforming a Culture (New York: New York University Press, 1995). For the link between consumerism and changing social practices, see Deborah S. Davis et al., op. cit.
180. For consumer ideology see Ann Anagnost, 'The beginning and end of en emperor'. Modern China 11(2), pp. 147-176; Thomas B. Gold, 'Popular culture in Greater China', The China Quarterly 136, (1993), pp. 907-925. For consumption and material life see: Charlotte Ickels, The Return of the God of Wealth: The Transition to a Market Economy in Urban China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Jianying Zha, China Pop: How Soap Operas, Tabloids, and Bestsellers are Transforming a Culture (New York: New York University Press, 1995). For the link between consumerism and changing social practices, see Deborah S. Davis et al., op. cit.
181. For consumer ideology see Ann Anagnost, 'The beginning and end of en emperor'. Modern China 11(2), pp. 147-176; Thomas B. Gold, 'Popular culture in Greater China', The China Quarterly 136, (1993), pp. 907-925. For consumption and material life see: Charlotte Ickels, The Return of the God of Wealth: The Transition to a Market Economy in Urban China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Jianying Zha, China Pop: How Soap Operas, Tabloids, and Bestsellers are Transforming a Culture (New York: New York University Press, 1995). For the link between consumerism and changing social practices, see Deborah S. Davis et al., op. cit.
182. Pearson, op. cit., ch. 3; Josephene Smart and Alan Smart, 'Personal relations and divergent economies', International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, (1991); Alan Smart, 'Gifts, bribes, and guanxi: a reconsideration of Bourdieu's social capital', Cultural Anthropology 8(3), (1993), pp. 388-408; Rudolf Wagner, 'The role of the foreign community in the Chinese public sphere', The China Quarterly 142, (1995), pp. 423-144.
183. Pearson, op. cit., ch. 3; Josephene Smart and Alan Smart, 'Personal relations and divergent economies', International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, (1991); Alan Smart, 'Gifts, bribes, and guanxi: a reconsideration of Bourdieu's social capital', Cultural Anthropology 8(3), (1993), pp. 388-408; Rudolf Wagner, 'The role of the foreign community in the Chinese public sphere', The China Quarterly 142, (1995), pp. 423-144.
184. Pearson, op. cit., ch. 3; Josephene Smart and Alan Smart, 'Personal relations and divergent economies', International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, (1991); Alan Smart, 'Gifts, bribes, and guanxi: a reconsideration of Bourdieu's social capital', Cultural Anthropology 8(3), (1993), pp. 388-408; Rudolf Wagner, 'The role of the foreign community in the Chinese public sphere', The China Quarterly 142, (1995), pp. 423-144.
185. Pearson, op. cit., ch. 3; Josephene Smart and Alan Smart, 'Personal relations and divergent economies', International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, (1991); Alan Smart, 'Gifts, bribes, and guanxi: a reconsideration of Bourdieu's social capital', Cultural Anthropology 8(3), (1993), pp. 388-408; Rudolf Wagner, 'The role of the foreign community in the Chinese public sphere', The China Quarterly 142, (1995), pp. 423-144.
186. Aihwa Ong and Donald Nonini, eds, Ungrounded Empires: The Cultural Politics of Modern Chinese Transnationalism (New York: Routledge, 1977); David Shambaugh, ed., Greater China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).
187. Aihwa Ong and Donald Nonini, eds, Ungrounded Empires: The Cultural Politics of Modern Chinese Transnationalism (New York: Routledge, 1977); David Shambaugh, ed., Greater China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).
188. Minxin Pei, From Reform to Revolution: The Demise of Communism in China and the Soviet Union (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994).
189. For the traditionalist image, see Joseph Levenson, Confucian China and its Modern Fate, a trilogy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958, 1954, 1965). For a work in the Weberian tradition similar to the management image, see Philip Kuhn, Rebellion and Its Enemies in Late Imperial China: Militarization and Social Structure, 1796-1864 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980). For the class image, see Robert Marks, Rural Revolution in South China: Peasants and the Making of History in Haifeng County, 1570-1930 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984). As noted above, Wittfogel's Oriental Despotism exemplifies the totalitarian image. For recent trends in the emphasis on history, culture, and power in networks, see Prasenjit Duara, Culture, Power, and the State: Rural North China, 1900-1942 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988).
190. For the traditionalist image, see Joseph Levenson, Confucian China and its Modern Fate, a trilogy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958, 1954, 1965). For a work in the Weberian tradition similar to the management image, see Philip Kuhn, Rebellion and Its Enemies in Late Imperial China: Militarization and Social Structure, 1796-1864 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980). For the class image, see Robert Marks, Rural Revolution in South China: Peasants and the Making of History in Haifeng County, 1570-1930 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984). As noted above, Wittfogel's Oriental Despotism exemplifies the totalitarian image. For recent trends in the emphasis on history, culture, and power in networks, see Prasenjit Duara, Culture, Power, and the State: Rural North China, 1900-1942 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988).
191. For the traditionalist image, see Joseph Levenson, Confucian China and its Modern Fate, a trilogy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958, 1954, 1965). For a work in the Weberian tradition similar to the management image, see Philip Kuhn, Rebellion and Its Enemies in Late Imperial China: Militarization and Social Structure, 1796-1864 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980). For the class image, see Robert Marks, Rural Revolution in South China: Peasants and the Making of History in Haifeng County, 1570-1930 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984). As noted above, Wittfogel's Oriental Despotism exemplifies the totalitarian image. For recent trends in the emphasis on history, culture, and power in networks, see Prasenjit Duara, Culture, Power, and the State: Rural North China, 1900-1942 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988).
192. For the traditionalist image, see Joseph Levenson, Confucian China and its Modern Fate, a trilogy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958, 1954, 1965). For a work in the Weberian tradition similar to the management image, see Philip Kuhn, Rebellion and Its Enemies in Late Imperial China: Militarization and Social Structure, 1796-1864 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980). For the class image, see Robert Marks, Rural Revolution in South China: Peasants and the Making of History in Haifeng County, 1570-1930 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984). As noted above, Wittfogel's Oriental Despotism exemplifies the totalitarian image. For recent trends in the emphasis on history, culture, and power in networks, see Prasenjit Duara, Culture, Power, and the State: Rural North China, 1900-1942 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988).
193. David Shambaugh, ed., American Studies of Contemporary China (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/M. E. Sharpe, 1993).