Between Reality and Dream: Eastern European Media Transition, Transformation, Consolidation, and Integration

East European Politics and Societies

Volumn 18, Issue 1, 2004, Pages

  Gross, Peter ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA   (United States)

Author keywords

Eastern Europe; Integration; Media; Transformation

Indexed keywords

EID: 1142265429     PISSN: 08883254     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0888325403259919     Document Type: Review

References (73)

1. See, for example, Larry Diamond, Juan Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989); also Geoffrey Pridham, ed., The New Mediterranean Democracies: Regime Transition in Spain, Greece, and Portugal (London: Frank Cass, 1984), A good summation of applicable theories can be found in Michaela Tzankoff, "Die deutsche Transformationsforschung nach 1989 - Ein Uberblick," in Barbara Thomas and Michaela Tsankoff, eds., Medien und Transformation in Osteuropa (Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag, 2001), 9-38.
2. See, for example, Larry Diamond, Juan Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989); also Geoffrey Pridham, ed., The New Mediterranean Democracies: Regime Transition in Spain, Greece, and Portugal (London: Frank Cass, 1984), A good summation of applicable theories can be found in Michaela Tzankoff, "Die deutsche Transformationsforschung nach 1989 - Ein Uberblick," in Barbara Thomas and Michaela Tsankoff, eds., Medien und Transformation in Osteuropa (Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag, 2001), 9-38.
3. See, for example, Larry Diamond, Juan Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989); also Geoffrey Pridham, ed., The New Mediterranean Democracies: Regime Transition in Spain, Greece, and Portugal (London: Frank Cass, 1984), A good summation of applicable theories can be found in Michaela Tzankoff, "Die deutsche Transformationsforschung nach 1989 - Ein Uberblick," in Barbara Thomas and Michaela Tsankoff, eds., Medien und Transformation in Osteuropa (Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag, 2001), 9-38.
4. See Karol Jakubowicz, "Virtuous vs. Vicious Circles: Systemic Transformation and Media Change in Central and Eastern Europe" (Paper presented at the "Democratization and Media" Conference, Bellagio, Italy, April 9-13, 2001); Colin Sparks and Anna Reading, Communism, Capitalism and the Mass Media (London: Sage, 1998); Slavko Splichal, Media beyond Socialism: Theory and Practice in East-Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994).
5. See Karol Jakubowicz, "Virtuous vs. Vicious Circles: Systemic Transformation and Media Change in Central and Eastern Europe" (Paper presented at the "Democratization and Media" Conference, Bellagio, Italy, April 9-13, 2001); Colin Sparks and Anna Reading, Communism, Capitalism and the Mass Media (London: Sage, 1998); Slavko Splichal, Media beyond Socialism: Theory and Practice in East-Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994).
6. See Karol Jakubowicz, "Virtuous vs. Vicious Circles: Systemic Transformation and Media Change in Central and Eastern Europe" (Paper presented at the "Democratization and Media" Conference, Bellagio, Italy, April 9-13, 2001); Colin Sparks and Anna Reading, Communism, Capitalism and the Mass Media (London: Sage, 1998); Slavko Splichal, Media beyond Socialism: Theory and Practice in East-Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994).
7. Dankward Rustow, "Transitions to Democracy: Toward a Dynamic Model," Comparative Politics 2 (1970): 337-365.
8. Jakubowicz, "Virtuous vs. Vicious."
9. See Larry Diamond, ed., Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994), 239. This ethos is outlined by Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymoure Martin Lipset, eds., "Introduction: Comparing Experiences in Democracy," in Politics in Developing Countries: Comparing Experiences with Democracy (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1990), 16-17: "Belief in the legitimacy of democracy; tolerance for opposing parties, beliefs, and preferences; a willingness to compromise with political opponents, and under-lying this, pragmatism and flexibility; some minimum of trust in the political environment, and cooperation, particularly among political competitors; moderation in political positions and partisan identifications; civility of political discourse,"
10. See Larry Diamond, ed., Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994), 239. This ethos is outlined by Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymoure Martin Lipset, eds., "Introduction: Comparing Experiences in Democracy," in Politics in Developing Countries: Comparing Experiences with Democracy (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1990), 16-17: "Belief in the legitimacy of democracy; tolerance for opposing parties, beliefs, and preferences; a willingness to compromise with political opponents, and under-lying this, pragmatism and flexibility; some minimum of trust in the political environment, and cooperation, particularly among political competitors; moderation in political positions and partisan identifications; civility of political discourse,"
11. Lucian W. Pye, Asian Power and Politics: The Cultural Dimensions of Authority (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985), 29.
12. Franz Boas, The Mind of Primitive Man, rev. ed. (New York: Greenwood, 1983).
13. Jakubowicz, "Virtuous vs. Vicious." Case A countries include Poland, Hungary, Slovenia, and the Czech Republic; Case B countries include Albania, Macedonia, Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania.
14. See, for example, Christiane Lemke, "Nachholende Mobilisierung: Demokratisierung und politischer Protest in postkommunistischen Gesellschaften," Aus Politic und Zeitgeschichte 5 (1997): 29-37.
15. Attila Agh, The Politics of Central Europe (London: Sage, 1998), 44, 49-50. Agh speaks of an economic, social, and political transition that, he explains, denotes a direction and goals for changes, recognizing the necessary cultural changes only as the last stage of the social transition.
16. Ibid, 49.
17. Lemke, "Nachholende Mobilisierung," 152.
18. Oleg Manaev, "Rethinking the Social Role of the Media in a Society in Transition," Canadian Journal of Communication 20 (1995): 45-65.
19. See, among a multitude of studies on which this article depends for information and analysis, Splichal, Media beyond Socialism; Sparks and Reading, Communism, Capitalism, and the Mass Media; Tomasz Goban-Klas, The Orchestration of the Media: The Politics of Mass Communications in Communist Poland and the Aftermath (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994); Patrick H. O'Neil, Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1997); Ekaterina Ognianova, "The Transitional Media System of Post-Communist Bulgaria," Journalism & Mass Communication Monographs 162 (June 1997); David L. Paletz, Karol Jakubowicz, and Pavao Novosel, Glasnost and After: Media and Change in Central and Eastern Europe (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton, 1995); Peter Gross, Entangled Evolutions: The Media and Democratization in Eastern Europe (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002).
20. See, among a multitude of studies on which this article depends for information and analysis, Splichal, Media beyond Socialism; Sparks and Reading, Communism, Capitalism, and the Mass Media; Tomasz Goban-Klas, The Orchestration of the Media: The Politics of Mass Communications in Communist Poland and the Aftermath (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994); Patrick H. O'Neil, Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1997); Ekaterina Ognianova, "The Transitional Media System of Post-Communist Bulgaria," Journalism & Mass Communication Monographs 162 (June 1997); David L. Paletz, Karol Jakubowicz, and Pavao Novosel, Glasnost and After: Media and Change in Central and Eastern Europe (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton, 1995); Peter Gross, Entangled Evolutions: The Media and Democratization in Eastern Europe (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002).
21. See, among a multitude of studies on which this article depends for information and analysis, Splichal, Media beyond Socialism; Sparks and Reading, Communism, Capitalism, and the Mass Media; Tomasz Goban-Klas, The Orchestration of the Media: The Politics of Mass Communications in Communist Poland and the Aftermath (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994); Patrick H. O'Neil, Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1997); Ekaterina Ognianova, "The Transitional Media System of Post-Communist Bulgaria," Journalism & Mass Communication Monographs 162 (June 1997); David L. Paletz, Karol Jakubowicz, and Pavao Novosel, Glasnost and After: Media and Change in Central and Eastern Europe (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton, 1995); Peter Gross, Entangled Evolutions: The Media and Democratization in Eastern Europe (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002).
22. See, among a multitude of studies on which this article depends for information and analysis, Splichal, Media beyond Socialism; Sparks and Reading, Communism, Capitalism, and the Mass Media; Tomasz Goban-Klas, The Orchestration of the Media: The Politics of Mass Communications in Communist Poland and the Aftermath (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994); Patrick H. O'Neil, Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1997); Ekaterina Ognianova, "The Transitional Media System of Post-Communist Bulgaria," Journalism & Mass Communication Monographs 162 (June 1997); David L. Paletz, Karol Jakubowicz, and Pavao Novosel, Glasnost and After: Media and Change in Central and Eastern Europe (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton, 1995); Peter Gross, Entangled Evolutions: The Media and Democratization in Eastern Europe (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002).
23. See, among a multitude of studies on which this article depends for information and analysis, Splichal, Media beyond Socialism; Sparks and Reading, Communism, Capitalism, and the Mass Media; Tomasz Goban-Klas, The Orchestration of the Media: The Politics of Mass Communications in Communist Poland and the Aftermath (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994); Patrick H. O'Neil, Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1997); Ekaterina Ognianova, "The Transitional Media System of Post-Communist Bulgaria," Journalism & Mass Communication Monographs 162 (June 1997); David L. Paletz, Karol Jakubowicz, and Pavao Novosel, Glasnost and After: Media and Change in Central and Eastern Europe (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton, 1995); Peter Gross, Entangled Evolutions: The Media and Democratization in Eastern Europe (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002).
24. See, among a multitude of studies on which this article depends for information and analysis, Splichal, Media beyond Socialism; Sparks and Reading, Communism, Capitalism, and the Mass Media; Tomasz Goban-Klas, The Orchestration of the Media: The Politics of Mass Communications in Communist Poland and the Aftermath (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994); Patrick H. O'Neil, Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1997); Ekaterina Ognianova, "The Transitional Media System of Post-Communist Bulgaria," Journalism & Mass Communication Monographs 162 (June 1997); David L. Paletz, Karol Jakubowicz, and Pavao Novosel, Glasnost and After: Media and Change in Central and Eastern Europe (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton, 1995); Peter Gross, Entangled Evolutions: The Media and Democratization in Eastern Europe (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002).
25. See, among a multitude of studies on which this article depends for information and analysis, Splichal, Media beyond Socialism; Sparks and Reading, Communism, Capitalism, and the Mass Media; Tomasz Goban-Klas, The Orchestration of the Media: The Politics of Mass Communications in Communist Poland and the Aftermath (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994); Patrick H. O'Neil, Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1997); Ekaterina Ognianova, "The Transitional Media System of Post-Communist Bulgaria," Journalism & Mass Communication Monographs 162 (June 1997); David L. Paletz, Karol Jakubowicz, and Pavao Novosel, Glasnost and After: Media and Change in Central and Eastern Europe (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton, 1995); Peter Gross, Entangled Evolutions: The Media and Democratization in Eastern Europe (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002).
26. Vesna Sopar, "The Media System in the Republic of Macedonia: Between Theory and Practice," South-Eost Europe Review 1 (2002): 47-66.
27. Many of the Eastern European media could not have survived economically were it not for some form of subsidy from political parties in the first half of the 1990s; many if not most media were established to provide a political soapbox for political parties, politicians, or other groups who perceived a need to have a media outlet for social, political, cultural, religious, and ethnic reasons.
28. While it is true that few political parties still own media (mostly extremist parties such as Romania Mare, owned by the party of the same name in Romania), there are quite a few politicians who own major media outlets, for example, Pavol Rusko who owns TV Markiza in Slovakia. For arguments on the need for a nonpartisan political media in the process of democratization, see Gross, Entangled Evolutions.
29. Vojtek Kosc, "Czech TV Crisis Prompts Poland to Rethink Its Own Public Media," Transitions Online (retrieved from www.tol.cz, 2001).
30. Andras Szekfu, "The Crisis in Hungarian Public Service Broadcasting - Margin Notes on Two Reports," South-East Europe Review 1 (2001): 83-92.
31. See Gross, Entangled Evolutions, 56.
32. For the mixture of indigenous and foreign individual and groups who own media and whose purpose is owning newspapers and broadcast stations, leadership and functional definitions for their outlets vary significantly, thus at the very least signaling a relative pluralism and diversity in the system. In Bulgaria, by virtue of the importance of the media owned by foreign corporations, foreign media control took on the appearance of a quasimonopoly; that is, Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation and Antena, a Greek media company, own the two most popular television stations in Sofia, BTV and Nova, respectively, and the German WAZ publishing giant owns Bulgaria's two largest newspapers, 24 Tchassa and Trud. See Zoltan Jakab and Mihaly Galik, Survival, Efficiency and Independence: The Presence of Foreign Capital in the Hungarian Media Market (Manchester, UK: European Institute for the Media, 1991); Karol Jakubowicz, Conquest or Partnership? East-West European Integration in the Media Field (Dusseldorf, Germany: European Institute for the Media, 1996); Tom Fenton, Betting on the Media: Foreigners in for Low-Ante, High Stakes Central European Game (Arlington, VA: Freedom Forum, December 1995): Polia Alexandrova, "Media, Mafia, and Monopoly in Bulgaria," World Press Review (retrieved July 17, 2001, from www.wordpress.org).
33. For the mixture of indigenous and foreign individual and groups who own media and whose purpose is owning newspapers and broadcast stations, leadership and functional definitions for their outlets vary significantly, thus at the very least signaling a relative pluralism and diversity in the system. In Bulgaria, by virtue of the importance of the media owned by foreign corporations, foreign media control took on the appearance of a quasimonopoly; that is, Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation and Antena, a Greek media company, own the two most popular television stations in Sofia, BTV and Nova, respectively, and the German WAZ publishing giant owns Bulgaria's two largest newspapers, 24 Tchassa and Trud. See Zoltan Jakab and Mihaly Galik, Survival, Efficiency and Independence: The Presence of Foreign Capital in the Hungarian Media Market (Manchester, UK: European Institute for the Media, 1991); Karol Jakubowicz, Conquest or Partnership? East-West European Integration in the Media Field (Dusseldorf, Germany: European Institute for the Media, 1996); Tom Fenton, Betting on the Media: Foreigners in for Low-Ante, High Stakes Central European Game (Arlington, VA: Freedom Forum, December 1995): Polia Alexandrova, "Media, Mafia, and Monopoly in Bulgaria," World Press Review (retrieved July 17, 2001, from www.wordpress.org).
34. For the mixture of indigenous and foreign individual and groups who own media and whose purpose is owning newspapers and broadcast stations, leadership and functional definitions for their outlets vary significantly, thus at the very least signaling a relative pluralism and diversity in the system. In Bulgaria, by virtue of the importance of the media owned by foreign corporations, foreign media control took on the appearance of a quasimonopoly; that is, Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation and Antena, a Greek media company, own the two most popular television stations in Sofia, BTV and Nova, respectively, and the German WAZ publishing giant owns Bulgaria's two largest newspapers, 24 Tchassa and Trud. See Zoltan Jakab and Mihaly Galik, Survival, Efficiency and Independence: The Presence of Foreign Capital in the Hungarian Media Market (Manchester, UK: European Institute for the Media, 1991); Karol Jakubowicz, Conquest or Partnership? East-West European Integration in the Media Field (Dusseldorf, Germany: European Institute for the Media, 1996); Tom Fenton, Betting on the Media: Foreigners in for Low-Ante, High Stakes Central European Game (Arlington, VA: Freedom Forum, December 1995): Polia Alexandrova, "Media, Mafia, and Monopoly in Bulgaria," World Press Review (retrieved July 17, 2001, from www.wordpress.org).
35. For the mixture of indigenous and foreign individual and groups who own media and whose purpose is owning newspapers and broadcast stations, leadership and functional definitions for their outlets vary significantly, thus at the very least signaling a relative pluralism and diversity in the system. In Bulgaria, by virtue of the importance of the media owned by foreign corporations, foreign media control took on the appearance of a quasimonopoly; that is, Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation and Antena, a Greek media company, own the two most popular television stations in Sofia, BTV and Nova, respectively, and the German WAZ publishing giant owns Bulgaria's two largest newspapers, 24 Tchassa and Trud. See Zoltan Jakab and Mihaly Galik, Survival, Efficiency and Independence: The Presence of Foreign Capital in the Hungarian Media Market (Manchester, UK: European Institute for the Media, 1991); Karol Jakubowicz, Conquest or Partnership? East-West European Integration in the Media Field (Dusseldorf, Germany: European Institute for the Media, 1996); Tom Fenton, Betting on the Media: Foreigners in for Low-Ante, High Stakes Central European Game (Arlington, VA: Freedom Forum, December 1995): Polia Alexandrova, "Media, Mafia, and Monopoly in Bulgaria," World Press Review (retrieved July 17, 2001, from www.wordpress.org).
36. Michael Gurevitch and Jay G. Blumler, "Mass Media and Political Institutions: The Systems Approach," in George Gerbner, ed., Mass Media Policies in Changing Cultures (London: Wiley, 1977), 263.
37. Gross, Entangled Evolutions, 136.
38. It is Interesting to note that indirect, outside pressures have convinced the Romanian government to bring Articles 205 and 206 of the Penal Code that deal with insults and defamation up to "European standards. " See Razvan Savaliuc, Ziua (retrieved May 22, 2002, from www.ziua.net/docs). It remains to be seen if the change in wording will also bring a change in the application and interpretation of the modified articles by the Romanian courts, that is, if there will be a change in the overall culture that dominates the legal system.
39. J. Zakowski, "Etyka mediow," as quoted in Karol Jakubowicz, "Normative Models of Media and Journalism in Central and Eastern Europe" (Paper presented at "The Profession of Journalism in Democratic Society: East-West Perspectives" Conference at Napier University, Edinburgh, UK, September 1998).
40. J. Zakowski, "Etyka mediow," as quoted in Karol Jakubowicz, "Normative Models of Media and Journalism in Central and Eastern Europe" (Paper presented at "The Profession of Journalism in Democratic Society: East-West Perspectives" Conference at Napier University, Edinburgh, UK, September 1998).
41. Alina Mungiu, Romanii dupa '89. Istoria unei neintelegeri (Bucharest, Romania: Humanitas, 1995), 254.
42. See Everett M. Rogers and James W. Dearing, "Agenda-Setting Research: Where Has It Been, Where Is It Going?" in Doris A. Graber, ed., Media Power in Politics (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 1984), 77-95; see also Steve Kettle, "Development of the Czech Media since the Fall of Communism," in Patrick H. O'Neil, ed., Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1997), 43; New Democracies Barometer III(Vienna: Paul Lazarsfeld Society, 1994) shows that the media are trusted by only 15 percent (mean of Czechs, Slovaks, Hungarians, Poles, Slovenians, Belorussians, and Ukrainians. See Richard Rose, William Mishler, and Christian Haerpfer, Democracy and Its Alternatives (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 87; for Romania see, for example, U.S. Information Agency, "Romanians' Confidence in Media Steadily Declining" (research memorandum, Washington, DC, February 1992). Other studies show that more than 39 percent of Bulgarians, more than 55 percent of Hungarians, 62 percent of Poles, and 68 percent of Romanians distrust the media in their respective countries. Data collected between March 1998 and March 2000, as cited in Slavko Splichal, "Imitative Revolutions: Changes in the Media and Journalism in East-Central Europe" (Paper presented at the "Democratization and the Mass Media: Comparative Perspectives from Europe and Asia" Conference, the Rockefeller Bellagio Center, Italy, April 9-13, 2001).
43. See Everett M. Rogers and James W. Dearing, "Agenda-Setting Research: Where Has It Been, Where Is It Going?" in Doris A. Graber, ed., Media Power in Politics (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 1984), 77-95; see also Steve Kettle, "Development of the Czech Media since the Fall of Communism," in Patrick H. O'Neil, ed., Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1997), 43; New Democracies Barometer III(Vienna: Paul Lazarsfeld Society, 1994) shows that the media are trusted by only 15 percent (mean of Czechs, Slovaks, Hungarians, Poles, Slovenians, Belorussians, and Ukrainians. See Richard Rose, William Mishler, and Christian Haerpfer, Democracy and Its Alternatives (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 87; for Romania see, for example, U.S. Information Agency, "Romanians' Confidence in Media Steadily Declining" (research memorandum, Washington, DC, February 1992). Other studies show that more than 39 percent of Bulgarians, more than 55 percent of Hungarians, 62 percent of Poles, and 68 percent of Romanians distrust the media in their respective countries. Data collected between March 1998 and March 2000, as cited in Slavko Splichal, "Imitative Revolutions: Changes in the Media and Journalism in East-Central Europe" (Paper presented at the "Democratization and the Mass Media: Comparative Perspectives from Europe and Asia" Conference, the Rockefeller Bellagio Center, Italy, April 9-13, 2001).
44. See Everett M. Rogers and James W. Dearing, "Agenda-Setting Research: Where Has It Been, Where Is It Going?" in Doris A. Graber, ed., Media Power in Politics (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 1984), 77-95; see also Steve Kettle, "Development of the Czech Media since the Fall of Communism," in Patrick H. O'Neil, ed., Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1997), 43; New Democracies Barometer III(Vienna: Paul Lazarsfeld Society, 1994) shows that the media are trusted by only 15 percent (mean of Czechs, Slovaks, Hungarians, Poles, Slovenians, Belorussians, and Ukrainians. See Richard Rose, William Mishler, and Christian Haerpfer, Democracy and Its Alternatives (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 87; for Romania see, for example, U.S. Information Agency, "Romanians' Confidence in Media Steadily Declining" (research memorandum, Washington, DC, February 1992). Other studies show that more than 39 percent of Bulgarians, more than 55 percent of Hungarians, 62 percent of Poles, and 68 percent of Romanians distrust the media in their respective countries. Data collected between March 1998 and March 2000, as cited in Slavko Splichal, "Imitative Revolutions: Changes in the Media and Journalism in East-Central Europe" (Paper presented at the "Democratization and the Mass Media: Comparative Perspectives from Europe and Asia" Conference, the Rockefeller Bellagio Center, Italy, April 9-13, 2001).
45. See Everett M. Rogers and James W. Dearing, "Agenda-Setting Research: Where Has It Been, Where Is It Going?" in Doris A. Graber, ed., Media Power in Politics (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 1984), 77-95; see also Steve Kettle, "Development of the Czech Media since the Fall of Communism," in Patrick H. O'Neil, ed., Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1997), 43; New Democracies Barometer III(Vienna: Paul Lazarsfeld Society, 1994) shows that the media are trusted by only 15 percent (mean of Czechs, Slovaks, Hungarians, Poles, Slovenians, Belorussians, and Ukrainians. See Richard Rose, William Mishler, and Christian Haerpfer, Democracy and Its Alternatives (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 87; for Romania see, for example, U.S. Information Agency, "Romanians' Confidence in Media Steadily Declining" (research memorandum, Washington, DC, February 1992). Other studies show that more than 39 percent of Bulgarians, more than 55 percent of Hungarians, 62 percent of Poles, and 68 percent of Romanians distrust the media in their respective countries. Data collected between March 1998 and March 2000, as cited in Slavko Splichal, "Imitative Revolutions: Changes in the Media and Journalism in East-Central Europe" (Paper presented at the "Democratization and the Mass Media: Comparative Perspectives from Europe and Asia" Conference, the Rockefeller Bellagio Center, Italy, April 9-13, 2001).
46. See Everett M. Rogers and James W. Dearing, "Agenda-Setting Research: Where Has It Been, Where Is It Going?" in Doris A. Graber, ed., Media Power in Politics (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 1984), 77-95; see also Steve Kettle, "Development of the Czech Media since the Fall of Communism," in Patrick H. O'Neil, ed., Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1997), 43; New Democracies Barometer III(Vienna: Paul Lazarsfeld Society, 1994) shows that the media are trusted by only 15 percent (mean of Czechs, Slovaks, Hungarians, Poles, Slovenians, Belorussians, and Ukrainians. See Richard Rose, William Mishler, and Christian Haerpfer, Democracy and Its Alternatives (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 87; for Romania see, for example, U.S. Information Agency, "Romanians' Confidence in Media Steadily Declining" (research memorandum, Washington, DC, February 1992). Other studies show that more than 39 percent of Bulgarians, more than 55 percent of Hungarians, 62 percent of Poles, and 68 percent of Romanians distrust the media in their respective countries. Data collected between March 1998 and March 2000, as cited in Slavko Splichal, "Imitative Revolutions: Changes in the Media and Journalism in East-Central Europe" (Paper presented at the "Democratization and the Mass Media: Comparative Perspectives from Europe and Asia" Conference, the Rockefeller Bellagio Center, Italy, April 9-13, 2001).
47. See Everett M. Rogers and James W. Dearing, "Agenda-Setting Research: Where Has It Been, Where Is It Going?" in Doris A. Graber, ed., Media Power in Politics (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 1984), 77-95; see also Steve Kettle, "Development of the Czech Media since the Fall of Communism," in Patrick H. O'Neil, ed., Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1997), 43; New Democracies Barometer III(Vienna: Paul Lazarsfeld Society, 1994) shows that the media are trusted by only 15 percent (mean of Czechs, Slovaks, Hungarians, Poles, Slovenians, Belorussians, and Ukrainians. See Richard Rose, William Mishler, and Christian Haerpfer, Democracy and Its Alternatives (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 87; for Romania see, for example, U.S. Information Agency, "Romanians' Confidence in Media Steadily Declining" (research memorandum, Washington, DC, February 1992). Other studies show that more than 39 percent of Bulgarians, more than 55 percent of Hungarians, 62 percent of Poles, and 68 percent of Romanians distrust the media in their respective countries. Data collected between March 1998 and March 2000, as cited in Slavko Splichal, "Imitative Revolutions: Changes in the Media and Journalism in East-Central Europe" (Paper presented at the "Democratization and the Mass Media: Comparative Perspectives from Europe and Asia" Conference, the Rockefeller Bellagio Center, Italy, April 9-13, 2001).
48. David L, Swanson and Paolo Mancini, eds., Politics, Media and Modern Democracy (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1996), 15-16.
49. Jean-Francois Revel, The Flight from Truth: The Reign of Deceit in the Age of Information (New York: Random House, 1991), 237.
50. Katarina Luketic, "The Croatian Media, after Enduring Ten Years of Repression under Late President Franjo Tudjman, Seem Poised to Once Again Fall under the Yoke of Government," Transitions Online (retrieved from www.tol.cz, 2001).
51. Jonathan Stein, "Still in Bed Together: Czech Journalism and Party Politics," The New Presence (retrieved from www.new-presence.cz, January 1998).
52. See, for example, the findings by Katrin Voltmer and Rudiger Schmitt-Beck, "The Mass Media and Citizens' Orientations towards Democracy: The Experience of Six 'Third-Wave' Democracies in Southern Europe, Eastern Europe and Latin America" (Paper presented at the "Political Communication, the Mass Media, and the Consolidation of New Democracies" Joint Sessions of Workshops of the European Consortium for Political Research, Turin, Italy, March 22-27, 2002).
53. Karol Jakubowicz, "From Party Propaganda to Corporate Speech? Polish Journalism in Search of a New Identity," Journal of Communication 42:3(Summer 1992): 16.
54. Gross, Entangled Evolutions, 102.
55. Adam Michnik, "After Communism, Journalism," Media Studies Journal 12:2(Spring/Summer 1998): 104-13.
56. Liviu Antonesei, "Cultura Politica si Terapie Sociala in Romania Post-Comunista," Revista de Cercetari Sociale 1 (1994): 118.
57. Karol Jakubowicz, "Normative Models of Media and Journalism," 16.
58. Stefan Stanciugelu, "Gazetaria ca forma de donjuanism," Dilema (February 1998): 7.
59. C. Gombar, "Introductory Address," in Anthony Pragnell and Ildiko Gergely, eds., The Political Content of Broadcasting (Manchester, UK: European Institute for Media, 1992, media monograph no. 15), 4-6.
60. Llazar Semini, "The Albanian Media Set the Tone for the Recent Elections, and the Results Were Noticeably Different," Transitions Online (retrieved from www.tol.cz, 2001).
61. Roumiana Deltcheva, "New Tenedencies in Post-Totalitarian Bulgaria: Mass Culture & the Media," Europe-Asia Studies 48:3(March 1996): 305-16.
62. Vladan Radosavljevic, "The Milosevic's Estradition to The Hague Has Made the Difference between Djindjic and Kostunica More Visible, But It Has Also Proven Serbian Media's Increasing Maturity and Independence," Transitions Online (retrieved from www.tol.cz, 2001).
63. Tomasz Goban-Klas, "Politics versus the Media in Poland: A Game without Rules," in Patrick H. O'Neil, ed., Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1997) 32.
64. A. Lanczi and P. H. O'Neil, "Pluralization and the Politics of Media Change in Hungary," in Patrick H. O'Neil, ed., Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe (London: Frank Cass, 1997), 99 (emphasis added).
65. Albania is the one glaring exception in the region; it has no journalism association or trade unions.
66. Steffen Kolb, "The Functional Equivalence Concept as an Approach to Allow a Broad Level of Comparability in General Media Statistics" (Paper presented at the ENTIRE conference, "Defining Key Indicators in the Field of Media and Communication Research in Europe," Dortmund, Germany, May 23-25, 2002); Uwe Hasebrink, "Comparing Children's Media Environments and Media Use across Europe" (Paper presented at the ENTIRE conference, "Defining Key Indicators in the Field of Media and Communication Research in Europe," Dortmund, Germany, May 23-25, 2002).
67. Steffen Kolb, "The Functional Equivalence Concept as an Approach to Allow a Broad Level of Comparability in General Media Statistics" (Paper presented at the ENTIRE conference, "Defining Key Indicators in the Field of Media and Communication Research in Europe," Dortmund, Germany, May 23-25, 2002); Uwe Hasebrink, "Comparing Children's Media Environments and Media Use across Europe" (Paper presented at the ENTIRE conference, "Defining Key Indicators in the Field of Media and Communication Research in Europe," Dortmund, Germany, May 23-25, 2002).
68. Wolfgang Donsbach, "Lapdogs, Watchdogs, and Junkyard Dogs," Media Studies Journal 9 (Fall 1995): 30.
69. James Napoli, "American Journalism and the French Press," Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 6:2(Spring 2001): 104-12.
70. Lars W. Nord, "Americanization v. the Middle Way: New Trends in Swedish Political Communication," Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 6:2(Spring 2001): 113-19.
71. Thomas E. Patterson, Bradlee Professor of Government and the Press at Harvard University, as quoted in Judith Sheppard, "Playing Defense," American Journalism Review 20:7(September 1998): 48-56.
72. Robert Conquest, Reflections on a Ravaged Century (London: W. W. Norton, 2000), 266 (emphasis added). Similar arguments are made by Tony Judt, A Grand Illusion? An Essay on Europe (New York: Hill and Wang, 1996).
73. Robert Conquest, Reflections on a Ravaged Century (London: W. W. Norton, 2000), 266 (emphasis added). Similar arguments are made by Tony Judt, A Grand Illusion? An Essay on Europe (New York: Hill and Wang, 1996).