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Volumn 3, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 383-419

Republicanism and liberalism: On leadership and political order - A review

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EID: 10644275946     PISSN: 13510347     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13510349608403487     Document Type: Review
Times cited : (8)

References (86)
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    • For example, Encouraging Citizenship (London: HMSO, 1990) which reflects the recent concern with citizenship on both the left and right of the political spectrum in Britain. Not all this concern is of equal intellectual or practical weight: one Conservative contribution to the theory of citizenship, the road traffic 'cones hotline', was recently cancelled due to lack of interest!
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    • See, especially, Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1958) and The Origins of Totalitarianism (London: Andre Deutsch, 1986, first published, 1951); Leo Strauss, On Tyranny (ed. V. Gourevitch and M.S. Roth) (New York: Free Press, 1963, first published 1948).
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    • London: Andre Deutsch, first published, 1951
    • See, especially, Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1958) and The Origins of Totalitarianism (London: Andre Deutsch, 1986, first published, 1951); Leo Strauss, On Tyranny (ed. V. Gourevitch and M.S. Roth) (New York: Free Press, 1963, first published 1948).
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    • (ed. V. Gourevitch and M.S. Roth) New York: Free Press, first published 1948
    • See, especially, Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1958) and The Origins of Totalitarianism (London: Andre Deutsch, 1986, first published, 1951); Leo Strauss, On Tyranny (ed. V. Gourevitch and M.S. Roth) (New York: Free Press, 1963, first published 1948).
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    • The Paradoxes of Political Liberty
    • ed. Sterling M. McMurrin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986)
    • Quentin Skinner, 'The Paradoxes of Political Liberty', in The Tanner Lectures on Human Values, Vol.VII, 1986, ed. Sterling M. McMurrin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp.225-50, and 'The Republican Ideal of Political Liberty', in Gisela Bock, Quentin Skinner, and Maurizio Viroli (eds.), Machiavelli and Republicanism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp.293-309; Philip Pettit, 'Negative Liberty, Liberal and Republican', European Journal of Philosophy Vol.1.No.1 (1993) pp.15-38; Shelley Burtt, 'The Politics of Virtue Today: A Critique and a Proposal', American Political Science Review Vol.87, No.2 (1993), pp.360-68. These views are not identical: for example, Pettit argues that republicanism articulates a distinctive conception of negative liberty from liberalism, one which incorporates the resilience with which liberties are secured.
    • (1986) The Tanner Lectures on Human Values , vol.7 , pp. 225-250
    • Skinner, Q.1
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    • The Republican Ideal of Political Liberty
    • Gisela Bock, Quentin Skinner, and Maurizio Viroli (eds.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
    • Quentin Skinner, 'The Paradoxes of Political Liberty', in The Tanner Lectures on Human Values, Vol.VII, 1986, ed. Sterling M. McMurrin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp.225-50, and 'The Republican Ideal of Political Liberty', in Gisela Bock, Quentin Skinner, and Maurizio Viroli (eds.), Machiavelli and Republicanism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp.293-309; Philip Pettit, 'Negative Liberty, Liberal and Republican', European Journal of Philosophy Vol.1.No.1 (1993) pp.15-38; Shelley Burtt, 'The Politics of Virtue Today: A Critique and a Proposal', American Political Science Review Vol.87, No.2 (1993), pp.360-68. These views are not identical: for example, Pettit argues that republicanism articulates a distinctive conception of negative liberty from liberalism, one which incorporates the resilience with which liberties are secured.
    • (1990) Machiavelli and Republicanism , pp. 293-309
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    • Negative Liberty, Liberal and Republican
    • Quentin Skinner, 'The Paradoxes of Political Liberty', in The Tanner Lectures on Human Values, Vol.VII, 1986, ed. Sterling M. McMurrin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp.225-50, and 'The Republican Ideal of Political Liberty', in Gisela Bock, Quentin Skinner, and Maurizio Viroli (eds.), Machiavelli and Republicanism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp.293-309; Philip Pettit, 'Negative Liberty, Liberal and Republican', European Journal of Philosophy Vol.1.No.1 (1993) pp.15-38; Shelley Burtt, 'The Politics of Virtue Today: A Critique and a Proposal', American Political Science Review Vol.87, No.2 (1993), pp.360-68. These views are not identical: for example, Pettit argues that republicanism articulates a distinctive conception of negative liberty from liberalism, one which incorporates the resilience with which liberties are secured.
    • (1993) European Journal of Philosophy , vol.1 , Issue.1 , pp. 15-38
    • Pettit, P.1
  • 8
    • 0003218407 scopus 로고
    • The Politics of Virtue Today: A Critique and a Proposal
    • Quentin Skinner, 'The Paradoxes of Political Liberty', in The Tanner Lectures on Human Values, Vol.VII, 1986, ed. Sterling M. McMurrin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp.225-50, and 'The Republican Ideal of Political Liberty', in Gisela Bock, Quentin Skinner, and Maurizio Viroli (eds.), Machiavelli and Republicanism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp.293-309; Philip Pettit, 'Negative Liberty, Liberal and Republican', European Journal of Philosophy Vol.1.No.1 (1993) pp.15-38; Shelley Burtt, 'The Politics of Virtue Today: A Critique and a Proposal', American Political Science Review Vol.87, No.2 (1993), pp.360-68. These views are not identical: for example, Pettit argues that republicanism articulates a distinctive conception of negative liberty from liberalism, one which incorporates the resilience with which liberties are secured.
    • (1993) American Political Science Review , vol.87 , Issue.2 , pp. 360-368
    • Burtt, S.1
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    • Oxford: Oxford University Press
    • Although Tocqueville himself fudges the issue of whether the liberty that is secured is to be valued as an area over which the citizen is sovereign, or whether it is to be identified with the virtue that it makes possible - 'Freedom is, in truth, a sacred thing. There is only one thing else that better deserves the name; that virtue. But then what is virtue but the free choice of what is good.' Journals, cited Jack Lively, The Social and Political Thought of Tocqueville (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962), p. 13.
    • (1962) The Social and Political Thought of Tocqueville , pp. 13
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    • Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
    • See Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967); Gordon Wood, The Creation of the American Republic 1776-1787 (New York: Norton, 1969) and The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Random House, 1991); J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975); Isaac Kramnick, Republicanism and Bourgeois Radicalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,1990); and Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order: The Republican Vision of the 1790s (New York: New York University Press, 1984).
    • (1967) The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution
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    • New York: Norton
    • See Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967); Gordon Wood, The Creation of the American Republic 1776-1787 (New York: Norton, 1969) and The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Random House, 1991); J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975); Isaac Kramnick, Republicanism and Bourgeois Radicalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,1990); and Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order: The Republican Vision of the 1790s (New York: New York University Press, 1984).
    • (1969) The Creation of the American Republic 1776-1787
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    • New York: Random House
    • See Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967); Gordon Wood, The Creation of the American Republic 1776-1787 (New York: Norton, 1969) and The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Random House, 1991); J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975); Isaac Kramnick, Republicanism and Bourgeois Radicalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,1990); and Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order: The Republican Vision of the 1790s (New York: New York University Press, 1984).
    • (1991) The Radicalism of the American Revolution
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    • Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
    • See Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967); Gordon Wood, The Creation of the American Republic 1776-1787 (New York: Norton, 1969) and The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Random House, 1991); J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975); Isaac Kramnick, Republicanism and Bourgeois Radicalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,1990); and Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order: The Republican Vision of the 1790s (New York: New York University Press, 1984).
    • (1975) The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition
    • Pocock, J.G.A.1
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    • Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press
    • See Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967); Gordon Wood, The Creation of the American Republic 1776-1787 (New York: Norton, 1969) and The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Random House, 1991); J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975); Isaac Kramnick, Republicanism and Bourgeois Radicalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,1990); and Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order: The Republican Vision of the 1790s (New York: New York University Press, 1984).
    • (1990) Republicanism and Bourgeois Radicalism
    • Kramnick, I.1
  • 15
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    • New York: New York University Press
    • See Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967); Gordon Wood, The Creation of the American Republic 1776-1787 (New York: Norton, 1969) and The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Random House, 1991); J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975); Isaac Kramnick, Republicanism and Bourgeois Radicalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,1990); and Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order: The Republican Vision of the 1790s (New York: New York University Press, 1984).
    • (1984) Capitalism and a New Social Order: The Republican Vision of the 1790s
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    • Some Questions for Republicans
    • A point made by Don Herzog in 'Some Questions for Republicans', Political Theory, Vol.14, No.3 (1986), pp.473-93.
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    • For example, Benjamin Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984). See also, for widely varying views, Ronald Beiner (ed.) Theorizing Citizenship (Albany, NY: SUNY, 1995), and for a critical discussion of the various perspectives, David Miller, 'Citizenship and Pluralism' Political Studies Vol.43, No.3 (1995), pp. 432-50.
    • (1984) Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age
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    • Albany, NY: SUNY
    • For example, Benjamin Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984). See also, for widely varying views, Ronald Beiner (ed.) Theorizing Citizenship (Albany, NY: SUNY, 1995), and for a critical discussion of the various perspectives, David Miller, 'Citizenship and Pluralism' Political Studies Vol.43, No.3 (1995), pp. 432-50.
    • (1995) Theorizing Citizenship
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    • Citizenship and Pluralism
    • For example, Benjamin Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984). See also, for widely varying views, Ronald Beiner (ed.) Theorizing Citizenship (Albany, NY: SUNY, 1995), and for a critical discussion of the various perspectives, David Miller, 'Citizenship and Pluralism' Political Studies Vol.43, No.3 (1995), pp. 432-50.
    • (1995) Political Studies , vol.43 , Issue.3 , pp. 432-450
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    • comment at the beginning of Chapter 3 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
    • See Jon Elster's comment at the beginning of Chapter 3 of his Political Psychology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p.101.
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    • Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
    • See, for example, William Riker's extended comment on the subject cited in Douglass C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp.59-60. Riker concludes, 'It seems probable to me that public opinion usually causes constitutional structure, and seldom, if ever, the other way around. As Rousseau contended, it is in the end the law that is written in the hearts of the people that counts.' (The quotation comes from Riker's paper, 'Comments on Vincent Ostrom's Paper', Public Choice, Vol.27 (1976), pp. 13-15.)
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    • Comments on Vincent Ostrom's Paper
    • See, for example, William Riker's extended comment on the subject cited in Douglass C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp.59-60. Riker concludes, 'It seems probable to me that public opinion usually causes constitutional structure, and seldom, if ever, the other way around. As Rousseau contended, it is in the end the law that is written in the hearts of the people that counts.' (The quotation comes from Riker's paper, 'Comments on Vincent Ostrom's Paper', Public Choice, Vol.27 (1976), pp. 13-15.)
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    • note
    • Both groups' activities are complicated by the attraction of being able to trade on the integrity of the great republicans, whether Lycurgus, Solon, Brutus, Cicero, Jefferson, or Madison. It is possible, however, as Herzog shows ('Some Questions for Republicans', op. cit.,) to find suitably repugnant republicans with whom to contest the ideal, such as Benjamin Rush; or, more iconoclastically, to find historical evidence which tarnishes the exemplars (as by recognizing that if Jefferson did take Sally Hemmings to his bed, she came as his slave - which renders repugnant the almost universal use of the term 'affair' to describe their relationship).
  • 25
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    • note
    • This broad characterization also allows us to distinguish republicanism from a good deal of modem communitarian thought, since this too tends to assume the existence of an integrated system of norms and beliefs which provide the bedrock of the community's practices.
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    • Although Machiavelli spoke highly of both Madonna Caterina (of Forli) and Joanna I of Naples. See Sebastian de Grazia, Machiavelli in Hell (London: Picador, 1992), p.135.
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    • (ed. Rex Warner) Harmondsworth: Penguin
    • Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War (ed. Rex Warner) (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1954), III, 84, p.245.
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    • Beyond the Republican Revival
    • Cass R. Sunstein, 'Beyond the Republican Revival', The Yale Law Journal, Vol.97 (1988) pp. 1539-90.
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    • With the one possible exception of Aristotle in Books I-III and VII-VIII of The Politics. On this, see below, note 26.
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    • Towards a Theory of Communicative Competence
    • Jürgen Habermas, 'Towards a Theory of Communicative Competence', Inquiry, Vol.13 (1970) pp.360-75; and Philosophical Discourse of Modernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1987) pp.294-326.
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    • Jürgen Habermas, 'Towards a Theory of Communicative Competence', Inquiry, Vol.13 (1970) pp.360-75; and Philosophical Discourse of Modernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1987) pp.294-326.
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    • note
    • Hence Rousseau's distinction in the Geneva manuscript: 'It is not a question of showing me what justice is; it is a question of showing me what interest I have in being just' (ed., Cole, p. 160).
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    • Laundering Preferences
    • Jon Elster and A Hyllans (eds.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
    • Where there is an acknowledgement of 'preference-laundering' this takes the form of excluding certain preferences from public debate, as in gag-rules etc. See, for example, Robert Goodin, 'Laundering Preferences', in Jon Elster and A Hyllans (eds.) Foundations of Rational Choice Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p.75; John Rawls, Political Liberalism (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), Lecture 6; and Stephen Holmes, Passions and Constraint: On the Theory of Liberal Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1995), esp. Ch.7.
    • (1986) Foundations of Rational Choice Theory , pp. 75
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    • Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, Lecture 6
    • Where there is an acknowledgement of 'preference-laundering' this takes the form of excluding certain preferences from public debate, as in gag-rules etc. See, for example, Robert Goodin, 'Laundering Preferences', in Jon Elster and A Hyllans (eds.) Foundations of Rational Choice Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p.75; John Rawls, Political Liberalism (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), Lecture 6; and Stephen Holmes, Passions and Constraint: On the Theory of Liberal Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1995), esp. Ch.7.
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    • Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, esp. Ch.7
    • Where there is an acknowledgement of 'preference-laundering' this takes the form of excluding certain preferences from public debate, as in gag-rules etc. See, for example, Robert Goodin, 'Laundering Preferences', in Jon Elster and A Hyllans (eds.) Foundations of Rational Choice Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p.75; John Rawls, Political Liberalism (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), Lecture 6; and Stephen Holmes, Passions and Constraint: On the Theory of Liberal Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1995), esp. Ch.7.
    • (1995) Passions and Constraint: On the Theory of Liberal Democracy
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    • note
    • Hegel might be similarly characterized, except there is a deeper sense of the fragility of each particular state in his work. Although reason may march through history, it does so using states like shoes, to be worn and discarded on the way - and the account he gives of their formation and their passing remains very much influenced by a classical sense both of the importance of leadership (the world historical individual) and of their essential fragility.
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    • See above, note 3
    • See above, note 3.
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    • 1252b30-1 (loosely)
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    • note
    • The remit for this claim is in Book I of The Politics. But it is possible - and more plausible - to interpret the argument of this Book differently, that is, as sketching not a causal story but one of conceptual necessity - that the end of each subordinate association is only rendered intelligible by reference to a higher form of association, and that the highest form of association is the state. Books IV-V and VI suggest a view of the conflicts and tensions endemic to political life which allows considerably greater room for political agency, while Books VII and VIII rely on the active intervention of a legislator.
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    • See Maurizio Viroli, For Love of Country (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).
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    • Oxford: Clarendon Press
    • David Gauthier, Morals by Agreement (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986); Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Viktor Vanberg, Rules and Choice in Economics (London: Routledge, 1994).
    • (1986) Morals by Agreement
    • Gauthier, D.1
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    • New York: Basic Books
    • David Gauthier, Morals by Agreement (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986); Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Viktor Vanberg, Rules and Choice in Economics (London: Routledge, 1994).
    • (1984) The Evolution of Cooperation
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    • London: Routledge
    • David Gauthier, Morals by Agreement (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986); Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Viktor Vanberg, Rules and Choice in Economics (London: Routledge, 1994).
    • (1994) Rules and Choice in Economics
    • Vanberg, V.1
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    • Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf
    • See, for a basic account of the Folk Theorem, David Kreps, A Course in Microeconomic Theory (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1990) pp.505-15; or S. Hargreaves-Heap and Yanis Varoufakis, Game Theory: A Critical Introduction (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 170-74. See also Kreps' Came Theory and Economic Modelling (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), pp.72-7, 97-9 and 142-3.
    • (1990) A Course in Microeconomic Theory , pp. 505-515
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    • London: Routledge
    • See, for a basic account of the Folk Theorem, David Kreps, A Course in Microeconomic Theory (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1990) pp.505-15; or S. Hargreaves-Heap and Yanis Varoufakis, Game Theory: A Critical Introduction (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 170-74. See also Kreps' Came Theory and Economic Modelling (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), pp.72-7, 97-9 and 142-3.
    • (1995) Game Theory: A Critical Introduction , pp. 170-174
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    • Oxford: Clarendon Press
    • See, for a basic account of the Folk Theorem, David Kreps, A Course in Microeconomic Theory (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1990) pp.505-15; or S. Hargreaves-Heap and Yanis Varoufakis, Game Theory: A Critical Introduction (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 170-74. See also Kreps' Came Theory and Economic Modelling (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), pp.72-7, 97-9 and 142-3.
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    • See Hargreaves-Heap and Varoufakis, Ch.7
    • See Hargreaves-Heap and Varoufakis, Ch.7.
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    • Ch.15 C.B. Macpherson's edition Harmondsworth: Penguin
    • This move is also suggested by Hobbes in Leviathan Ch.15 (pp.203-5 in C.B. Macpherson's edition (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968).
    • (1968) Leviathan , pp. 203-205
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    • Oxford: Oxford University Press
    • Philip Pettit has made a similar, but more general, argument about the problems rational choice theory faces in explaining the emergence of social order and our compliance with it, suggesting that it succeeds on neither score, although it might provide us with a background account of why some forms of order are more resilient than others. See Pettit, The Common Mind (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp.264-83.
    • (1993) The Common Mind , pp. 264-283
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    • note
    • Vanberg, p.52. 'It seems obvious that morality can be considered an efficient behavioural technology by an actor only if he perceives the relevant typical choice situation not to have Prisoners' Dilemma characteristics.'
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    • See Vanberg, op cit., on whose account this paragraph draws heavily, pp.68-71.
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    • For example in Rousseau's Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, or in Godwin's appendix On the Mode of Excluding Visitors', An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice (London: G.G. and J. Robinson, 1793), Bk.IV, Ch.4, Section ii, appendix i.
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    • Appendix on the Mode of Excluding Visitors
    • London: G.G. and J. Robinson, Bk.IV, Ch.4, Section ii, appendix i
    • For example in Rousseau's Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, or in Godwin's appendix On the Mode of Excluding Visitors', An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice (London: G.G. and J. Robinson, 1793), Bk.IV, Ch.4, Section ii, appendix i.
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    • Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
    • As in Rousseau's account of the deer hunt, see Nanerl O. Keohane, Philosophy and the State in France (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980), pp.439-40 and Rousseau's 'Discourse on Inquality' and his 'Fragments Politiques' in Ouevres complètes (eds. B. Gagnebin and M. Raymond), 4 vols. (Paris: 1964-69), Vol.III, p.476.
    • (1980) Philosophy and the State in France , pp. 439-440
    • Keohane, N.O.1
  • 61
    • 85032999118 scopus 로고
    • 'Discourse on Inquality' and his 'Fragments Politiques'
    • (eds. B. Gagnebin and M. Raymond), 4 vols. Paris
    • As in Rousseau's account of the deer hunt, see Nanerl O. Keohane, Philosophy and the State in France (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980), pp.439-40 and Rousseau's 'Discourse on Inquality' and his 'Fragments Politiques' in Ouevres complètes (eds. B. Gagnebin and M. Raymond), 4 vols. (Paris: 1964-69), Vol.III, p.476.
    • (1964) Ouevres Complètes , vol.3 , pp. 476
    • Rousseau1
  • 62
    • 85033021638 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Most strikingly, and precisely, in Plato's Laws which set the population at 5,040 households: Laws. 740.
    • Laws , pp. 740
  • 63
    • 85033008980 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Not least in Rawls' attempt to come to terms with the fact of pluralism in his Political Liberalism, esp. Lecture IV, 'The Idea of an Overlapping Consensus'. This also helps explain the attraction of Tocqueville, for whom the manifold associations of American social, religious and political life were seen as a major contributor to sustaining a democratic form of civic liberty. Less comforting, however, is his view that this can coincide with stultifying uniformity of beliefs.
  • 64
    • 0004099909 scopus 로고
    • London: Verso
    • As when Chantal Mouffe insists that although 'a modern democratic community cannot be organized around a single substantive idea of the common good ... ' we need nonetheless, 'to conceive of a mode of political association which ... nevertheless implies the idea of commonality, of an ethico-political bond that creates a linkage among the participants in the association, allowing us to speak of a political "community" even if it is not in the strong sense'. The Return of the Political (London: Verso, 1993) pp.62 and 66. Even if this is what we want, it is not easy to see how it can be brought about, since the aspiration falls to the same kind of explanatory difficulties which face more orthodox stories of the emergence of social rules.
    • (1993) The Return of the Political , pp. 62
  • 65
    • 0040451176 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • As in Rousseau's claim, cited above, about a young people needing laws for virtue: The Social Contract, p.196.
    • The Social Contract , pp. 196
  • 66
    • 85033006060 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • A sane Kantian prefers others also to cooperate (but does not make his compliance conditional on this), an insane Kantian is indifferent to what others do. I owe these Kantians (and a good deal else besides) to G.A. Cohen.
  • 67
    • 10844257594 scopus 로고
    • de Vito
    • That is: both parties want the flat, and want the other not to have it, but want to stay in it together least of all. (1) A would rather that she stays, and that he, B, leaves; (2) that both leave; (3) that she (A) leaves and B stays; (4) that both stay. The game then turns on what you think the other will do, and what you can persuade them you will do: if you can show you are irrationally committed to staying at whatever cost, then the other will leave. Of course, one difficulty with characterizing this situation is that it is in each party's interest to make the other think that s/he sees the situation as a prisoner's dilemma (s/he would rather continue sharing than leave the other in possession). Moreover, if they also convince themselves of this, the game can become a duel to the death, as in the film, War of the Roses (de Vito, 1989).
    • (1989) War of the Roses
  • 68
    • 85033033933 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ed. Cole
    • Social Contract (ed. Cole), pp. 177-8.
    • Social Contract , pp. 177-178
  • 69
    • 34248541660 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 1253a32-5
    • Politics, 1253a32-5.
    • Politics
  • 70
    • 85033033606 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ed. Cole
    • Social Contract (ed. Cole), p.178.
    • Social Contract , pp. 178
  • 71
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    • Oxford: Clarendon Press
    • Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), p.145.
    • (1976) Wealth of Nations , pp. 145
    • Smith, A.1
  • 72
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    • Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
    • On the role of leadership see, for example, Norman Frohlich, Joe A. Oppenheimer and Oran R. Young, Political Leadership and Collective Goods (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), and Gary J. Miller, Managerial Dilemmas: The Political Economy of Hierarchy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
    • (1971) Political Leadership and Collective Goods
    • Frohlich, N.1    Oppenheimer, J.A.2    Young, O.R.3
  • 73
    • 0003665970 scopus 로고
    • Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
    • On the role of leadership see, for example, Norman Frohlich, Joe A. Oppenheimer and Oran R. Young, Political Leadership and Collective Goods (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), and Gary J. Miller, Managerial Dilemmas: The Political Economy of Hierarchy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
    • (1992) Managerial Dilemmas: The Political Economy of Hierarchy
    • Miller, G.J.1
  • 74
    • 85033016573 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • It is also affected by what we have done before - although past conformity is probably less good as a predictor of future conformity than past non-conformity is predictive of future non-conformity. He who says A must say B, as the Brothers Grimm put it.
  • 75
    • 85033029385 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Loss and gain can be interpreted in the broadest terms: they do not necessarily mean self-interest maximization but can include a range of values, including the desire to act morally where it is possible to do so. However, as we have seen with Gauthier, even impeccably moral motives will often involve a calculation similar in many respects to that made by an opportunist: where it is impossible both to protect my family and to keep to the rules, some judgment about the best overall strategy has to be made.
  • 76
    • 0000934061 scopus 로고
    • Threshold Models of Collective Behaviour
    • See Mark Granovetter, 'Threshold Models of Collective Behaviour', American Journal of Sociology, Vol.83 (1978), pp.1420-43.
    • (1978) American Journal of Sociology , vol.83 , pp. 1420-1443
    • Granovetter, M.1
  • 77
    • 85032999268 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Hence the phenomenon of strange partnerships on the barricades.
  • 78
    • 0039632658 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • with thanks to Catherine Audard for the quotation
    • B. Brecht, Life of Galileo (with thanks to Catherine Audard for the quotation).
    • Life of Galileo
    • Brecht, B.1
  • 81
    • 84963457697 scopus 로고
    • William Riker and the Theory of Democracy
    • Albert Weale, 'William Riker and the Theory of Democracy', Democratisation, Vol.2, No.3 (1995), pp.377-95, p.383.
    • (1995) Democratisation , vol.2 , Issue.3 , pp. 377-395
    • Weale, A.1
  • 83
    • 85033033321 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • One methodological problem with Riker's account is that we need to have a pretty concrete sense of what these other interests are, independently of the ability of a leader to elicit them. If we can only know that these preferences existed post facto, it is no less plausible to explain them as a function of leadership activity and ideology than it is to insist that they must already have existed.
  • 84
    • 0040451176 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ed. Cole), 1.8
    • Social Contract (ed. Cole), 1.8, pp.177-8.
    • Social Contract , pp. 177-178
  • 86
    • 0003897575 scopus 로고
    • Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Bk.11, Ch.3
    • A similar thought to Montesquieu's, '...in a society where there are laws, liberty can consist only in having the power to do what one should want to do and in no way being constrained to do what one should not want to do', in Anne Cohler, Basia Miller and Harold Stone (eds.), The Spirit of the Laws (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), Bk.11, Ch.3, p. 155.
    • (1989) The Spirit of the Laws , pp. 155
    • Cohler, A.1    Miller, B.2    Stone, H.3


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