Smoke and mirrors: Gender representation in North American tobacco and alcohol advertisements before 1950

Histoire Sociale

Volumn 31, Issue 62, 1998, Pages

  Warsh, Cheryl Krasnick ^a  

^a VANCOUVER ISLAND UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

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EID: 11544296413     PISSN: 00182257     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (171)

1. Duke University Archives (Durham, N.C.), J. Walter Thompson Collection, Minutes of the Creative Staff Meeting, August 2, 1927, p. 5.
2. Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1967); Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders (New York: D. McKay, 1957); Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994), pp. 3-4; John C. Bumham, Bad Habits: Drinking, Smoking, Taking Drugs, Gambling, Sexual Misbehavior and Swearing in American History (New York: New York University Press, 1993), p. 4; Stuart and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982), p. 37; Lori Anne Loeb, Consuming Angels: Advertising and Victorian Women (New York: Oxford, 1994), p. 164.
3. Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1967); Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders (New York: D. McKay, 1957); Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994), pp. 3-4; John C. Bumham, Bad Habits: Drinking, Smoking, Taking Drugs, Gambling, Sexual Misbehavior and Swearing in American History (New York: New York University Press, 1993), p. 4; Stuart and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982), p. 37; Lori Anne Loeb, Consuming Angels: Advertising and Victorian Women (New York: Oxford, 1994), p. 164.
4. Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1967); Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders (New York: D. McKay, 1957); Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994), pp. 3-4; John C. Bumham, Bad Habits: Drinking, Smoking, Taking Drugs, Gambling, Sexual Misbehavior and Swearing in American History (New York: New York University Press, 1993), p. 4; Stuart and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982), p. 37; Lori Anne Loeb, Consuming Angels: Advertising and Victorian Women (New York: Oxford, 1994), p. 164.
5. Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1967); Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders (New York: D. McKay, 1957); Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994), pp. 3-4; John C. Bumham, Bad Habits: Drinking, Smoking, Taking Drugs, Gambling, Sexual Misbehavior and Swearing in American History (New York: New York University Press, 1993), p. 4; Stuart and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982), p. 37; Lori Anne Loeb, Consuming Angels: Advertising and Victorian Women (New York: Oxford, 1994), p. 164.
6. Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1967); Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders (New York: D. McKay, 1957); Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994), pp. 3-4; John C. Bumham, Bad Habits: Drinking, Smoking, Taking Drugs, Gambling, Sexual Misbehavior and Swearing in American History (New York: New York University Press, 1993), p. 4; Stuart and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982), p. 37; Lori Anne Loeb, Consuming Angels: Advertising and Victorian Women (New York: Oxford, 1994), p. 164.
7. Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1967); Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders (New York: D. McKay, 1957); Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994), pp. 3-4; John C. Bumham, Bad Habits: Drinking, Smoking, Taking Drugs, Gambling, Sexual Misbehavior and Swearing in American History (New York: New York University Press, 1993), p. 4; Stuart and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982), p. 37; Lori Anne Loeb, Consuming Angels: Advertising and Victorian Women (New York: Oxford, 1994), p. 164.
8. Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York: Dell, 1963), p. 197. See Kathryn Weibel, Mirror, Mirror: Images of Women Reflected in Popular Culture (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1977), p. 165.
9. Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York: Dell, 1963), p. 197. See Kathryn Weibel, Mirror, Mirror: Images of Women Reflected in Popular Culture (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1977), p. 165.
10. Ellen Wiley Todd, "Art, the 'New Woman', and Consumer Culture: Kenneth Hayes Miller and Reginald Marsh on Fourteenth Street, 1920-40", in Barbara Melosh, ed., Gender and American History since 1890 (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 140 ; Jennifer Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings: The Ladies' Home Journal, Gender, and the Promises of Consumer Culture (New York: Routledge, 1995), p. 42. See also Nancy F. Cott, "The Modem Woman of the 1920s, American Style", in Françoise Thebaud, ed., A History of Women in the West, V: Toward a Cultural Identity in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 1994), p. 90; Cynthia Wright, " 'Feminine Trifles of Vast Importance': Writing Gender into the History of Consumption", in Franca Iacovetta and Mariana Valverde, eds., Gender Conflicts: New Essays in Women's History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992), p. 237.
11. Ellen Wiley Todd, "Art, the 'New Woman', and Consumer Culture: Kenneth Hayes Miller and Reginald Marsh on Fourteenth Street, 1920-40", in Barbara Melosh, ed., Gender and American History since 1890 (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 140 ; Jennifer Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings: The Ladies' Home Journal, Gender, and the Promises of Consumer Culture (New York: Routledge, 1995), p. 42. See also Nancy F. Cott, "The Modem Woman of the 1920s, American Style", in Françoise Thebaud, ed., A History of Women in the West, V: Toward a Cultural Identity in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 1994), p. 90; Cynthia Wright, " 'Feminine Trifles of Vast Importance': Writing Gender into the History of Consumption", in Franca Iacovetta and Mariana Valverde, eds., Gender Conflicts: New Essays in Women's History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992), p. 237.
12. Ellen Wiley Todd, "Art, the 'New Woman', and Consumer Culture: Kenneth Hayes Miller and Reginald Marsh on Fourteenth Street, 1920-40", in Barbara Melosh, ed., Gender and American History since 1890 (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 140 ; Jennifer Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings: The Ladies' Home Journal, Gender, and the Promises of Consumer Culture (New York: Routledge, 1995), p. 42. See also Nancy F. Cott, "The Modem Woman of the 1920s, American Style", in Françoise Thebaud, ed., A History of Women in the West, V: Toward a Cultural Identity in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 1994), p. 90; Cynthia Wright, " 'Feminine Trifles of Vast Importance': Writing Gender into the History of Consumption", in Franca Iacovetta and Mariana Valverde, eds., Gender Conflicts: New Essays in Women's History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992), p. 237.
13. Ellen Wiley Todd, "Art, the 'New Woman', and Consumer Culture: Kenneth Hayes Miller and Reginald Marsh on Fourteenth Street, 1920-40", in Barbara Melosh, ed., Gender and American History since 1890 (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 140 ; Jennifer Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings: The Ladies' Home Journal, Gender, and the Promises of Consumer Culture (New York: Routledge, 1995), p. 42. See also Nancy F. Cott, "The Modem Woman of the 1920s, American Style", in Françoise Thebaud, ed., A History of Women in the West, V: Toward a Cultural Identity in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 1994), p. 90; Cynthia Wright, " 'Feminine Trifles of Vast Importance': Writing Gender into the History of Consumption", in Franca Iacovetta and Mariana Valverde, eds., Gender Conflicts: New Essays in Women's History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992), p. 237.
14. Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings, p. 15; Luisa Passerini, "The Ambivalent Image of Woman in Mass Culture", in Thebaud, ed., History of Women in the West, p. 329.
15. Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings, p. 15; Luisa Passerini, "The Ambivalent Image of Woman in Mass Culture", in Thebaud, ed., History of Women in the West, p. 329.
16. Helen Damon-Moore, Magazines for the Millions: Gender and Commerce in the Ladies' Home Journal and the Saturday Evening Post 1880-1910 (Albany: State University of New York, 1994), p. 187.
17. Cott, "The Modern Woman", p. 90.
18. Edward L. Bernays, Propaganda (New York: Liveright, 1928), p. 9.
19. Fred Inglis, The imagery of Power: A Critique of Advertising (London: Heinemann, 1972), p. 80.
20. Ellen G. Gartrell, "Living History: J. Walter Thompson Company Archives at Duke University", J. Walter Thompson Detroit Office Newsletter, May-July 1991.
21. Printer's Ink, October 1895. See James Playsted Wood, The Story of Advertising (New York: Ronald, 1958), p. 6.
22. Printer's Ink, October 1895. See James Playsted Wood, The Story of Advertising (New York: Ronald, 1958), p. 6.
23. Walter Dill Scott, The Psychology of Advertising in Theory and Practice (Boston: Small, Maynard & Co, 1902, 1921), p. 221.
24. Wood, The Story of Advertising, pp. 488-489.
25. Duke University Archives, Minutes of Creative Staff Meeting, Vice-President Mims, July 26, 1927, p. 7.
26. Marshall McLuhan, "American Advertising" (1947), in Bernard Rosenberg and David Manning White, eds., Mass Culture: The Popular Arts in America (New York: Free Press, 1957), p. 436.
27. Marshall McLuhan, "American Advertising" (1947), in Bernard Rosenberg and David Manning White, eds., Mass Culture: The Popular Arts in America (New York: Free Press, 1957), p. 436.
28. Duke University Archives, Minutes of Creative Staff Meeting, J. Walter Thompson, Vice-President Mims, August 2, 1927, p. 5.
29. Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), p. 33; John Herd Thompson and Allen Scager, Canada 1922-1939: Decades of Discord (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1985), p. 183; Mary Vipond, "Canadian Nationalism and the Plight of Canadian Magazines in the 1920s", Canadian Historical Review, vol. 58, no. 1 (March 1977), p. 43.
30. Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), p. 33; John Herd Thompson and Allen Scager, Canada 1922-1939: Decades of Discord (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1985), p. 183; Mary Vipond, "Canadian Nationalism and the Plight of Canadian Magazines in the 1920s", Canadian Historical Review, vol. 58, no. 1 (March 1977), p. 43.
31. Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), p. 33; John Herd Thompson and Allen Scager, Canada 1922-1939: Decades of Discord (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1985), p. 183; Mary Vipond, "Canadian Nationalism and the Plight of Canadian Magazines in the 1920s", Canadian Historical Review, vol. 58, no. 1 (March 1977), p. 43.
32. Matthew Schneirov, The Dream of a New Social Order: Popular Magazines in America, 1893-1914 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), p. 175; Paul Rutherford, A Victorian Authority: The Daily Press in Late Nineteenth-Century Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1982), p. 125.
33. Matthew Schneirov, The Dream of a New Social Order: Popular Magazines in America, 1893-1914 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), p. 175; Paul Rutherford, A Victorian Authority: The Daily Press in Late Nineteenth-Century Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1982), p. 125.
34. Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (New York: Signet, 1964), pp. 183, 202-203. See also Weibel, Mirror, Mirror, p. 169; Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings, p. 170.
35. Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (New York: Signet, 1964), pp. 183, 202-203. See also Weibel, Mirror, Mirror, p. 169; Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings, p. 170.
36. Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (New York: Signet, 1964), pp. 183, 202-203. See also Weibel, Mirror, Mirror, p. 169; Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings, p. 170.
37. Chatelaine did not carry liquor advertisements until the 1960s. V. J. Korinck, "Your Best Medium to Sell Women: Advertising, Marketing and Gender in Chatelaine" (paper presented to the Canadian Historical Association, 1994), p. 9.
38. Wood, The Story of Advertising, p. 373; Roberta G. Ferrence, Deadly Fashion: The Rise and Fall of Cigarette Smoking in North America (New York: Garland Publishing, 1989), p. 48, Figure 2. Two major recent studies are Stanton A. Glantz et al., The Cigarette Papers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); and Richard Kluger, Ashes to Ashes: America's 100 Year Cigarette War, the Public Health, and the Unabashed Triumph of Philip Morris (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996).
39. Wood, The Story of Advertising, p. 373; Roberta G. Ferrence, Deadly Fashion: The Rise and Fall of Cigarette Smoking in North America (New York: Garland Publishing, 1989), p. 48, Figure 2. Two major recent studies are Stanton A. Glantz et al., The Cigarette Papers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); and Richard Kluger, Ashes to Ashes: America's 100 Year Cigarette War, the Public Health, and the Unabashed Triumph of Philip Morris (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996).
40. Wood, The Story of Advertising, p. 373; Roberta G. Ferrence, Deadly Fashion: The Rise and Fall of Cigarette Smoking in North America (New York: Garland Publishing, 1989), p. 48, Figure 2. Two major recent studies are Stanton A. Glantz et al., The Cigarette Papers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); and Richard Kluger, Ashes to Ashes: America's 100 Year Cigarette War, the Public Health, and the Unabashed Triumph of Philip Morris (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996).
41. Wood, The Story of Advertising, p. 373; Roberta G. Ferrence, Deadly Fashion: The Rise and Fall of Cigarette Smoking in North America (New York: Garland Publishing, 1989), p. 48, Figure 2. Two major recent studies are Stanton A. Glantz et al., The Cigarette Papers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); and Richard Kluger, Ashes to Ashes: America's 100 Year Cigarette War, the Public Health, and the Unabashed Triumph of Philip Morris (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996).
42. Wood, The Story of Advertising, p. 376; Michael Schudson, "Women, Cigarettes, and Advertising in the 1920s: A Study in the Sociology of Consumption", in Catherine L. Covert and John D. Stevens, eds., Mass Media Between the Wars: Perceptions of Cultural Tension, 1918-1941 (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1984), p. 71; Carol Moog, "Are They Selling Her Lips?" Advertising and Identity (New York: William Morrow, 1990), p. 13.
43. Wood, The Story of Advertising, p. 376; Michael Schudson, "Women, Cigarettes, and Advertising in the 1920s: A Study in the Sociology of Consumption", in Catherine L. Covert and John D. Stevens, eds., Mass Media Between the Wars: Perceptions of Cultural Tension, 1918-1941 (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1984), p. 71; Carol Moog, "Are They Selling Her Lips?" Advertising and Identity (New York: William Morrow, 1990), p. 13.
44. Wood, The Story of Advertising, p. 376; Michael Schudson, "Women, Cigarettes, and Advertising in the 1920s: A Study in the Sociology of Consumption", in Catherine L. Covert and John D. Stevens, eds., Mass Media Between the Wars: Perceptions of Cultural Tension, 1918-1941 (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1984), p. 71; Carol Moog, "Are They Selling Her Lips?" Advertising and Identity (New York: William Morrow, 1990), p. 13.
45. For more on attitudes towards female drinkers in the nineteenth century, see Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, " 'Oh Lord, Pour a Cordial in her Wounded Heart': The Drinking Woman in Victorian and Edwardian Canada", in Cheryl Kiasnick Warsh, ed., Drink in Canada: Historical Essays (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993), passim; Richard Klein, Cigarettes are Sublime (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993), pp. 8, 114; Robert Sobel, They Satisfy: The Cigarette in American Life (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press, 1978), p. 9.
46. For more on attitudes towards female drinkers in the nineteenth century, see Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, " 'Oh Lord, Pour a Cordial in her Wounded Heart': The Drinking Woman in Victorian and Edwardian Canada", in Cheryl Kiasnick Warsh, ed., Drink in Canada: Historical Essays (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993), passim; Richard Klein, Cigarettes are Sublime (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993), pp. 8, 114; Robert Sobel, They Satisfy: The Cigarette in American Life (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press, 1978), p. 9.
47. For more on attitudes towards female drinkers in the nineteenth century, see Cheryl Krasnick Warsh, " 'Oh Lord, Pour a Cordial in her Wounded Heart': The Drinking Woman in Victorian and Edwardian Canada", in Cheryl Kiasnick Warsh, ed., Drink in Canada: Historical Essays (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993), passim; Richard Klein, Cigarettes are Sublime (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993), pp. 8, 114; Robert Sobel, They Satisfy: The Cigarette in American Life (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press, 1978), p. 9.
48. James Neish, "On Some Effects of Smoking among Women", The Canadian Medical Times, no. 9 (August 30, 1873), pp. 68-69.
49. The lyrics include: "Cigarette, forget/ Cigarette, and yet/ You are sweet while you last,/ But like love that is past./ When you're out altogether/ How bitter you get,/ And you drop from my fingers/ A burnt-Cigarette." The Play: An Illustrated Monthly, vol. 1, no. 6 (n.d.), pp. 142-145. Thanks to Marni Stanley for this reference.
50. Sobel, They Satisfy, p. 9; George and Weedon Grossmith, The Diary of a Nobody (London: Penguin, 1892, 1965), pp. 226-227.
51. Sobel, They Satisfy, p. 9; George and Weedon Grossmith, The Diary of a Nobody (London: Penguin, 1892, 1965), pp. 226-227.
52. Stuart and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire, p. 98. In Canada, this image was tenaciously maintained, and racism could be added to the disreputability of female smoking. In "The Black Canadian" (Maclean's Magazine, October 1911), Britton B. Cooke's polemic against AfricanAmerican communities in Canada, a photograph portraying a woman as slovenly and degenerate was labelled, "the lady smokes". See Fraser Sutherland, The Monthly Epic: A History of Canadian Magazines, 1789-1989 (Markham, Ont.: Fitzhenry & Whiteside, 1989), p. 141.
53. Stuart and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire, p. 98. In Canada, this image was tenaciously maintained, and racism could be added to the disreputability of female smoking. In "The Black Canadian" (Maclean's Magazine, October 1911), Britton B. Cooke's polemic against AfricanAmerican communities in Canada, a photograph portraying a woman as slovenly and degenerate was labelled, "the lady smokes". See Fraser Sutherland, The Monthly Epic: A History of Canadian Magazines, 1789-1989 (Markham, Ont.: Fitzhenry & Whiteside, 1989), p. 141.
54. Stuart and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire, p. 98. In Canada, this image was tenaciously maintained, and racism could be added to the disreputability of female smoking. In "The Black Canadian" (Maclean's Magazine, October 1911), Britton B. Cooke's polemic against AfricanAmerican communities in Canada, a photograph portraying a woman as slovenly and degenerate was labelled, "the lady smokes". See Fraser Sutherland, The Monthly Epic: A History of Canadian Magazines, 1789-1989 (Markham, Ont.: Fitzhenry & Whiteside, 1989), p. 141.
55. Ruth Roach Pierson, "They're Still Women After All": The Second World War and Canadian Womanhood (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1986), p. 206.
56. Loeb, Consuming Angels, pp. 62, 156.
57. Similar campaigns were launched by Murad and other brands. Sobel, They Satisfy, p. 98. Regarding the women smokers' market in Canada, one advertisement read, "Every United Cigar Store offers to ladies, as well as to the men, a courteous, intelligent and helpful service from all employees, at all times." Quoted in Veronica Strong-Boag, The New Day Recalled: Lives of Girls and Women in English Canada, 1919-1939 (Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman, 1988), p. 85.
58. Similar campaigns were launched by Murad and other brands. Sobel, They Satisfy, p. 98. Regarding the women smokers' market in Canada, one advertisement read, "Every United Cigar Store offers to ladies, as well as to the men, a courteous, intelligent and helpful service from all employees, at all times." Quoted in Veronica Strong-Boag, The New Day Recalled: Lives of Girls and Women in English Canada, 1919-1939 (Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman, 1988), p. 85.
59. Allan M. Brandt, "From Nicotine to Nicotrol: Addictions, Cigarettes and American Culture" (paper presented to Historical Perspectives on Alcohol and Drug Use in American Society, 1800-1997, Philadelphia, 1997), p. 4. Richard Klein asserted that Carmen was an archetype for women smokers: "When she accepts a cigarette, the gesture unmistakeably identifies as an outlaw sorceress, a demonic whore, who transcends all limits of feminine propriety.... Just as the goddess Diana assumes the hideous form of Hecate, the witch ... Carmen is the cigarette she takes ... perpetually turned to delicious smoke and bitter ash." Such a sado-masochistic portrait was unlikely to expand the cigarette market beyond a limited group of women, and it certainly was not the image cigarette manufacturers wanted to depict. Klein, Cigarettes are Sublime, p. 114.
60. Allan M. Brandt, "From Nicotine to Nicotrol: Addictions, Cigarettes and American Culture" (paper presented to Historical Perspectives on Alcohol and Drug Use in American Society, 1800-1997, Philadelphia, 1997), p. 4. Richard Klein asserted that Carmen was an archetype for women smokers: "When she accepts a cigarette, the gesture unmistakeably identifies as an outlaw sorceress, a demonic whore, who transcends all limits of feminine propriety.... Just as the goddess Diana assumes the hideous form of Hecate, the witch ... Carmen is the cigarette she takes ... perpetually turned to delicious smoke and bitter ash." Such a sado-masochistic portrait was unlikely to expand the cigarette market beyond a limited group of women, and it certainly was not the image cigarette manufacturers wanted to depict. Klein, Cigarettes are Sublime, p. 114.
61. Schudson, "Women, Cigarettes, and Advertising", p. 77. I have yet to come across any discussion of the southern nature of the tobacco industry and whether this would make its leaders more conservative about accepting social changes such as women's public smoking.
62. In the late nineteenth century, for instance, agents for Paine's Celery Compound bought advertising space from newspapers which could provide "good, strong" testimonials for the patent medicine from local politicians. James H. Young, The Toadstool Millionaires (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961), p. 220; See Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, p. 96.
63. In the late nineteenth century, for instance, agents for Paine's Celery Compound bought advertising space from newspapers which could provide "good, strong" testimonials for the patent medicine from local politicians. James H. Young, The Toadstool Millionaires (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961), p. 220; See Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, p. 96.
64. See Daniel J. Boorstin, The Image or What Happened to the American Dream (New York: Athencum, 1962), p. 219; Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings, p. 211.
65. See Daniel J. Boorstin, The Image or What Happened to the American Dream (New York: Athencum, 1962), p. 219; Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings, p. 211.
66. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, pp. 202, 205; Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings, p. 202; See Marilyn Barber, "The Women Ontario Welcomed: Immigrant Domestics for Ontario Homes, 1870-1930", Ontario History, vol. 72, no. 3 (1980), pp. 148-173.
67. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, pp. 202, 205; Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings, p. 202; See Marilyn Barber, "The Women Ontario Welcomed: Immigrant Domestics for Ontario Homes, 1870-1930", Ontario History, vol. 72, no. 3 (1980), pp. 148-173.
68. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, pp. 202, 205; Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings, p. 202; See Marilyn Barber, "The Women Ontario Welcomed: Immigrant Domestics for Ontario Homes, 1870-1930", Ontario History, vol. 72, no. 3 (1980), pp. 148-173.
69. Passerini, "The Ambivalent Image", p. 331.
70. Nanaimo Daily Free Press, April 22, 1939.
71. Sobel, They Satisfy, p. 13; Jack Jacobs Gottsegen, Tobacco: A Study of its Consumption in the U.S. (New York: Pitman, 1940), p. 151. Schudson, "Women, Cigarettes, and Advertising", pp. 73, 75.
72. Sobel, They Satisfy, p. 13; Jack Jacobs Gottsegen, Tobacco: A Study of its Consumption in the U.S. (New York: Pitman, 1940), p. 151. Schudson, "Women, Cigarettes, and Advertising", pp. 73, 75.
73. Sobel, They Satisfy, p. 13; Jack Jacobs Gottsegen, Tobacco: A Study of its Consumption in the U.S. (New York: Pitman, 1940), p. 151. Schudson, "Women, Cigarettes, and Advertising", pp. 73, 75.
74. New York Times, July 15, 1921, p. 5. See Schudson, "Women, Cigarettes, and Advertising", p. 74.
75. New York Times, July 15, 1921, p. 5. See Schudson, "Women, Cigarettes, and Advertising", p. 74.
76. Quoted in Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, p. 191; See also Sobel, They Satisfy, p. 91.
77. Quoted in Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, p. 191; See also Sobel, They Satisfy, p. 91.
78. Schudson, "Women, Cigarettes, and Advertising", pp. 71-72; Ronald J. Troyer and Gerald E. Markle, Cigarettes: The Battle Over Smoking (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1983), p. 41.
79. Schudson, "Women, Cigarettes, and Advertising", pp. 71-72; Ronald J. Troyer and Gerald E. Markle, Cigarettes: The Battle Over Smoking (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1983), p. 41.
80. Edward L. Bernays, Crystallizing Public Opinion (New York: Liveright, 1923, 1934), p. 183.
81. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, p. 96. According to Boorstin, a pseudoevent is not spontaneous; it is planted for the immediate purpose of being reported or reproduced, is ambiguously related to the underlying reality of the situation, and is intended to be a self-fulfilling prophecy. Boorstin, The Image, p. 11.
82. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, p. 96. According to Boorstin, a pseudoevent is not spontaneous; it is planted for the immediate purpose of being reported or reproduced, is ambiguously related to the underlying reality of the situation, and is intended to be a self-fulfilling prophecy. Boorstin, The Image, p. 11.
83. Library of Congress, Manuscript Division (Washington D.C.), The Papers of Edward L. Bernays (hereafter Bernays Papers), Press Releases File, 1928-31, Box 84. The "Miss Reingold" campaign was a very popular event staged to increase beer consumption among women. From 1941 the beauty queen was chosen by ballot, and by 1957, 20 million ballots were cast nationally. The public's involvement in the manufacture of this "pseudo-event" demonstrated the active participatory nature of successful public relations. Boorstin, The Image, p. 221.
84. Wood, The Story of Advertising, p. 377. Albert Laskcr also took credit for the fantastically successful marketing strategy since his wife smoked to "kill her appetite and so cut down on calories". Sobel, They Satisfy, p. 98.
85. Wood, The Story of Advertising, p. 377. Albert Laskcr also took credit for the fantastically successful marketing strategy since his wife smoked to "kill her appetite and so cut down on calories". Sobel, They Satisfy, p. 98.
86. Wood, The Story of Advertising, pp. 378-379. Proportionately, comparable rates in Canada tended to lag behind the United States by over 10 years. Ferrence, Deadly Fashion, pp. 41, 47; Bobbie Jacobson, Beating the Ladykillers: Women and Smoking (London: Pluto Press, 1986), p. 43.
87. Wood, The Story of Advertising, pp. 378-379. Proportionately, comparable rates in Canada tended to lag behind the United States by over 10 years. Ferrence, Deadly Fashion, pp. 41, 47; Bobbie Jacobson, Beating the Ladykillers: Women and Smoking (London: Pluto Press, 1986), p. 43.
88. Wood, The Story of Advertising, pp. 378-379. Proportionately, comparable rates in Canada tended to lag behind the United States by over 10 years. Ferrence, Deadly Fashion, pp. 41, 47; Bobbie Jacobson, Beating the Ladykillers: Women and Smoking (London: Pluto Press, 1986), p. 43.
89. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, pp. 155, 181, 184. For more on the persistence of the dogma of modernity in the popular press, see Rutherford, A Victorian Authority, pp. 156-157.
90. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, pp. 155, 181, 184. For more on the persistence of the dogma of modernity in the popular press, see Rutherford, A Victorian Authority, pp. 156-157.
91. Stuart and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire, pp. 201, 204.
92. Andrée Levesque, Making and Breaking the Rules: Women in Quebec 1919-1939, trans. Yvonne M. Klein (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1994), p. 60.
93. Christine Simmons, "Modern Sexuality and the Myth of Victorian Repression", in Melosh, ed., Gender and American History, p. 33. See also Colt, "The Modem Woman", p. 81; Lewis A. Erenberg, Steppin ' Out: New York Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. 168.
94. Christine Simmons, "Modern Sexuality and the Myth of Victorian Repression", in Melosh, ed., Gender and American History, p. 33. See also Colt, "The Modem Woman", p. 81; Lewis A. Erenberg, Steppin ' Out: New York Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. 168.
95. Christine Simmons, "Modern Sexuality and the Myth of Victorian Repression", in Melosh, ed., Gender and American History, p. 33. See also Colt, "The Modem Woman", p. 81; Lewis A. Erenberg, Steppin ' Out: New York Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. 168.
96. Quoted in Lears, Fables of Abundance, p. 187. See also Erenberg, Steppin' Out, p. xiv.
97. Quoted in Lears, Fables of Abundance, p. 187. See also Erenberg, Steppin' Out, p. xiv.
98. Todd, "Art, the 'New Woman' and Consumer Culture", p. 147; Kathy Pciss, "Making Faces: The Cosmetics Industry and the Cultural Construction of Gender, 1890-1930", Genders, vol. 7 (Spring 1990), p. 147; Ellen McCracken, Decoding Women's Magazines: From Mademoiselle to Ms. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993), p. 136. See also Passerini, "Ambivalent Image", p. 336.
99. Todd, "Art, the 'New Woman' and Consumer Culture", p. 147; Kathy Pciss, "Making Faces: The Cosmetics Industry and the Cultural Construction of Gender, 1890-1930", Genders, vol. 7 (Spring 1990), p. 147; Ellen McCracken, Decoding Women's Magazines: From Mademoiselle to Ms. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993), p. 136. See also Passerini, "Ambivalent Image", p. 336.
100. Todd, "Art, the 'New Woman' and Consumer Culture", p. 147; Kathy Pciss, "Making Faces: The Cosmetics Industry and the Cultural Construction of Gender, 1890-1930", Genders, vol. 7 (Spring 1990), p. 147; Ellen McCracken, Decoding Women's Magazines: From Mademoiselle to Ms. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993), p. 136. See also Passerini, "Ambivalent Image", p. 336.
101. Todd, "Art, the 'New Woman' and Consumer Culture", p. 147; Kathy Pciss, "Making Faces: The Cosmetics Industry and the Cultural Construction of Gender, 1890-1930", Genders, vol. 7 (Spring 1990), p. 147; Ellen McCracken, Decoding Women's Magazines: From Mademoiselle to Ms. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993), p. 136. See also Passerini, "Ambivalent Image", p. 336.
102. A theme used in tobacco advertising related to slimness, and appealing to men as well, was fitness. For instance, a pitch for Camels in 1935, "They Don't Get Your Wind", included an endorsement by George Barker, cross-country track star, and baseball's Lou Gehrig: "Most of the pleasant things in life are doubly pleasant when you're 'in condition'." Susan Bordo, Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), p. 62.
103. A theme used in tobacco advertising related to slimness, and appealing to men as well, was fitness. For instance, a pitch for Camels in 1935, "They Don't Get Your Wind", included an endorsement by George Barker, cross-country track star, and baseball's Lou Gehrig: "Most of the pleasant things in life are doubly pleasant when you're 'in condition'." Susan Bordo, Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), p. 62.
104. Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Bernays Papers, Press Releases File, 1928-31, Box 85.
105. Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Bernays Papers, correspondence, November 1928, Box 85.
106. Ibid., November-December 1928, Box 85.
107. Helen Resor was the first to use sex appeal in American advertising with her successful campaign for Woodbury's Soap for "A Skin You Love to Touch". Scanlon noted the irony that the use of women as sexual objects in advertising was initiated by a woman (Inarticulate Longings, p. 175).
108. Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings, pp. 192, 200.
109. Harriet Abbot, "What Newest New Woman Wants", Ladies' Home Journal (August 1920), p. 154. See Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings, p. 124.
110. Harriet Abbot, "What Newest New Woman Wants", Ladies' Home Journal (August 1920), p. 154. See Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings, p. 124.
111. Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Bernays Papers, Press Releases File, 1928-31, Box 85.
112. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, p. 102; Stephen Fox, The Mirror Makers: A History of American Advertising and its Creators (New York: William Morrow, 1984), p. 116.
113. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, p. 102; Stephen Fox, The Mirror Makers: A History of American Advertising and its Creators (New York: William Morrow, 1984), p. 116.
114. Duke University Archives, Minutes of Creative Staff Meeting, April 12, 1933, p. 8.
115. Thompson and Seager, Canada: 1922-1939, p. 186.
116. Robert A. Campbell, Demon Rum or Easy Money: Government Control of Liquor in British Columbia from Prohibition to Privatization (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1991), p. 138.
117. Sutherland, The Monthly Epic, pp. 121, 194-196.
118. Robin Room, quoted in Joseph C. Fisher, Advertising, Alcohol Consumption and Abuse (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1993), p. 30.
119. Sutherland, The Monthly Epic, p. 123; The Goblin, vol. 1, no. 2 (March 1921).
120. Sutherland, The Monthly Epic, p. 123; The Goblin, vol. 1, no. 2 (March 1921).
121. J. A. Mangan and James Walvin, "Introduction", Manliness and Morality: Middle-Class Masculinity in Britain and America, 1800-1940 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987), p. 2.
122. Matthew Schncirov, The Dream of a New Social Order: Popular Magazines in America, 1893-1914 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), pp. 127, 134.
123. Atkin and Block's study is cited in Fisher, Advertising, Alcohol Consumption and Abuse, p. 44.
124. Wilson Bryan Key, The Age; of Manipulation (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1989), p. 81.
125. Fisher, Advertising, Alcohol Consumption and Abuse, p. 49; Key, The Age of Manipulation, p. 123.
126. Fisher, Advertising, Alcohol Consumption and Abuse, p. 49; Key, The Age of Manipulation, p. 123.
127. Arnold Linsky, "Theories of Behavior and the Image of the Alcoholic in Popular Magazines 1900-1966", Public Opinion Quarterly, no. 34 (1971), pp. 574-575, 579; Burnham, Bad Habits, pp. 83-4.
128. Arnold Linsky, "Theories of Behavior and the Image of the Alcoholic in Popular Magazines 1900-1966", Public Opinion Quarterly, no. 34 (1971), pp. 574-575, 579; Burnham, Bad Habits, pp. 83-4.
129. The company was so proud of this advertisement that it was available in reproduction for customers.
130. Robert E. Popham and Wolfgang Schmidt, Statistics of Alcohol Use and Alcoholism in Canada, 1871-1956 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1958), p. 24. The 1940s rate would have been skewed due to male military enlistments in World War II. American women's drinking patterns are discussed in Catherine Gilbert Murdock, "Domesticating Drink: Women and Alcohol in Prohibition America, 1870-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1995).
131. Robert E. Popham and Wolfgang Schmidt, Statistics of Alcohol Use and Alcoholism in Canada, 1871-1956 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1958), p. 24. The 1940s rate would have been skewed due to male military enlistments in World War II. American women's drinking patterns are discussed in Catherine Gilbert Murdock, "Domesticating Drink: Women and Alcohol in Prohibition America, 1870-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1995).
132. Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 191, 195-196; Erenburg, Steppin' Out, p. 70; Sobel, They Satisfy, p. 112; Jacobson, Beating the Ladykillers, p. 43.
133. Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 191, 195-196; Erenburg, Steppin' Out, p. 70; Sobel, They Satisfy, p. 112; Jacobson, Beating the Ladykillers, p. 43.
134. Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 191, 195-196; Erenburg, Steppin' Out, p. 70; Sobel, They Satisfy, p. 112; Jacobson, Beating the Ladykillers, p. 43.
135. Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 191, 195-196; Erenburg, Steppin' Out, p. 70; Sobel, They Satisfy, p. 112; Jacobson, Beating the Ladykillers, p. 43.
136. Rosenzweig, Eight Hours, pp. 62, 45.
137. Melinda Kanner, "That's Why the Lady is a Drunk: Women, Alcoholism, and Popular Culture", in Diane Raymond, ed., Sexual Politics and Popular Culture (Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1990), pp. 183, 186; Peter Roffman and Jim Purdy, The Hollywood Social Problem: Film, Madness, Despair, and Politics from the Depression to the Fifties (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981), pp. 257-259; Maurice Zolotow, Billy Wilder in Hollywood (New York: Limelight, 1987), pp. 125-133.
138. Melinda Kanner, "That's Why the Lady is a Drunk: Women, Alcoholism, and Popular Culture", in Diane Raymond, ed., Sexual Politics and Popular Culture (Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1990), pp. 183, 186; Peter Roffman and Jim Purdy, The Hollywood Social Problem: Film, Madness, Despair, and Politics from the Depression to the Fifties (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981), pp. 257-259; Maurice Zolotow, Billy Wilder in Hollywood (New York: Limelight, 1987), pp. 125-133.
139. Melinda Kanner, "That's Why the Lady is a Drunk: Women, Alcoholism, and Popular Culture", in Diane Raymond, ed., Sexual Politics and Popular Culture (Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1990), pp. 183, 186; Peter Roffman and Jim Purdy, The Hollywood Social Problem: Film, Madness, Despair, and Politics from the Depression to the Fifties (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981), pp. 257-259; Maurice Zolotow, Billy Wilder in Hollywood (New York: Limelight, 1987), pp. 125-133.
140. Ernest R. Forbes, "The East-Coast Rum-Running Economy", in Warsh, ed., Drink in Canada, p. 166; Rosenzweig, Eight Hours, pp. 42-43, 45, 62.
141. Ernest R. Forbes, "The East-Coast Rum-Running Economy", in Warsh, ed., Drink in Canada, p. 166; Rosenzweig, Eight Hours, pp. 42-43, 45, 62.
142. Rosenzwcig, Eight Hours, p. 63 . For more on male spaces, see Ray Oldenburg, The Great Good Place: Cafés, Coffeeshops, Community Centers, Beauty Parlors, General Stores, Bars, Hangouts and How They Get You Through the Day (New York: Paragon, 1989), p. 36; John M. MacKenzie, "The Imperial Pioneer and Hunter and the British Masculine Stereotype in late Victorian and Edwardian Times", in Mangan and Walvin, eds., Manliness and Morality, p. 180.
143. Rosenzwcig, Eight Hours, p. 63 . For more on male spaces, see Ray Oldenburg, The Great Good Place: Cafés, Coffeeshops, Community Centers, Beauty Parlors, General Stores, Bars, Hangouts and How They Get You Through the Day (New York: Paragon, 1989), p. 36; John M. MacKenzie, "The Imperial Pioneer and Hunter and the British Masculine Stereotype in late Victorian and Edwardian Times", in Mangan and Walvin, eds., Manliness and Morality, p. 180.
144. Rosenzwcig, Eight Hours, p. 63 . For more on male spaces, see Ray Oldenburg, The Great Good Place: Cafés, Coffeeshops, Community Centers, Beauty Parlors, General Stores, Bars, Hangouts and How They Get You Through the Day (New York: Paragon, 1989), p. 36; John M. MacKenzie, "The Imperial Pioneer and Hunter and the British Masculine Stereotype in late Victorian and Edwardian Times", in Mangan and Walvin, eds., Manliness and Morality, p. 180.
145. Robert A. Campbell, "Ladies and Escorts: Gender Segregation and Public Policy in British Columbia Beer Parlours, 1925-1945", BC Studies, no. 105-106 (Spring/Summer 1995), pp. 120-121.
146. Ibid., pp. 128, 136-137.
147. Duke University Archives, Minutes of Creative Staff Meeting, Miss Coester, December 14, 1932, p. 16.
148. Otis Pease, The Responsibilities of American Advertising: Private Control and Public Influence, 1920-1940 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958), p. 183. Both Stephen Fox and John Burnham have argued that "until 1958, a woman model could not even appear in a liquor advertisement". Fox, The Mirror Makers, p. 292; Burnham, Bad Habits, p. 76.
149. Otis Pease, The Responsibilities of American Advertising: Private Control and Public Influence, 1920-1940 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958), p. 183. Both Stephen Fox and John Burnham have argued that "until 1958, a woman model could not even appear in a liquor advertisement". Fox, The Mirror Makers, p. 292; Burnham, Bad Habits, p. 76.
150. Otis Pease, The Responsibilities of American Advertising: Private Control and Public Influence, 1920-1940 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958), p. 183. Both Stephen Fox and John Burnham have argued that "until 1958, a woman model could not even appear in a liquor advertisement". Fox, The Mirror Makers, p. 292; Burnham, Bad Habits, p. 76.
151. Scott Haine has found a similar trend towards the portrayal of the companionate marriage in his study of liquor posters in France in the 1930s. It is unclear, however, whether American advertising agencies, which had moved into the European market, had influenced trends abroad. W. Scott Haine, "Sociability and Sophistication: Gender Representation in French Alcohol and Tobacco Advertisements, 1850-1950" (paper presented to the American Historical Association, Pacific Branch, Maui, 1995), p. 14; Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings, p. 39.
152. Scott Haine has found a similar trend towards the portrayal of the companionate marriage in his study of liquor posters in France in the 1930s. It is unclear, however, whether American advertising agencies, which had moved into the European market, had influenced trends abroad. W. Scott Haine, "Sociability and Sophistication: Gender Representation in French Alcohol and Tobacco Advertisements, 1850-1950" (paper presented to the American Historical Association, Pacific Branch, Maui, 1995), p. 14; Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings, p. 39.
153. Burnham, Bad Habits, p. 63.
154. See Cheryl Krasnick [Warsh], "Because There is Pain: Alcoholism, Temperance and the Victorian Physician", Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, vol. 2, no. 1 (1985), pp. 1-22.
155. Marcus Grant, "Infallible Powers: A Study of Health Claims in Early British Alcohol Beverage Advertising", in Susanna Barrows, Robin Room, and Jeffrey Verhey, eds., The Social History of Alcohol: Drinking and Culture in Modern Society. Proceedings (Berkeley: University of California, 1984), pp. 6, 7. Grant cited a Gordon's Gin advertisement portraying a solicitous mother hovering over her teenaged daughter who bore a sad, pinched expression on her face. The mother advised, "My dear - Why don't you do as I tell you? Go and get a drop of Gordon's out of (he bottle in the sideboard. You will find it will put you right at once, and is far more pleasant to take." Here the value of gender-sensitive interpretation is apparent. Grant believed the girl's facial expression to be anxiety over the pending war (p. 11). I recognized it as more likely due to menstrual cramps!
156. Nanaimo Daily Free Press, September 8, 1939, p. 7. Thanks to Davena Tarkanen for the reference.
157. La revue moderne, November 1931. See Levesque, Making and Breaking the Rules, p. 57. This claim was in striking contrast to the recent "demedicalization" of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. As Janet Golden concluded, because of scientific data which posits a connection between FAS and very heavy alcohol consumption (eight ounces per day), "all women had to be taught by public health officials not to drink while pregnant". Janet Golden, "Demedicalization: The Case of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome" (paper presented to Historical Perspectives on Alcohol and Drug Use in American Society, 1800-1997, Philadelphia, 1997), pp. 10, 23.
158. La revue moderne, November 1931. See Levesque, Making and Breaking the Rules, p. 57. This claim was in striking contrast to the recent "demedicalization" of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. As Janet Golden concluded, because of scientific data which posits a connection between FAS and very heavy alcohol consumption (eight ounces per day), "all women had to be taught by public health officials not to drink while pregnant". Janet Golden, "Demedicalization: The Case of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome" (paper presented to Historical Perspectives on Alcohol and Drug Use in American Society, 1800-1997, Philadelphia, 1997), pp. 10, 23.
159. La revue moderne, November 1931. See Levesque, Making and Breaking the Rules, p. 57. This claim was in striking contrast to the recent "demedicalization" of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. As Janet Golden concluded, because of scientific data which posits a connection between FAS and very heavy alcohol consumption (eight ounces per day), "all women had to be taught by public health officials not to drink while pregnant". Janet Golden, "Demedicalization: The Case of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome" (paper presented to Historical Perspectives on Alcohol and Drug Use in American Society, 1800-1997, Philadelphia, 1997), pp. 10, 23.
160. Melissa Dabakis, "Gendered Labor: Norman Rockwell's Rosie the Riveter and the Discourses of Wartime Womanhood", in Melosh, ed., Gender and American History, p. 187. See, for example, Pierson, "They're Still Women After All"; Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex during World War Il (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987).
161. Melissa Dabakis, "Gendered Labor: Norman Rockwell's Rosie the Riveter and the Discourses of Wartime Womanhood", in Melosh, ed., Gender and American History, p. 187. See, for example, Pierson, "They're Still Women After All"; Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex during World War Il (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987).
162. Melissa Dabakis, "Gendered Labor: Norman Rockwell's Rosie the Riveter and the Discourses of Wartime Womanhood", in Melosh, ed., Gender and American History, p. 187. See, for example, Pierson, "They're Still Women After All"; Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex during World War Il (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987).
163. McCracken, Decoding Women's Magazines, p. 2. See also Korinek, "Your Best Medium", p. 16.
164. McCracken, Decoding Women's Magazines, p. 2. See also Korinek, "Your Best Medium", p. 16.
165. The cartoon strip was the obvious forerunner of the television commercial, and the innovation of the Ruthrauff and Ryan agency. The advertising agencies were well aware of the power of the cartoon - its use of progressive action, drama, humour. In 1932 Thompson copywriter Jessup presented to his colleagues a study of comics: "It is even stated that a comic strip has a power of suggestion so strong as to induce imitation in the lower I.Q. brackets. You can see the possibility of leading the reader through a series of steps right up to the point of sale, then having him go out to do the same thing in a sort of hypnotic trance. But there is no evidence that sales have been produced in that way." Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, p. 111; Duke University Archives, Minutes of Creative Staff Meeting, March 12, 1932.
166. The cartoon strip was the obvious forerunner of the television commercial, and the innovation of the Ruthrauff and Ryan agency. The advertising
167. Lorraine Greaves, Background Paper on Women and Tobacco (1987) and Update (1990) (Ottawa: Health and Welfare Canada, 1990), p. iii.
168. Kluger, Ashes to Ashes, p. 709.
169. Donna Weis, "From the President: Alcopops not an Adult Drink", National Good Templar, July-August 1997, p. 2; "International News", National Good Templar, July-August 1997, p. 3; Charles Arthur, "Got 'em on milk and alcohol", The Independent, May 25, 1997, p. 23.
170. Donna Weis, "From the President: Alcopops not an Adult Drink", National Good Templar, July-August 1997, p. 2; "International News", National Good Templar, July-August 1997, p. 3; Charles Arthur, "Got 'em on milk and alcohol", The Independent, May 25, 1997, p. 23.
171. Donna Weis, "From the President: Alcopops not an Adult Drink", National Good Templar, July-August 1997, p. 2; "International News", National Good Templar, July-August 1997, p. 3; Charles Arthur, "Got 'em on milk and alcohol", The Independent, May 25, 1997, p. 23.