Psychological aspects of terror and witnessing

Journal of Psychohistory

Volumn 32, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 268-277

  Ihanus, Juhani ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 11144300327     PISSN: 01453378     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (43)

1. Bruno Bettelheim's early report "Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme Situations" [1943] (in Bruno Bettelheim, Surviving the Holocaust. London: Flamingo, 1986) saw the concentration camp as a "laboratory" in which the Nazis used systematic methods of terrorizing, producing in their subjects "childlike attitudes and childlike dependency on the will of the leaders" (p. 96), and in which prisoners were forced to adapt to the camp situation by living with guilt and even by adopting values of their oppressors.
2. Terrence Des Pres in his The Survivor: An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (1976; New York: Oxford University Press) claimed that Bettelheim's interpretation of camp behavior was based on the old ethic of heroism, martyrdom, guilt and self-sacrifice. The death camps undermined all of these old vices, making it absurd to think that any of the prisoners is responsible for his or her fate. Even the idea of "survivor guilt" exemplified the "blame-the-victim-syndrome," when the perpetrators mostly felt no guilt.
3. Cf. Shoshana Felman and Dori Laub, Testimony: Crises of Witnessing in Literature, Psychoanalysis, and History. New York: Routledge, 1992, p. 192.
4. Carl von Clausewitz, On War. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976.
5. In Japan, after Hiroshima and Nagasaki, there was wide-spread suspicion that the survivors were contamintaed with radiation and could thus pervade the unexposed population. Robert Jay Lifton in his Death in Life: Survivors of Hiroshima (New York: Random House, 1968) noticed that the symbolic effect of being exposed ("tainted") led in Japan to the creation of "bomb lepers" - survivors who were rejected or shunned by the "healthy" society.
6. Lloyd deMause, "War as Righteous Rape and Purification." In Lloyd deMause, The Emotional Life of Nations. New York: Karnac, 2002, p. 149.
7. Lloyd deMause, "The Childhood Origins of Terrorism." In Lloyd deMause, The Emotional Life of Nations. New York: Karnac, 2002, pp. 39-45.
8. Cf. Howard F. Stein, The Dream of Culture: Essays on Culture's Elusiveness. New York: Psyche Press, 1994, p. 112: "... in the perilous nuclear age, the only way people can develop a sense of the earth, a sense of we-ness, is if they could locate some extraterrestrial enemy to identify and fight."
9. deMause, "War as Righteous Rape and Purification," p. 180.
10. Ibid., pp. 155, 176.
11. Lloyd deMause, "The Psychogenic Theory of History." In Lloyd deMause, Foundations of Psychohistory. New York: Creative Roots, 1982, p. 138.
12. On the "fetal drama," see Lloyd deMause, "The Fetal Origins of History." In Lloyd deMause, Foundations of Psychohistory. New York: Creative Roots, 1982, pp. 244-332. The notion of fetal personhood has also been projected into the astral fetus which has then been equated with the Earth. The cult of fetal personhood has been used as a safety valve against doomsady visions and extinction anxieties. On the other hand, the Earth, as an embryo, can be seen as one of many cosmic pregnancies which can be aborted from its womb (space full of other planets, other cosmic pregnancies) - the Star Children being ready to inhabit other planets. Cf. Zoë Sofia, "Exterminating Fetuses: Abortion, Disarmament, and the Sexo-Semiotics of Extraterrestrialism." Diacritics 14 (2), 1984, pp. 47-59.
13. On the "fetal drama," see Lloyd deMause, "The Fetal Origins of History." In Lloyd deMause, Foundations of Psychohistory. New York: Creative Roots, 1982, pp. 244-332. The notion of fetal personhood has also been projected into the astral fetus which has then been equated with the Earth. The cult of fetal personhood has been used as a safety valve against doomsady visions and extinction anxieties. On the other hand, the Earth, as an embryo, can be seen as one of many cosmic pregnancies which can be aborted from its womb (space full of other planets, other cosmic pregnancies) - the Star Children being ready to inhabit other planets. Cf. Zoë Sofia, "Exterminating Fetuses: Abortion, Disarmament, and the Sexo-Semiotics of Extraterrestrialism." Diacritics 14 (2), 1984, pp. 47-59.
14. Christopher Bollas, Cracking Up: The Work of Unconscious Experience. New York: Hill and Wang, 1995/1996, pp. 210-212. Robert Jay Lifton (The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide. New York: Basic Books, 1986) has called this process the "socialization to evil."
15. Christopher Bollas, Cracking Up: The Work of Unconscious Experience. New York: Hill and Wang, 1995/1996, pp. 210-212. Robert Jay Lifton (The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide. New York: Basic Books, 1986) has called this process the "socialization to evil."
16. On the mechanisms of the Nazi terror, see Ernst Federn, "Mechanismen des Terrors." In Roland Kaufhold (ed.), Ernst Federn - Versuche zur Psychologie des Terrors. Giessen: Psychosozial-Verlag, 1998, pp. 89-92. On National Socialist education ("Youth shapes its own destiny," was the motto for the Hitler Youth), see Gregor Ziemer, Education for Death: The Making of the Nazi. London: Oxford University Press, 1941. See also Eugen Kogon, The Theory and Practice of Hell: The German Concentration Camps and the System Behind Them. London: Seeker & Warburg, 1950; Élie Aron Cohen, Human Behavior in the Concentration Camp. New York: W. W. Norton, 1953.
17. On the mechanisms of the Nazi terror, see Ernst Federn, "Mechanismen des Terrors." In Roland Kaufhold (ed.), Ernst Federn - Versuche zur Psychologie des Terrors. Giessen: Psychosozial-Verlag, 1998, pp. 89-92. On National Socialist education ("Youth shapes its own destiny," was the motto for the Hitler Youth), see Gregor Ziemer, Education for Death: The Making of the Nazi. London: Oxford University Press, 1941. See also Eugen Kogon, The Theory and Practice of Hell: The German Concentration Camps and the System Behind Them. London: Seeker & Warburg, 1950; Élie Aron Cohen, Human Behavior in the Concentration Camp. New York: W. W. Norton, 1953.
18. On the mechanisms of the Nazi terror, see Ernst Federn, "Mechanismen des Terrors." In Roland Kaufhold (ed.), Ernst Federn - Versuche zur Psychologie des Terrors. Giessen: Psychosozial-Verlag, 1998, pp. 89-92. On National Socialist education ("Youth shapes its own destiny," was the motto for the Hitler Youth), see Gregor Ziemer, Education for Death: The Making of the Nazi. London: Oxford University Press, 1941. See also Eugen Kogon, The Theory and Practice of Hell: The German Concentration Camps and the System Behind Them. London: Seeker & Warburg, 1950; Élie Aron Cohen, Human Behavior in the Concentration Camp. New York: W. W. Norton, 1953.
19. On the mechanisms of the Nazi terror, see Ernst Federn, "Mechanismen des Terrors." In Roland Kaufhold (ed.), Ernst Federn - Versuche zur Psychologie des Terrors. Giessen: Psychosozial-Verlag, 1998, pp. 89-92. On National Socialist education ("Youth shapes its own destiny," was the motto for the Hitler Youth), see Gregor Ziemer, Education for Death: The Making of the Nazi. London: Oxford University Press, 1941. See also Eugen Kogon, The Theory and Practice of Hell: The German Concentration Camps and the System Behind Them. London: Seeker & Warburg, 1950; Élie Aron Cohen, Human Behavior in the Concentration Camp. New York: W. W. Norton, 1953.
20. Phil Mollon, Multiple Selves, Multiple Voices: Working with Trauma, Violation and Dissociation. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1996, p. 178.
21. Cf. Julia Kristeva, Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection. New York: Columbia University Press, 1982; see also David Inglis, "The Faecal Imagery and Rhetorics of Abuse." Postcolonial Studies 5 (2), 2002, 207-221.
22. Cf. Julia Kristeva, Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection. New York: Columbia University Press, 1982; see also David Inglis, "The Faecal Imagery and Rhetorics of Abuse." Postcolonial Studies 5 (2), 2002, 207-221.
23. Lifton, The Nazi Doctors.
24. Norman O. Brown, Life Against Death: The Psychoanalytical Meaning of History. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1959, p. 297.
25. See Erich Fromm, The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness. New York: W. W. Norton, 1973.
26. See Jonathan Schell, The Fate of the Earth. New York: Avon, 1982.
27. David Beisel ("Resistance to Psychology in Holocaust Scholarship." The Journal of Psychohistory 27 (2), 1999, pp. 124-135) has explored how Holocaust researchers have extensively resisted examining psychological questions and motivations. The same applies to resistance to psychohistorical (psychically threatening) endeavors. See John Fanton, "The Logic of Psychohistorical Destiny." The Journal of Psychohistory 29 (2), 2001, pp. 126-132.
28. David Beisel ("Resistance to Psychology in Holocaust Scholarship." The Journal of Psychohistory 27 (2), 1999, pp. 124-135) has explored how Holocaust researchers have extensively resisted examining psychological questions and motivations. The same applies to resistance to psychohistorical (psychically threatening) endeavors. See John Fanton, "The Logic of Psychohistorical Destiny." The Journal of Psychohistory 29 (2), 2001, pp. 126-132.
29. See, for example, John Bowlby, A Secure Base: Parent-Child Attachment and Healthy Human Development. New York: Basic Books, 1988.
30. Katri Kanninen, Raija-Leena Punamaki and Samir Qouta, "Personality and Trauma: Adult Attachment and Posttraumatic Distress Among Former Political Prisoners." Peace & Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology 9 (2), 2003, 97-126.
31. See, for example, deMause, "The Fetal Origins of History," pp. 271-299.
32. See, for example, Doukessa Lerias and Mitchell K. Byrne, "Vicarious traumatization: Symptoms and predictors." Stress & Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress 19 (3), 2003, 129-138.
33. Bessel A. van der Kolk and Onno van der Hart, "The Intrusive Past: The Flexibility of Memory and the Engraving of Trauma." In Cathy Caruth (ed.), Trauma: Explorations in Memory. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995, pp. 158-182; see also
34. Bessel A. van der Kolk, Onno van der Hart and Charles R. Marmar, "Dissociation and Information Processing in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder." In Bessel A. van der Kolk, Alexander C. McFarlane and Lars Weisaeth (eds.), Traumatic Stress: The Effects of Overwhelming Experience on Mind, Body, and Society. New York: Guilford Press, 1996, pp. 303-327.
35. Karen W. Saakvitne, "Shared Trauma: The Therapist's Increased Vulnerability." Psychoanalytic Dialogues 12 (3), 2002, 443-449; Raymond Fox, "Traumaphobia: Confronting Personal and Professional Anxiety." Psychoanalytic Social Work (Special Issue: The Trauma of September 11th and its Aftermath) 10 (1), 2003, 43-55; see also Laurie Anne Pearlman and Karen W. Saakvitne, Trauma and the Therapist: Countertransference and Vicarious Traumatization in Psychotherapy with Incest Survivors. New York: W. W. Norton, 1995.
36. Karen W. Saakvitne, "Shared Trauma: The Therapist's Increased Vulnerability." Psychoanalytic Dialogues 12 (3), 2002, 443-449; Raymond Fox, "Traumaphobia: Confronting Personal and Professional Anxiety." Psychoanalytic Social Work (Special Issue: The Trauma of September 11th and its Aftermath) 10 (1), 2003, 43-55; see also Laurie Anne Pearlman and Karen W. Saakvitne, Trauma and the Therapist: Countertransference and Vicarious Traumatization in Psychotherapy with Incest Survivors. New York: W. W. Norton, 1995.
37. Karen W. Saakvitne, "Shared Trauma: The Therapist's Increased Vulnerability." Psychoanalytic Dialogues 12 (3), 2002, 443-449; Raymond Fox, "Traumaphobia: Confronting Personal and Professional Anxiety." Psychoanalytic Social Work (Special Issue: The Trauma of September 11th and its Aftermath) 10 (1), 2003, 43-55; see also Laurie Anne Pearlman and Karen W. Saakvitne, Trauma and the Therapist: Countertransference and Vicarious Traumatization in Psychotherapy with Incest Survivors. New York: W. W. Norton, 1995.
38. Charles R. Figley (ed.), Compassion Fatigue: Coping with Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorder in Those Who Treat the Traumatized. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1995.
39. Joseph J. Shay, "Countertransference in the Family Therapy of Survivors of Sexual Abuse." Child Abuse & Neglect 16 (4), 1992, 585-593; Lynn A. Paulus, An Investigation of "Counterdissociation" Phenomena in Therapists Treating Sexual Abuse Survivors. Dissertation, 1998.
40. Joseph J. Shay, "Countertransference in the Family Therapy of Survivors of Sexual Abuse." Child Abuse & Neglect 16 (4), 1992, 585-593; Lynn A. Paulus, An Investigation of "Counterdissociation" Phenomena in Therapists Treating Sexual Abuse Survivors. Dissertation, 1998.
41. Shay, "Countertransference in the Family Therapy of Survivors of Sexual Abuse."
42. See, for example, J. David Kinzie, James K. Boehnlein, Crystal Riley and Larry Sparr, "The Effects of September 11 on Traumatized Refugees: Reactivation of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder." Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 190 (7), 2002, 437-441.
43. Lloyd deMause, "Childhood and Cultural Evolution." In Lloyd deMause, The Emotional Life of Nations. New York: Karnac, 2002, p. 241.