The Japanese police's claim to efficiency: A critical view

Modern Asian Studies

Volumn 33, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 483-511

  Finch, A J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 10844231131     PISSN: 0026749X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X99003170     Document Type: Article

References (188)

1. Minoru Shitaka and Shinnichi Tsuchiya, Crime and Criminal Policy in Japan from 1926-1988: Analysis and Evaluation of the Showa Era (Tokyo: Japan Criminal Policy Society, 1990), pp. 349, 353.
2. Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1991 (Excerpt) (Modified, translated and published by The Police Association, Tokyo, 1992), p. 130 (Chart 9-1); Setsuo Miyazawa, Policing in Japan: A Study on Making Crime, trans. F. G. Bennett. Jnr. with J. O. Haley (New York, 1992), p. 14.
3. Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1991 (Excerpt) (Modified, translated and published by The Police Association, Tokyo, 1992), p. 130 (Chart 9-1); Setsuo Miyazawa, Policing in Japan: A Study on Making Crime, trans. F. G. Bennett. Jnr. with J. O. Haley (New York, 1992), p. 14.
4. W. L Ames, Police and Community in Japan (Berkeley, 1981), chs 1 and 2; D. H. Bayley, Forces of Order: Police Behavior in Japan and the United States (Berkeley, 1976); W. Clifford, Crime Control in Japan (Lexington, 1976). Bayley's book has since appeared in a second and extensively revised edition: D. H. Bayley, Forces of Order: Policing Modern Japan (Berkeley, 1991).
5. W. L Ames, Police and Community in Japan (Berkeley, 1981), chs 1 and 2; D. H. Bayley, Forces of Order: Police Behavior in Japan and the United States (Berkeley, 1976); W. Clifford, Crime Control in Japan (Lexington, 1976). Bayley's book has since appeared in a second and extensively revised edition: D. H. Bayley, Forces of Order: Policing Modern Japan (Berkeley, 1991).
6. W. L Ames, Police and Community in Japan (Berkeley, 1981), chs 1 and 2; D. H. Bayley, Forces of Order: Police Behavior in Japan and the United States (Berkeley, 1976); W. Clifford, Crime Control in Japan (Lexington, 1976). Bayley's book has since appeared in a second and extensively revised edition: D. H. Bayley, Forces of Order: Policing Modern Japan (Berkeley, 1991).
7. W. L Ames, Police and Community in Japan (Berkeley, 1981), chs 1 and 2; D. H. Bayley, Forces of Order: Police Behavior in Japan and the United States (Berkeley, 1976); W. Clifford, Crime Control in Japan (Lexington, 1976). Bayley's book has since appeared in a second and extensively revised edition: D. H. Bayley, Forces of Order: Policing Modern Japan (Berkeley, 1991).
8. Miyazawa, Policing in Japan.
9. For example: Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, pp. 168-82; R. D. Hicks, II, 'Some Observations on Japanese and American Policing', Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, i (1985), p. 76; C. R. Fcnwick, 'Culture, Philosophy and Crime: The Japanese Experience', International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, ix (1985), pp. 67-81.
10. For example: Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, pp. 168-82; R. D. Hicks, II, 'Some Observations on Japanese and American Policing', Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, i (1985), p. 76; C. R. Fcnwick, 'Culture, Philosophy and Crime: The Japanese Experience', International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, ix (1985), pp. 67-81.
11. For example: Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, pp. 168-82; R. D. Hicks, II, 'Some Observations on Japanese and American Policing', Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, i (1985), p. 76; C. R. Fcnwick, 'Culture, Philosophy and Crime: The Japanese Experience', International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, ix (1985), pp. 67-81.
12. Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 76f; Yongjin Kim, 'Work - The Key to the Success of Japanese Law Enforcement', Police Studies: The International Review of Police Development, x (1987), pp. 109f, 114; D. A. Ladbrook, 'Why Are Crime Rates Higher in Urban than in Rural Areas? - Evidence from Japan', Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, xxi (1988), pp. 82f, 100f; E. F. Vogel, Japan as Number 1: Lessons for America (New York, 1979), Ch. 9.
13. Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 76f; Yongjin Kim, 'Work - The Key to the Success of Japanese Law Enforcement', Police Studies: The International Review of Police Development, x (1987), pp. 109f, 114; D. A. Ladbrook, 'Why Are Crime Rates Higher in Urban than in Rural Areas? - Evidence from Japan', Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, xxi (1988), pp. 82f, 100f; E. F. Vogel, Japan as Number 1: Lessons for America (New York, 1979), Ch. 9.
14. Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 76f; Yongjin Kim, 'Work - The Key to the Success of Japanese Law Enforcement', Police Studies: The International Review of Police Development, x (1987), pp. 109f, 114; D. A. Ladbrook, 'Why Are Crime Rates Higher in Urban than in Rural Areas? - Evidence from Japan', Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, xxi (1988), pp. 82f, 100f; E. F. Vogel, Japan as Number 1: Lessons for America (New York, 1979), Ch. 9.
15. Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 76f; Yongjin Kim, 'Work - The Key to the Success of Japanese Law Enforcement', Police Studies: The International Review of Police Development, x (1987), pp. 109f, 114; D. A. Ladbrook, 'Why Are Crime Rates Higher in Urban than in Rural Areas? - Evidence from Japan', Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, xxi (1988), pp. 82f, 100f; E. F. Vogel, Japan as Number 1: Lessons for America (New York, 1979), Ch. 9.
16. Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, p. 2.
17. W. G. Archambeault and C. R. Fenwick, 'Differential Effects of Police Organizational Management in a Cultural Context: Comparative Analysis of South Korean, Japanese and American Law Enforcement', Police Studies: The International Review of Police Development, viii (1985), pp. 1-12; Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 69, 77; Kim, 'Work', pp. 114, 116.
18. W. G. Archambeault and C. R. Fenwick, 'Differential Effects of Police Organizational Management in a Cultural Context: Comparative Analysis of South Korean, Japanese and American Law Enforcement', Police Studies: The International Review of Police Development, viii (1985), pp. 1-12; Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 69, 77; Kim, 'Work', pp. 114, 116.
19. W. G. Archambeault and C. R. Fenwick, 'Differential Effects of Police Organizational Management in a Cultural Context: Comparative Analysis of South Korean, Japanese and American Law Enforcement', Police Studies: The International Review of Police Development, viii (1985), pp. 1-12; Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 69, 77; Kim, 'Work', pp. 114, 116.
20. Ames, Police and Community, p. 228; Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, p. 182; Clifford, Crime Control in Japan, p. 83; Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 68f; Kim, 'Work', pp. 110, 112; Vogel, Japan as Number 1, pp. 204-22.
21. Ames, Police and Community, p. 228; Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, p. 182; Clifford, Crime Control in Japan, p. 83; Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 68f; Kim, 'Work', pp. 110, 112; Vogel, Japan as Number 1, pp. 204-22.
22. Ames, Police and Community, p. 228; Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, p. 182; Clifford, Crime Control in Japan, p. 83; Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 68f; Kim, 'Work', pp. 110, 112; Vogel, Japan as Number 1, pp. 204-22.
23. Ames, Police and Community, p. 228; Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, p. 182; Clifford, Crime Control in Japan, p. 83; Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 68f; Kim, 'Work', pp. 110, 112; Vogel, Japan as Number 1, pp. 204-22.
24. Ames, Police and Community, p. 228; Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, p. 182; Clifford, Crime Control in Japan, p. 83; Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 68f; Kim, 'Work', pp. 110, 112; Vogel, Japan as Number 1, pp. 204-22.
25. Ames, Police and Community, p. 228; Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, p. 182; Clifford, Crime Control in Japan, p. 83; Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 68f; Kim, 'Work', pp. 110, 112; Vogel, Japan as Number 1, pp. 204-22.
26. Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 2f.
27. Corruption or misconduct by officers is judged to be extremely rare (Ames, Police and Community, pp. 203-9; Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, pp. 1-4; Kim, 'Work', pp. 109f; Vogel, Japan as Number I, pp. 208f) . Attitudes to the police, though sometimes ambiguous, are again seen as being largely favourable (Ames, Police and Community, p. 215; Kim, 'Work', p. 112; Vogel, Japan as Number I, pp. 213-22).
28. Corruption or misconduct by officers is judged to be extremely rare (Ames, Police and Community, pp. 203-9; Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, pp. 1-4; Kim, 'Work', pp. 109f; Vogel, Japan as Number I, pp. 208f) . Attitudes to the police, though sometimes ambiguous, are again seen as being largely favourable (Ames, Police and Community, p. 215; Kim, 'Work', p. 112; Vogel, Japan as Number I, pp. 213-22).
29. Corruption or misconduct by officers is judged to be extremely rare (Ames, Police and Community, pp. 203-9; Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, pp. 1-4; Kim, 'Work', pp. 109f; Vogel, Japan as Number I, pp. 208f) . Attitudes to the police, though sometimes ambiguous, are again seen as being largely favourable (Ames, Police and Community, p. 215; Kim, 'Work', p. 112; Vogel, Japan as Number I, pp. 213-22).
30. Corruption or misconduct by officers is judged to be extremely rare (Ames, Police and Community, pp. 203-9; Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, pp. 1-4; Kim, 'Work', pp. 109f; Vogel, Japan as Number I, pp. 208f) . Attitudes to the police, though sometimes ambiguous, are again seen as being largely favourable (Ames, Police and Community, p. 215; Kim, 'Work', p. 112; Vogel, Japan as Number I, pp. 213-22).
31. Corruption or misconduct by officers is judged to be extremely rare (Ames, Police and Community, pp. 203-9; Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, pp. 1-4; Kim, 'Work', pp. 109f; Vogel, Japan as Number I, pp. 208f) . Attitudes to the police, though sometimes ambiguous, are again seen as being largely favourable (Ames, Police and Community, p. 215; Kim, 'Work', p. 112; Vogel, Japan as Number I, pp. 213-22).
32. Corruption or misconduct by officers is judged to be extremely rare (Ames, Police and Community, pp. 203-9; Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, pp. 1-4; Kim, 'Work', pp. 109f; Vogel, Japan as Number I, pp. 208f) . Attitudes to the police, though sometimes ambiguous, are again seen as being largely favourable (Ames, Police and Community, p. 215; Kim, 'Work', p. 112; Vogel, Japan as Number I, pp. 213-22).
33. Corruption or misconduct by officers is judged to be extremely rare (Ames, Police and Community, pp. 203-9; Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, pp. 1-4; Kim, 'Work', pp. 109f; Vogel, Japan as Number I, pp. 208f) . Attitudes to the police, though sometimes ambiguous, are again seen as being largely favourable (Ames, Police and Community, p. 215; Kim, 'Work', p. 112; Vogel, Japan as Number I, pp. 213-22).
34. Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1994 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1994), Preface.
35. Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1987 (Excerpt) (Modified, translated and published by The Police Association, Tokyo, 1987), pp. 4-9; Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1989 (Excerpt) (Modified, translated and published by The Police Association, Tokyo, 1989), p. 156 (Statistics 5); White Paper on Police 1991, p. 143 (Statistics 5); Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1988 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1988), pp. 6-9; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper an Crime 1989 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1989), pp. 26-8; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1990 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1990), pp. 5-10.
36. Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1987 (Excerpt) (Modified, translated and published by The Police Association, Tokyo, 1987), pp. 4-9; Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1989 (Excerpt) (Modified, translated and published by The Police Association, Tokyo, 1989), p. 156 (Statistics 5); White Paper on Police 1991, p. 143 (Statistics 5); Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1988 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1988), pp. 6-9; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper an Crime 1989 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1989), pp. 26-8; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1990 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1990), pp. 5-10.
37. Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1987 (Excerpt) (Modified, translated and published by The Police Association, Tokyo, 1987), pp. 4-9; Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1989 (Excerpt) (Modified, translated and published by The Police Association, Tokyo, 1989), p. 156 (Statistics 5); White Paper on Police 1991, p. 143 (Statistics 5); Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1988 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1988), pp. 6-9; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper an Crime 1989 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1989), pp. 26-8; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1990 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1990), pp. 5-10.
38. Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1987 (Excerpt) (Modified, translated and published by The Police Association, Tokyo, 1987), pp. 4-9; Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1989 (Excerpt) (Modified, translated and published by The Police Association, Tokyo, 1989), p. 156 (Statistics 5); White Paper on Police 1991, p. 143 (Statistics 5); Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1988 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1988), pp. 6-9; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper an Crime 1989 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1989), pp. 26-8; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1990 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1990), pp. 5-10.
39. Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1987 (Excerpt) (Modified, translated and published by The Police Association, Tokyo, 1987), pp. 4-9; Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1989 (Excerpt) (Modified, translated and published by The Police Association, Tokyo, 1989), p. 156 (Statistics 5); White Paper on Police 1991, p. 143 (Statistics 5); Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1988 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1988), pp. 6-9; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper an Crime 1989 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1989), pp. 26-8; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1990 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1990), pp. 5-10.
40. Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1987 (Excerpt) (Modified, translated and published by The Police Association, Tokyo, 1987), pp. 4-9; Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1989 (Excerpt) (Modified, translated and published by The Police Association, Tokyo, 1989), p. 156 (Statistics 5); White Paper on Police 1991, p. 143 (Statistics 5); Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1988 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1988), pp. 6-9; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper an Crime 1989 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1989), pp. 26-8; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1990 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1990), pp. 5-10.
41. Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1991 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1991), pp. 7f; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1985 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1985), p. 43 (Figure I-9); Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1986 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1986), pp. 3f; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1987 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1987), pp. 6-10.
42. Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1991 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1991), pp. 7f; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1985 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1985), p. 43 (Figure I-9); Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1986 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1986), pp. 3f; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1987 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1987), pp. 6-10.
43. Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1991 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1991), pp. 7f; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1985 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1985), p. 43 (Figure I-9); Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1986 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1986), pp. 3f; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1987 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1987), pp. 6-10.
44. Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1991 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1991), pp. 7f; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1985 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1985), p. 43 (Figure I-9); Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1986 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1986), pp. 3f; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1987 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1987), pp. 6-10.
45. Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1992 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1992), pp. 7f; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1993 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1993), p. 5; White Paper on Crime 1994, p. 6.
46. Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1992 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1992), pp. 7f; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1993 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1993), p. 5; White Paper on Crime 1994, p. 6.
47. Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1992 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1992), pp. 7f; Government of Japan, Summary of the White Paper on Crime 1993 (Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, 1993), p. 5; White Paper on Crime 1994, p. 6.
48. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 218, 227f.
49. For instance, R. D. Hicks states that he is pursuing a comparative approach 'in the hope that something might be learned which will benefit us in dealing with our problems here [in the United States]' (Hicks, 'Some Observations', p. 69).
50. Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, p. xv. Both Ames's and Bayley's books have been reviewed in Nobuyoshi Araki, 'The Role of Police in Japanese Society', Law and Society Review, xxii (1988), 1033-6.
51. Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, p. xv. Both Ames's and Bayley's books have been reviewed in Nobuyoshi Araki, 'The Role of Police in Japanese Society', Law and Society Review, xxii (1988), 1033-6.
52. White Paper on Crime 1994, p. 4; Ladbrook, 'Why Are Crime Rates Higher in Urban than in Rural Areas?', pp. 2f; Shitaka and Tsuchiya, Crime and Criminal Policy, P. 73 (Figure 19).
53. White Paper on Crime 1994, p. 4; Ladbrook, 'Why Are Crime Rates Higher in Urban than in Rural Areas?', pp. 2f; Shitaka and Tsuchiya, Crime and Criminal Policy, P. 73 (Figure 19).
54. White Paper on Crime 1994, p. 4; Ladbrook, 'Why Are Crime Rates Higher in Urban than in Rural Areas?', pp. 2f; Shitaka and Tsuchiya, Crime and Criminal Policy, P. 73 (Figure 19).
55. T. R. Gurr, 'Crime Trends in Modern Democracies Since 1945', International Annals of Criminology, xvi (1977), pp. 69, 73, 83. Criminal offences in Japan are classified as either Penal Code offences or as statutory crimes. Penal Code offences, as defined in the Japanese Penal Code (Keiho-Han), include homicide, robbery, rape and arson. Statutory offences include possession of dangerous arms, drug-related crimes, traffic law, and garage assurance law. The annual White Paper on Crime treats these two areas separately and calculates the crime rate from Penal Code offences alone ( Nobuyoshi Araki, 'The Flow of Criminal Cases in the Japanese Criminal Justice System', Crime and Delinquency, xxxi (1985), pp. 606, 608).
56. T. R. Gurr, 'Crime Trends in Modern Democracies Since 1945', International Annals of Criminology, xvi (1977), pp. 69, 73, 83. Criminal offences in Japan are classified as either Penal Code offences or as statutory crimes. Penal Code offences, as defined in the Japanese Penal Code (Keiho-Han), include homicide, robbery, rape and arson. Statutory offences include possession of dangerous arms, drug-related crimes, traffic law, and garage assurance law. The annual White Paper on Crime treats these two areas separately and calculates the crime rate from Penal Code offences alone ( Nobuyoshi Araki, 'The Flow of Criminal Cases in the Japanese Criminal Justice System', Crime and Delinquency, xxxi (1985), pp. 606, 608).
57. Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1994, (Excerpt) (modified, translated and published by the Police Association, Tokyo, 1994), p. 116 (Statistics 1). The crime rate was calculated on the basis of a population of 124,700,000.
58. Shitaka and Tsuchiya, Crime and Criminal Policy, pp. 348, 350f. On the specific problem of juvenile delinquency in Japan see: Ames, Police and Community, p. 77; G. A. De Vos and Keiichi Mizushima, 'Delinquency and Social Change in Modern Japan' in G. A. De Vos (ed.), Socialization for Achievement: Essays on the Cultural Psychology of the Japanese (Berkeley, 1973), p. 344; Minoru Yokoyama, 'Delinquency Control Programs in the Community in Japan', International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, vi (1981), p. 169. Juvenile arrest rates rose steadily during the post-war period, and surpassed the adult rate in 1981 (Kim, 'Work', p. 113 n. 6), while much of the rise in crime during the 1980s can be attributed to increases in juvenile crime (C. B. Backer, 'Report from Japan: Causes and Controls of Crime in Japan', Journal of Criminal Justice: An International Journal, xvi (1983), pp. 425f).
59. Shitaka and Tsuchiya, Crime and Criminal Policy, pp. 348, 350f. On the specific problem of juvenile delinquency in Japan see: Ames, Police and Community, p. 77; G. A. De Vos and Keiichi Mizushima, 'Delinquency and Social Change in Modern Japan' in G. A. De Vos (ed.), Socialization for Achievement: Essays on the Cultural Psychology of the Japanese (Berkeley, 1973), p. 344; Minoru Yokoyama, 'Delinquency Control Programs in the Community in Japan', International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, vi (1981), p. 169. Juvenile arrest rates rose steadily during the post-war period, and surpassed the adult rate in 1981 (Kim, 'Work', p. 113 n. 6), while much of the rise in crime during the 1980s can be attributed to increases in juvenile crime (C. B. Backer, 'Report from Japan: Causes and Controls of Crime in Japan', Journal of Criminal Justice: An International Journal, xvi (1983), pp. 425f).
60. Shitaka and Tsuchiya, Crime and Criminal Policy, pp. 348, 350f. On the specific problem of juvenile delinquency in Japan see: Ames, Police and Community, p. 77; G. A. De Vos and Keiichi Mizushima, 'Delinquency and Social Change in Modern Japan' in G. A. De Vos (ed.), Socialization for Achievement: Essays on the Cultural Psychology of the Japanese (Berkeley, 1973), p. 344; Minoru Yokoyama, 'Delinquency Control Programs in the Community in Japan', International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, vi (1981), p. 169. Juvenile arrest rates rose steadily during the post-war period, and surpassed the adult rate in 1981 (Kim, 'Work', p. 113 n. 6), while much of the rise in crime during the 1980s can be attributed to increases in juvenile crime (C. B. Backer, 'Report from Japan: Causes and Controls of Crime in Japan', Journal of Criminal Justice: An International Journal, xvi (1983), pp. 425f).
61. Shitaka and Tsuchiya, Crime and Criminal Policy, pp. 348, 350f. On the specific problem of juvenile delinquency in Japan see: Ames, Police and Community, p. 77; G. A. De Vos and Keiichi Mizushima, 'Delinquency and Social Change in Modern Japan' in G. A. De Vos (ed.), Socialization for Achievement: Essays on the Cultural Psychology of the Japanese (Berkeley, 1973), p. 344; Minoru Yokoyama, 'Delinquency Control Programs in the Community in Japan', International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, vi (1981), p. 169. Juvenile arrest rates rose steadily during the post-war period, and surpassed the adult rate in 1981 (Kim, 'Work', p. 113 n. 6), while much of the rise in crime during the 1980s can be attributed to increases in juvenile crime (C. B. Backer, 'Report from Japan: Causes and Controls of Crime in Japan', Journal of Criminal Justice: An International Journal, xvi (1983), pp. 425f).
62. Shitaka and Tsuchiya, Crime and Criminal Policy, pp. 348, 350f. On the specific problem of juvenile delinquency in Japan see: Ames, Police and Community, p. 77; G. A. De Vos and Keiichi Mizushima, 'Delinquency and Social Change in Modern Japan' in G. A. De Vos (ed.), Socialization for Achievement: Essays on the Cultural Psychology of the Japanese (Berkeley, 1973), p. 344; Minoru Yokoyama, 'Delinquency Control Programs in the Community in Japan', International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, vi (1981), p. 169. Juvenile arrest rates rose steadily during the post-war period, and surpassed the adult rate in 1981 (Kim, 'Work', p. 113 n. 6), while much of the rise in crime during the 1980s can be attributed to increases in juvenile crime (C. B. Backer, 'Report from Japan: Causes and Controls of Crime in Japan', Journal of Criminal Justice: An International Journal, xvi (1983), pp. 425f).
63. Shitaka and Tsuchiya, Crime and Criminal Policy, pp. 348, 350f. On the specific problem of juvenile delinquency in Japan see: Ames, Police and Community, p. 77; G. A. De Vos and Keiichi Mizushima, 'Delinquency and Social Change in Modern Japan' in G. A. De Vos (ed.), Socialization for Achievement: Essays on the Cultural Psychology of the Japanese (Berkeley, 1973), p. 344; Minoru Yokoyama, 'Delinquency Control Programs in the Community in Japan', International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, vi (1981), p. 169. Juvenile arrest rates rose steadily during the post-war period, and surpassed the adult rate in 1981 (Kim, 'Work', p. 113 n. 6), while much of the rise in crime during the 1980s can be attributed to increases in juvenile crime (C. B. Backer, 'Report from Japan: Causes and Controls of Crime in Japan', Journal of Criminal Justice: An International Journal, xvi (1983), pp. 425f).
64. White Paper on Police 1994, p. 1.
65. White Paper on Crime 1994, p. 6 (Figure 3). The United Kingdom figures were based on statistics from England and Wales; Germany includes former East Germany.
66. Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1991 (Excerpt) (Modified, translated and published by The Police Association, Tokyo, 1992), pp. 42 (Chart 2-8), 143 (Statistics 5). The British figures were based on statistics from England and Wales. According to the White Paper, there were 4,596 homicides in Britain (England and Wales) during 1989. For a revised figure based on Home Office statistics and adjusted crime and clearance rates see below n. 72.
67. Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1989 (Excerpt) (Modified, translated and published by The Police Association, Tokyo, 1990), p. 155 (Statistics 4); White Paper on Police 1994, p. 119 (Statistics 4).
68. Government of Japan, White Paper on Police 1989 (Excerpt) (Modified, translated and published by The Police Association, Tokyo, 1990), p. 155 (Statistics 4); White Paper on Police 1994, p. 119 (Statistics 4).
69. White Paper on Crime 1994, p. 4.
70. Ibid., p. 6 (Figure 3).
71. White Paper on Police 1991, p. 143 (Statistics 5). For a revised clearance rate for homicide in Britain (England and Wales) see below n. 72.
72. Ames, Police and Community, p. 20.
73. Ibid., pp. 24-8.
74. Ibid., pp. 17, 33; White Paper on Police 1994, p. 5. The changes in the relative numbers of chūzaisho and kōban are a striking reflection of the rapid process of urbanization in Japan. In 1912 there were 13,353 chūzaisho as against only 2,473 kōban (Ames, Police and Community, p. 23).
75. Ibid., pp. 17, 33; White Paper on Police 1994, p. 5. The changes in the relative numbers of chūzaisho and kōban are a striking reflection of the rapid process of urbanization in Japan. In 1912 there were 13,353 chūzaisho as against only 2,473 kōban (Ames, Police and Community, p. 23).
76. Ibid., pp. 17, 33; White Paper on Police 1994, p. 5. The changes in the relative numbers of chūzaisho and kōban are a striking reflection of the rapid process of urbanization in Japan. In 1912 there were 13,353 chūzaisho as against only 2,473 kōban (Ames, Police and Community, p. 23).
77. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 37-40, 42f; Kim, 'Work', p. 111; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 241f.
78. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 37-40, 42f; Kim, 'Work', p. 111; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 241f.
79. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 37-40, 42f; Kim, 'Work', p. 111; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 241f.
80. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 9-12; Kim, 'Work', p. 110. For a detailed treatment of the attempts to reform the police during the Occupation see: C. Aldous, The Police in Occupation Japan: Control, Occupation and Resistance to Reform (London, 1997). I am grateful to Dr Aldous for providing me with this reference and an abstract of his Ph.D thesis.
81. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 9-12; Kim, 'Work', p. 110. For a detailed treatment of the attempts to reform the police during the Occupation see: C. Aldous, The Police in Occupation Japan: Control, Occupation and Resistance to Reform (London, 1997). I am grateful to Dr Aldous for providing me with this reference and an abstract of his Ph.D thesis.
82. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 9-12; Kim, 'Work', p. 110. For a detailed treatment of the attempts to reform the police during the Occupation see: C. Aldous, The Police in Occupation Japan: Control, Occupation and Resistance to Reform (London, 1997). I am grateful to Dr Aldous for providing me with this reference and an abstract of his Ph.D thesis.
83. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 12-14, 215-18; Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 70, 72. Bayley considers police procedures to be so standardized that it is perfectly proper to talk of the 'Japanese Police Force', rather than the 'Japanese Prefectural Police Forces' (Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, p. xi).
84. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 12-14, 215-18; Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 70, 72. Bayley considers police procedures to be so standardized that it is perfectly proper to talk of the 'Japanese Police Force', rather than the 'Japanese Prefectural Police Forces' (Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, p. xi).
85. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 12-14, 215-18; Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 70, 72. Bayley considers police procedures to be so standardized that it is perfectly proper to talk of the 'Japanese Police Force', rather than the 'Japanese Prefectural Police Forces' (Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, p. xi).
86. The National Police Agency and the Ministry of Justice are creating a national data base of criminal statistics, although this will not be open to academic researchers (Nobuyoshi Araki, Saiban: Sono Kinöteki Kösatsu (Tokyo: Gakuyōshyobō, 1988), p. 64).
87. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 12f, 218; Bayley, Police Behavior, pp. 68f.
88. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 12f, 218; Bayley, Police Behavior, pp. 68f.
89. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 13, 227f.
90. Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 228-30. W. Herbert has criticized the uncritical acceptance by the media of the statistics presented in the 1990 White Paper on Police which purport to show a rapid rise in the number of crimes committed by foreign nationals in Japan (W. Herbert, 'Conjuring Up a Crime Wave: The "Rapid growth in the Crime Rate among Foreign Migrant Workers in Japan". Critically Examined', Japan Forum, iv (1992), p. 112). Bayley notes the media practice of dropping the honorific suffix san in references to suspects (Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, p. 149).
91. Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 228-30. W. Herbert has criticized the uncritical acceptance by the media of the statistics presented in the 1990 White Paper on Police which purport to show a rapid rise in the number of crimes committed by foreign nationals in Japan (W. Herbert, 'Conjuring Up a Crime Wave: The "Rapid growth in the Crime Rate among Foreign Migrant Workers in Japan". Critically Examined', Japan Forum, iv (1992), p. 112). Bayley notes the media practice of dropping the honorific suffix san in references to suspects (Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, p. 149).
92. Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 228-30. W. Herbert has criticized the uncritical acceptance by the media of the statistics presented in the 1990 White Paper on Police which purport to show a rapid rise in the number of crimes committed by foreign nationals in Japan (W. Herbert, 'Conjuring Up a Crime Wave: The "Rapid growth in the Crime Rate among Foreign Migrant Workers in Japan". Critically Examined', Japan Forum, iv (1992), p. 112). Bayley notes the media practice of dropping the honorific suffix san in references to suspects (Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, p. 149).
93. Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, p. 231.
94. Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, p. 146.
95. Araki, 'Flow of Criminal Cases', p. 624; G. McCormack, 'Crime, Confession and Control in Contemporary Japan', in G. McCormack and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds), Democracy in Contemporary Japan (Sydney, 1986), p. 187. The rate of conviction in the cases which were brought to trial in 1978 was 99.99% (J. O. Haley, 'Sheathing the Sword of Justice in Japan: An Essay on Law Without Sanctions', Journal of Japanese Studies, viii (1982), pp. 2701).
96. Araki, 'Flow of Criminal Cases', p. 624; G. McCormack, 'Crime, Confession and Control in Contemporary Japan', in G. McCormack and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds), Democracy in Contemporary Japan (Sydney, 1986), p. 187. The rate of conviction in the cases which were brought to trial in 1978 was 99.99% (J. O. Haley, 'Sheathing the Sword of Justice in Japan: An Essay on Law Without Sanctions', Journal of Japanese Studies, viii (1982), pp. 2701).
97. Araki, 'Flow of Criminal Cases', p. 624; G. McCormack, 'Crime, Confession and Control in Contemporary Japan', in G. McCormack and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds), Democracy in Contemporary Japan (Sydney, 1986), p. 187. The rate of conviction in the cases which were brought to trial in 1978 was 99.99% (J. O. Haley, 'Sheathing the Sword of Justice in Japan: An Essay on Law Without Sanctions', Journal of Japanese Studies, viii (1982), pp. 2701).
98. Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. x, 2f, 207-10, 213, 215f.
99. Hayley, 'Sheathing the Sword', pp. 269-72; Herbert, 'Conjuring Up a Crime Wave', p. 115; Futaba Igarashi, 'Forced to Confess', trans. G. McCormack, in McCormack and Sugimoto (eds), Democracy in Contemporary Japan, pp. 212f; What's Daiyo-Kangoku?! (Japan Federation of Bar Associations, Tokyo, 1993), p. 26.
100. Hayley, 'Sheathing the Sword', pp. 269-72; Herbert, 'Conjuring Up a Crime Wave', p. 115; Futaba Igarashi, 'Forced to Confess', trans. G. McCormack, in McCormack and Sugimoto (eds), Democracy in Contemporary Japan, pp. 212f; What's Daiyo-Kangoku?! (Japan Federation of Bar Associations, Tokyo, 1993), p. 26.
101. Hayley, 'Sheathing the Sword', pp. 269-72; Herbert, 'Conjuring Up a Crime Wave', p. 115; Futaba Igarashi, 'Forced to Confess', trans. G. McCormack, in McCormack and Sugimoto (eds), Democracy in Contemporary Japan, pp. 212f; What's Daiyo-Kangoku?! (Japan Federation of Bar Associations, Tokyo, 1993), p. 26.
102. Hayley, 'Sheathing the Sword', pp. 269-72; Herbert, 'Conjuring Up a Crime Wave', p. 115; Futaba Igarashi, 'Forced to Confess', trans. G. McCormack, in McCormack and Sugimoto (eds), Democracy in Contemporary Japan, pp. 212f; What's Daiyo-Kangoku?! (Japan Federation of Bar Associations, Tokyo, 1993), p. 26.
103. Araki, 'Flow of Criminal Cases', p. 607.
104. Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, p. 16.
105. Ibid., pp. 16-18.
106. Ibid., pp. 18f.
107. Ibid., pp. 19f.
108. What's Daiyo-Kangoku?!, p. 4.
109. Ibid., pp. 10, 12; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 21, 218f.
110. Ibid., pp. 10, 12; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 21, 218f.
111. Igarashi, 'Forced to Confess', pp. 199-201; What's Daiyo-Kangoku?!, pp. 5, 8. This contrasts with the earlier view of Ames who held that violence may 'sometimes' have been employed by the pre-war police, but that it was now practically unheard of (Ames, Police and Community, p. 136).
112. Igarashi, 'Forced to Confess', pp. 199-201; What's Daiyo-Kangoku?!, pp. 5, 8. This contrasts with the earlier view of Ames who held that violence may 'sometimes' have been employed by the pre-war police, but that it was now practically unheard of (Ames, Police and Community, p. 136).
113. Igarashi, 'Forced to Confess', pp. 199-201; What's Daiyo-Kangoku?!, pp. 5, 8. This contrasts with the earlier view of Ames who held that violence may 'sometimes' have been employed by the pre-war police, but that it was now practically unheard of (Ames, Police and Community, p. 136).
114. Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, p. 21.
115. Igarashi, 'Forced to Confess', p. 202; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, p. 9. Bayley, however, casts doubt on the effect of pre-charge detention on the crime and clearance rates on the grounds of its rarity and the cultural weight placed on confession (Bayley, Policing Modem Japan, p. 170).
116. Igarashi, 'Forced to Confess', p. 202; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, p. 9. Bayley, however, casts doubt on the effect of pre-charge detention on the crime and clearance rates on the grounds of its rarity and the cultural weight placed on confession (Bayley, Policing Modem Japan, p. 170).
117. Igarashi, 'Forced to Confess', p. 202; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, p. 9. Bayley, however, casts doubt on the effect of pre-charge detention on the crime and clearance rates on the grounds of its rarity and the cultural weight placed on confession (Bayley, Policing Modem Japan, p. 170).
118. Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, pp. 148f.
119. Nigel Walker suggests that the clear-up rates published by the Home Office for England and Wales 'should be taken with a large pinch of salt' (N. Walker, 'Crime and Penal Measures' in A. H. Halsey (ed.), British Social Trends since 1900: A Guide to the Changing Social Structure of Britain, 2nd ed. (London, 1988), p. 632). For a critique of the use of statistical evidence in the study of medieval English homicide see: E. Powell, 'Social Research and the Use of Medieval Criminal Records', Michigan Law Review, Ixxix (1980-1), pp. 967-78. The historical utility of the study of crime rates has been the focus of sharp debate between two historians of Early Modern England, J. A. Sharpe and L. Stone (J. A. Sharpe, The History of Violence in England: Some Observations', Past and Present, cviii (1985), pp. 206-15; L- Stone, 'Interpersonal Violence in English Society 1300-1980', Past and Present, ci (1983), pp. 22-33). For modern Japan see: Herbert, 'Conjuring Up a Crime Wave', pp. 111-15.
120. Nigel Walker suggests that the clear-up rates published by the Home Office for England and Wales 'should be taken with a large pinch of salt' (N. Walker, 'Crime and Penal Measures' in A. H. Halsey (ed.), British Social Trends since 1900: A Guide to the Changing Social Structure of Britain, 2nd ed. (London, 1988), p. 632). For a critique of the use of statistical evidence in the study of medieval English homicide see: E. Powell, 'Social Research and the Use of Medieval Criminal Records', Michigan Law Review, Ixxix (1980-1), pp. 967-78. The historical utility of the study of crime rates has been the focus of sharp debate between two historians of Early Modern England, J. A. Sharpe and L. Stone (J. A. Sharpe, The History of Violence in England: Some Observations', Past and Present, cviii (1985), pp. 206-15; L- Stone, 'Interpersonal Violence in English Society 1300-1980', Past and Present, ci (1983), pp. 22-33). For modern Japan see: Herbert, 'Conjuring Up a Crime Wave', pp. 111-15.
121. Nigel Walker suggests that the clear-up rates published by the Home Office for England and Wales 'should be taken with a large pinch of salt' (N. Walker, 'Crime and Penal Measures' in A. H. Halsey (ed.), British Social Trends since 1900: A Guide to the Changing Social Structure of Britain, 2nd ed. (London, 1988), p. 632). For a critique of the use of statistical evidence in the study of medieval English homicide see: E. Powell, 'Social Research and the Use of Medieval Criminal Records', Michigan Law Review, Ixxix (1980-1), pp. 967-78. The historical utility of the study of crime rates has been the focus of sharp debate between two historians of Early Modern England, J. A. Sharpe and L. Stone (J. A. Sharpe, The History of Violence in England: Some Observations', Past and Present, cviii (1985), pp. 206-15; L- Stone, 'Interpersonal Violence in English Society 1300-1980', Past and Present, ci (1983), pp. 22-33). For modern Japan see: Herbert, 'Conjuring Up a Crime Wave', pp. 111-15.
122. Nigel Walker suggests that the clear-up rates published by the Home Office for England and Wales 'should be taken with a large pinch of salt' (N. Walker, 'Crime and Penal Measures' in A. H. Halsey (ed.), British Social Trends since 1900: A Guide to the Changing Social Structure of Britain, 2nd ed. (London, 1988), p. 632). For a critique of the use of statistical evidence in the study of medieval English homicide see: E. Powell, 'Social Research and the Use of Medieval Criminal Records', Michigan Law Review, Ixxix (1980-1), pp. 967-78. The historical utility of the study of crime rates has been the focus of sharp debate between two historians of Early Modern England, J. A. Sharpe and L. Stone (J. A. Sharpe, The History of Violence in England: Some Observations', Past and Present, cviii (1985), pp. 206-15; L- Stone, 'Interpersonal Violence in English Society 1300-1980', Past and Present, ci (1983), pp. 22-33). For modern Japan see: Herbert, 'Conjuring Up a Crime Wave', pp. 111-15.
123. Nigel Walker suggests that the clear-up rates published by the Home Office for England and Wales 'should be taken with a large pinch of salt' (N. Walker, 'Crime and Penal Measures' in A. H. Halsey (ed.), British Social Trends since 1900: A Guide to the Changing Social Structure of Britain, 2nd ed. (London, 1988), p. 632). For a critique of the use of statistical evidence in the study of medieval English homicide see: E. Powell, 'Social Research and the Use of Medieval Criminal Records', Michigan Law Review, Ixxix (1980-1), pp. 967-78. The historical utility of the study of crime rates has been the focus of sharp debate between two historians of Early Modern England, J. A. Sharpe and L. Stone (J. A. Sharpe, The History of Violence in England: Some Observations', Past and Present, cviii (1985), pp. 206-15; L- Stone, 'Interpersonal Violence in English Society 1300-1980', Past and Present, ci (1983), pp. 22-33). For modern Japan see: Herbert, 'Conjuring Up a Crime Wave', pp. 111-15.
124. Gurr, 'Crime Trends', p. 48; Hicks, 'Some Observations', p. 75.
125. Gurr, 'Crime Trends', p. 48; Hicks, 'Some Observations', p. 75.
126. Ames, Police and Community, p. 57 n. 3; Becker, 'Causes and Controls of Crime', p. 425; Ladbrook, 'Why Are Crime Rates Higher in Urban than in Rural Areas?', p. 82.
127. Ames, Police and Community, p. 57 n. 3; Becker, 'Causes and Controls of Crime', p. 425; Ladbrook, 'Why Are Crime Rates Higher in Urban than in Rural Areas?', p. 82.
128. Ames, Police and Community, p. 57 n. 3; Becker, 'Causes and Controls of Crime', p. 425; Ladbrook, 'Why Are Crime Rates Higher in Urban than in Rural Areas?', p. 82.
129. Gurr, 'Crime Trends', p. 43;
130. Shigenobu Yonekawa, 'Hanzai Genshō', in Toshio Sawanobori, Kazuhito Tokoro, Kanehiro Hoshino and Ikuzō Maeno (eds), Shin Keiji Seisaku (Tokyo: Nihon Hyoronsha, 1993), pp. 29f.
131. Bayley, Police Behavior, p. 8; Policing Modern Japan, pp. 7f. The section containing this statement does not appear in the revised 1991 edition. The significance of under-reporting - the so-called 'dark figure' of crime - is discussed in A. D. Biederman and A. J. Reiss, On Exploring the "Dark Figure" of Crime', Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, ccclxiv (1967), pp. 1-15.
132. Bayley, Police Behavior, p. 8; Policing Modern Japan, pp. 7f. The section containing this statement does not appear in the revised 1991 edition. The significance of under-reporting - the so-called 'dark figure' of crime - is discussed in A. D. Biederman and A. J. Reiss, On Exploring the "Dark Figure" of Crime', Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, ccclxiv (1967), pp. 1-15.
133. Bayley, Police Behavior, p. 8; Policing Modern Japan, pp. 7f. The section containing this statement does not appear in the revised 1991 edition. The significance of under-reporting - the so-called 'dark figure' of crime - is discussed in A. D. Biederman and A. J. Reiss, On Exploring the "Dark Figure" of Crime', Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, ccclxiv (1967), pp. 1-15.
134. Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, p. 138; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 207-10, 213, 215.
135. Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, p. 138; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 207-10, 213, 215.
136. Araki, Saiban, p. 63; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, p. 15; Yonekawa, 'Hanzai Genshō', p. 31.
137. Araki, Saiban, p. 63; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, p. 15; Yonekawa, 'Hanzai Genshō', p. 31.
138. Araki, Saiban, p. 63; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, p. 15; Yonekawa, 'Hanzai Genshō', p. 31.
139. Gurr, 'Crime Trends', pp. 42f; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 12-15; Vogel, Japan as Number I, p. 207.
140. Gurr, 'Crime Trends', pp. 42f; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 12-15; Vogel, Japan as Number I, p. 207.
141. Gurr, 'Crime Trends', pp. 42f; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 12-15; Vogel, Japan as Number I, p. 207.
142. Gurr, 'Crime Trends', pp. 42-8.
143. Ibid., pp. 41, 69f; Yonekawa, 'Hanzai Genshō', p. 36.
144. Ibid., pp. 41, 69f; Yonekawa, 'Hanzai Genshō', p. 36.
145. F. Feeney, 'Comment: Japanese Criminal Justice - Some Brief Comparisons', Crime and Delinquency, xxxi (1985), p. 628.
146. Araki, 'Flow of Criminal Cases', p. 610. GYOKA is negligence in the conduct of an occupation and is a criminal offence. Most cases which fall into this category are traffic accidents involving death or serious injury due to driver negligence. The number of GYOKA is not included in calculations of the crime rate made in the White Paper on Crime (ibid., pp. 606, 609).
147. Araki, 'Flow of Criminal Cases', p. 610; Walker, 'Crime and Penal Measures', p. 631.
148. Araki, 'Flow of Criminal Cases', p. 610; Walker, 'Crime and Penal Measures', p. 631.
149. Yonekawa, 'Hanzai Genshō', p. 29.
150. Conversation with Dr Nobuyoshi Araki, Department of Law, Rikkyo University.
151. Shitaka and Tsuchiya, Crime and Criminal Policy, p. 75 (Table 11); White Paper on Police 1991, p. 143 (Statistics 5).
152. Shitaka and Tsuchiya, Crime and Criminal Policy, p. 75 (Table 11); White Paper on Police 1991, p. 143 (Statistics 5).
153. Home Office, Criminal Statistics England and Wales 1993: Statistics Relating to Crime and Criminal Proceedings for the Year 1993 (London: HMSO, 1994), p. 85 (Table 4-8).
154. Fumie Kumagai, 'Filial Violence in Japan', Victimology: An International Journal, viii, pp. 174-6.
155. De Vos and Mizushima, 'Delinquency and Social Change', p. 344.
156. Shitaka and Tsuchiya, Crime and Criminal Policy, p. 43.
157. Home Office, Criminal Statistics England and Wales 1987: Statistics Relating to Crime and Criminal Proceedings for the Year 1987(London: HMSO, 1988), p. 32.
158. De Vos and Mizushima, 'Delinquency and Social Change', pp. 350f.
159. 'US army receives threats after rape', The Guardian, 21 September 1995, p. 12.
160. Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 68f; Kim, 'Work', p. 110.
161. Hicks, 'Some Observations', pp. 68f; Kim, 'Work', p. 110.
162. Bayley, Police Behavior, pp. 195f; Hicks, 'Some Observations', p. 77.
163. Bayley, Police Behavior, pp. 195f; Hicks, 'Some Observations', p. 77.
164. Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, p. 14; Walker, 'Crime and Penal Measures', p. 638.
165. Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, p. 14; Walker, 'Crime and Penal Measures', p. 638.
166. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 1371; Haley, 'Sheathing the Sword', pp. 269f; Igarashi, 'Forced to Confess', p. 213; McCormack, 'Crime, Confession and Control', pp. 188f; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 4, 67-89.
167. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 1371; Haley, 'Sheathing the Sword', pp. 269f; Igarashi, 'Forced to Confess', p. 213; McCormack, 'Crime, Confession and Control', pp. 188f; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 4, 67-89.
168. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 1371; Haley, 'Sheathing the Sword', pp. 269f; Igarashi, 'Forced to Confess', p. 213; McCormack, 'Crime, Confession and Control', pp. 188f; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 4, 67-89.
169. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 1371; Haley, 'Sheathing the Sword', pp. 269f; Igarashi, 'Forced to Confess', p. 213; McCormack, 'Crime, Confession and Control', pp. 188f; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 4, 67-89.
170. Ames, Police and Community, pp. 1371; Haley, 'Sheathing the Sword', pp. 269f; Igarashi, 'Forced to Confess', p. 213; McCormack, 'Crime, Confession and Control', pp. 188f; Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 4, 67-89.
171. White Paper on Police 1991, pp. 54-7. Setsuo Miyazawa reports that 'panic' ensued when the detectives he was studying found that the evidence did not fit a suspect's confession (Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, p. 235). Such attitudes would seem to negate any benefits offered by the modern forensic science service described in Clifford, Crime Control in Japan, pp. 82f.
172. White Paper on Police 1991, pp. 54-7. Setsuo Miyazawa reports that 'panic' ensued when the detectives he was studying found that the evidence did not fit a suspect's confession (Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, p. 235). Such attitudes would seem to negate any benefits offered by the modern forensic science service described in Clifford, Crime Control in Japan, pp. 82f.
173. White Paper on Police 1991, pp. 54-7. Setsuo Miyazawa reports that 'panic' ensued when the detectives he was studying found that the evidence did not fit a suspect's confession (Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, p. 235). Such attitudes would seem to negate any benefits offered by the modern forensic science service described in Clifford, Crime Control in Japan, pp. 82f.
174. Bayley, Policing Modern Japan, pp. 173f.
175. Cf. Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 13-15.
176. Home Office, Criminal Statistics England and Wales 1989: Statistics Relating to Crime and Criminal Proceedings for the Year 1989 (London: HMSO, 1990), p. 40 (Table 2.8); White Paper on Police 1991, p. 143 (Statistics 5).
177. Home Office, Criminal Statistics England and Wales 1989: Statistics Relating to Crime and Criminal Proceedings for the Year 1989 (London: HMSO, 1990), p. 40 (Table 2.8); White Paper on Police 1991, p. 143 (Statistics 5).
178. Ladbrook, 'Why Are Crime Rates Higher in Urban than in Rural Areas?', p. 101; D. Merriman, 'Homicide and Deterrence: The Japanese Case', International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, xxxii (1988), p. 10.
179. Ladbrook, 'Why Are Crime Rates Higher in Urban than in Rural Areas?', p. 101; D. Merriman, 'Homicide and Deterrence: The Japanese Case', International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, xxxii (1988), p. 10.
180. Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 2f, 161; Walker, 'Crime and Criminal Measures', pp. 631f.
181. Miyazawa, Policing in Japan, pp. 2f, 161; Walker, 'Crime and Criminal Measures', pp. 631f.
182. Miyazawa, pp. 214f, 223.
183. Hicks, 'Some Observations', p. 69; Kim, 'Work', p. 110.
184. Hicks, 'Some Observations', p. 69; Kim, 'Work', p. 110.
185. Gurr, 'Crime Trends', pp. 41, 73; Ladbrook, 'Why Are Crime Rates Higher in Urban than in Rural Areas?', p. 101; Yonekawa, 'Hanzai Genshō', p. 36.
186. Gurr, 'Crime Trends', pp. 41, 73; Ladbrook, 'Why Are Crime Rates Higher in Urban than in Rural Areas?', p. 101; Yonekawa, 'Hanzai Genshō', p. 36.
187. Gurr, 'Crime Trends', pp. 41, 73; Ladbrook, 'Why Are Crime Rates Higher in Urban than in Rural Areas?', p. 101; Yonekawa, 'Hanzai Genshō', p. 36.
188. R. D. Hicks neatly expressed the conundrum which surrounds this issue when he wrote: 'it is impossible to clearly determine cause and effect so as to see how much of Japanese policing is the result of lack of crime and how much is the reason for lack of crime' (Hicks, 'Some Observations', p. 76).